Yukatado

Japanese Buddhism

Monday, October 27, 2003

Buddhism in Ancient Japan

Buddhism has enjoyed a nearly one-thousand five-hundred year presence in Japan, predating recorded Japanese history. Whilst its presence now is that of a religious and cultural element of Japanese society, Buddhism was not always an indispensable given as it is today. Early Japanese Buddhism was not used merely as a religious practice of the people but as a tool with which to shape Japanese society.

At the time of its introduction to Japan in AD 538 (or 552 depending on which text one reads), Buddhism was considered the �civilized� religion of the Orient. It had been spreading east from India at a steady rate, and it had already enjoyed a long period of development in China[1]. However, despite its popularity � even the Emperor seems to have jumped for joy at the receiving of an image of the Buddha included with other gifts; although he felt it prudent to consult first with his advisors[2], according to Charles Eliot � Buddhism was met with opposition from the Nakatomi and the Mononobe clans.

At first glance, many texts on the matter give a false impression that the conflict was merely a Shinto versus Buddhism issue. It is true that the Soga � a powerful clan that specialized in metallurgy and, more importantly, trade with China and Korea � were pro-Buddhists. It is also true that the Nakatomi � another powerful clan that specialized in religious matters (read: Shinto[3]) as well as keeping the calendar � and their underlings, the Mononobe � a slightly less powerful clan that was essentially the military/police arm of the Japanese government at the time � were both pro-Shinto. Of course, one need not even mention that the Emperor himself was also pro-Shinto, as his power was justified by supposedly being the descendant of Amaterasu Oomikami. However, before one can simply label this a religious conflict, it is better to know both how the Japanese government of the time was structured, and thusly, why the Nakatomi so opposed the Soga�s introduction of Buddhism into Japan.

The time period when Buddhism was introduced to Japan is known as the Asuka Period. During this time, Japan consisted of many clans, some powerful, some not, spread across the Yamato plain. What was then the Yamato plain � and thus, all of Japan � is now merely the Kansai region and parts of the islands of Kyushu and Shikoku. These clans, called Uji, usually specialized in a particular aspect of Japanese daily life. For many that meant wet-rice agriculture, but for some, the more powerful clans, it meant a position as part of the administrative system. At the top of all of them was the Yamato Clan, after whom ancient Japan was named. The head of the Yamato clan was the Emperor. Under the Yamato Clan, there were three major and powerful clans, the Soga, the Nakatomi and the Mononobe. The Yamato still ruled by sheer power backed up by support from the Nakatomi and Mononobe especially, and therefore, usurping the imperial house of the time was still a worthwhile action if it could be pulled off � unlike later times when, as the Emperor no longer ruled directly, marrying into the imperial house was much more effective for gaining power, as was especially practiced in the Heian Period. Thus, the Soga clan was in competition with the Nakatomi and the Yamato for power. Buddhism played no small role as a tool with which to stage a coup d��tat.

So it was, when Buddhism was introduced, the pro-Buddhist Soga were given permission to worship the foreign deity, as an experiment[4]. Quite unfortunately for Buddhism, about when Soga no Iname converted his house into a temple and installed the image of the Buddha given to the Emperor, a pestilence broke out[5]. The Nakatomi immediately obtained permission to close the temple; i.e., they burned down Soga no Iname�s house and threw the Buddhist image into the Naniwa River[6]. Later, the Soga were once again allowed to resume practice of Buddhism, and once again, a pestilence broke out. However, this time, after permission was once again revoked the pestilence only got worse, so the Soga were finally granted permanent permission to practice Buddhism. It is important to note here that the Emperor at the time, Youmei, asked to be made a Buddhist monk on his death-bed. However, Youmei does not seem particularly pious, as he simply wanted to use Buddhism as a tool to recover his health so that he might not die[7]. He died anyway. There was a massive succession dispute, and eventually, Sujun was proclaimed Emperor. Eliot most eloquently describes the result: �Unfortunately for himself, the Emperor disliked Soga [Umako] and gave him cause for alarm. Soga on this had him assassinated and proclaimed his own niece as the empress with the title of Suiko�[8].

Suiko reigned for twenty-five years. During her reign, Shoutoku Taishi reigned as regent. He issued the famous seventeen-article constitution, based of course on Buddhism, wherein there is no mention of Shinto. Ironically enough, Suiko herself proclaimed that the gods of the land and heavens should be venerated, neglecting to mention the Buddha[9]. Shoutoku Taishi�s reforms helped launch Japan into a civilized land from the barbarous people described in the History of Wei[10].

As the Soga became too ambitious, attempting to totally usurp Yamato power � Suiko was still the daughter of the former Yamato emperor � the Yamato and the Nakatomi, specifically Nakatomi Kamitari, conspired to remove the Soga from power. The story goes that they conspired together in a meadow of Wisterias; hence, after the Yamato finally wrested power back from the Soga, the Nakatomi were given the new name Fujiwara （藤原(ふじわら)） � Wisteria Meadow.

Shoutoku Taishi died at the age of forty-nine. During his reign as regent, he very earnestly promoted Buddhism, which led to many of the Uji � clans � building temples of their own. This Uji Buddhism had begun with the Soga but really took off with the help of Shoutoku Taishi. With his death at the young age of forty-nine, the nobles of Japan began vying with one another to build the best temples[11].

Once again, we see proof that this issue was never a Shinto/Buddhist conflict. Kamitari supported and aided the retaking of the throne into Yamato hands, specifically to Emperor Koutoku who is known for having been a very pious Buddhist who despised Shinto[12]. His reign, however, brought the impressive change from the Uji system to the bureaucratic system based on China�s government. This bureaucratic system reorganized the government in such a way that clans would no longer specialize in various fields and vie for power against one another. Now there would be a Japanese government centered on the Emperor. Rather than specialized clans that would vie for power against one another to usurp the Emperor�s power, this system would lead to the development of the Emperor as a source of power for various clans, but would render overthrow of the Emperor pointless.

With his Taika reforms, Koutoku not only solidified the country into a more stable and civilized nation, but he also helped set into motion the processes that would bring about the Kokubunji system. With Koutoku�s death and three generations later, the capital had changed to Nara.

Nara was built according to the model of the contemporary Chinese capital of Chang�ang. Nara was not simply the political capital of Japan; it was the spiritual capital as well, and there the Kokubunji system was established. The Kokubunji system was a vast network of temples officially sponsored by the state � and thus loyal to the state � which served as religious and bureaucratic centers for the various towns in which they were located. At its heart was Toudaiji, the largest and most impressive Temple built in Japan. Containing the Great Buddha � Māhavirocana, the eternal, ultimate absolute Buddhist principle, and thus by extension, so too was the Emperor on Earth the ultimate absolute principle of law � Toudaiji acted as the Bureaucratic center of Japan working closely with the imperial house to maintain control over Japan. Consequently, whereas in Shinto where one identifies oneself with a specific kami and thus a specific locale; Buddhism acted as a sort of social glue, allowing all Japanese to ascribe to a single unifying principle, and thus, identify themselves as Japanese. This would of course shape Japanese culture for centuries to come into the Japan we know today.