| V. DISCOURSE 5.1. Definition and Clasification A discourse is sequence of sentences connected to each other to form an idea. According to Labov, the fundamental problem of discourse analysis is to show how one utterance follow one another in rational, rule governed manner, or how we understand coherent discourse (Parera, 1991). Division of discourses: According to Thomas (1975), discourses consist of four kinds: narrative, procedural, expository, and hortatory. Traditionally discourses consist of narrative, descriptive, expository, and descriptive. Payne (1988) gives 10 genres of discourse as follows: 1. Narrative Narration means stories, where the speaker recounts a set of events in the real world or some imagined world. The events of a narrative are usually related to one another according to time, i.e. chronologically prior events are described before other events. 2. Personal Experience The discourse is experience of someone, like a trip, accident etc. 3. Historical 4. Folk Stories 5. Mythology It is about stories that rely heavily on the supernatural and which typically deal with explanations for the current state of the world. Folklore on the other hand, would consist of fanciful tales which don't necessarily purport to explain anything about the world. 6. Hortatory This kind of discourse attempts on the part of the speaker to get the hearer to do something, or to act in a certain way. 7. Procedural Procedural discourses are instruction on how to do something. The examples are recipes, instructions how to do something. 8. Expository It tries to explain something. 9. Descriptive The speaker wants to describe the characteristics of something, someone or some abstract concept. 10 Ritual Speech Ritual speech consists of prescribed discourse types used in religius contexts, such as prayers, healing rituals, etc. Kinneavy gives four kinds of discourses based on the objective of discourse: expressive, referential, literary, and persuasive (Parera, 1991). 1. expressive: a. individual: conversation, journal, dairy, complain, and prayer b. social: protest, manifesto (declaration), statute/act (anggaran dasar) etc. 2. referential: refers to realities, facts, and data. It consists of 1. expository: dialogue, seminar, definition, hypothesis, recommendation to solve problems, and diagnoses; 2. scientific: research report; and 3. informative: papers, report, summary and abstract, and textbooks. 3. literary. In this kind of discourse the dominant element is not the reality any more but the reality that has been combined with imagination and the element of esthetics arises automatically. Examples of this kind of discourse are short stories, novel, ballada, folk lore/folk song, drama, film, and jokes. 4. persuasive. Here the message is directed to the audience explicitly or implicitly. The audience are expected to accept and to be influenced by the discourse. This discourse is expected to elicit actions, emotion, and belief from the audience. The examples of this are ads, speeches, sermons, editorials, and oratory (public speech). 5.2. Cohesive and Coherent Sentences in a discourse are related one and another. They are related in form and in meaning. The relation of one sentence with the others in form is called cohesion. And the relation in meaning is called coherence. According to Halliday & Hasan, the determinant of whether a set of sentences do or do not constitute a text depends on cohesive relationship within and between the sentences, which create texture, that distinguishes it from something that is not a text (Brown & Yule, 1983). To make a discourse cohesive there are some instruments which are usually used such as: a. repetition of word or phrase example: I have a dog. The dog is black. b. pronoun or other substitute words example: Yesterday I met a girl at the beach. She wore a strange skirt. (pronoun) A: My shirt is not good any more. B: You should buy a new one. The relationship between the reference and the pronoun can be anaphoric and cataphoric. It is said anaphoric when the reference has been mentioned before. So the pronoun comes later, or after the reference (antecedent). When the pronoun comes first, and the reference comes later, it is called cataphoric. Both anaphoric and cataphoric belong to endophoric, that is, the reference lies in the text. When the reference lies outside the text it is called exophoric. An example of exophoric: Look at that. It is going down. The word it is not clear to refer to what word. An example of anaphoric has been mentioned above, and an example of cataphoric is Realizing he is not good in tennis, Badu cancels the match. c. coreference (another word which refers to the same referent. example: Matias has a wife and two children. This farmer always works hard for his family. (job) Brown(1983) names this lexical replacement. d. hyponymy relationship /part whole example: 1) I have a dog. The animal always welcomes me, when I come home. (hyponymy) 2) My house lies near a bank of river. Its roof was made of sago leaves. (part whole) e. time relationship example: My mother will be leaving next Sunday. The next day I will have my exam. f. conjunction (transition words) example: 1) Lately Markus always had dinner late. Therefore he got stomach trouble. 2) Lately Markus always had dinner late. However he is still healthy. |