JEFFREY JABSON
December 8, 2001
PS – 01500544
Philippine History
2nd yr. Section COO
The Commonwealth of the Philippines
Neither the material and cultural progress which the Philippines enjoyed under the American flag nor the gloomy prophecies made by American imperialists concerning the future of a free Philippines deterred the Filipino people in their aspiration for independence. From 1919 to 1934 they campaigned for independence and sent twelve independence missions to America. As a result of their campaign, the Commonwealth of the Philippines was finally established in 1935. This was a preparatory step to the establishment of the Third Philippine Republic on July 4, 1946.
Independence Aspiration of the Filipinos. Freedom was the unfading ream of the Filipinos. It was an ever-living ideal watered with their blood and tears for over three centuries, from Mactan to Bataan. In its name, they fought more than 100 revolts, one national revolution against Spain, and one war against America, and participated in the two global wars – the First and the Second World Wars. It was realized for a brief time with the establishment of the First Philippine Republic ( 1899 – 1901 ), only to be lost in a war against the Americans.
Defeated in war, the people accepted American rule, trained in the presence of democracy, assimilated American political and cultural legacies. But they never ceased to aspire for freedom. Failing to obtain it by force of arms, they determined to continue their libertarian struggle by force of reason and justice.
Every year since 1907 the Philippine Assembly and later the Philippine Legislature passed resolutions expressing the Filipino desire for independence. The Nacionalista Party won every election because of its stirring battle cry: "Immediate Complete, and Absolute Independence!" All Filipino resident commissioners in Washington, D.C. crusaded for Filipino liberty.
First Philippine Independence Mission ( 1919 ). During the First World War the Filipinos temporarily stopped their independence campaign and supported the United States against Germany. After the war they resumed their independence drive with great vigor. On March 17, 1919, the Philippine Legislature passed the famous " Declaration of Purposes", which stated the inflexible desire of the Filipino people to be free and sovereign. A Commission of Independence was created to study ways and means of attaining liberation ideal. This commission recommended the sending of an independence mission to the United States.
On February 28, 1919, the First Philippine Independence Mission, headed by Senate President Quezon, left Manila for Washington. It consisted of 40 prominent Filipinos representing the political, educational, and economic elements of the country. The Filipinos were received by Secretary of War Baker, who extended to them the courtesies of the American nation. They presented the Filipino case before Congress, and then returned home.
President Wilson, in his farewell address to Congress on December 2, 1920, recommended the granting of Philippine independence. Unfortunately, the republican Party then controlled Congress, so that the recommendation of the outgoing Democratic president was not heeded.
Other Independence Missions. The failure of the First Independence Mission did not discourage the Filipino people. In subsequent years other independence missions were sent across the Pacific. The second mission was sent in 1922, the third in 1923, the fourth in 1924, the fifth in 1925, the sixth in 1927, the seventh in 1928, the eighth in 1930, the ninth ( OSROX Mission ) in 1931, the tenth ( one-man mission consisting of Benigno Aquino ) in 1932, the eleventh in 1933, and the twelfth in November 1933.
The enormous funds needed to defray the expenses of these missions were first provided by legislative enactments. Later, Insular Auditor Ben Wright ruled that the use of public funds for the independence campaign was illegal. Voluntary contributions were solicited. The Filipino people patriotically responded with generous donations to the independence chest.
The OSROX Mission. After 1930 the independence drive gathered momentum. By this time the powerful American dairy farm and labor interests favored the granting of Philippine independence because they wanted to close America’s door to Filipino duty-free exports and laborers that were competing with American dairy farm products and labor. Their support of the Filipino cause was thus motivated by selfish consideration. Taking advantage of the new turn of events, an independence mission was rushed to America in December 1931. This was the ninth mission, popularly called the "OSROX Mission", after its leader, Senate President Pro-tempore Sergio Osmena and House Speaker Manuel A. Roxas.
Of the numerous independence bills submitted to congress the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Bill was favored by the OSROX Mission. This bill, commonly known as the HHC Bill, was sponsored by Representative Butler B. Hare, Senator Harry B. Hawes, and Senator Bronson Cutting. It was passed by Congress on December 30, 1932, vetoed by President Herbert Hoover on January 13,1933, and repassed over the Presidential veto on January 17,1933. Thus the HHC Bill became a law.
The Pros Versus the Antis. The HHC Act proved to be disruptive factor in Philippine politics because it divided the people into two opposing camps – the Antis and the Pros. The Antis, led by Senate President Quezon, opposed the Act because of its objectionable features. The Pros, headed by Senator Osmena and Speaker Roxas, upheld it on the ground that it was the best independence measure that could be obtained from Congress.
Before the final passage of the HHC Act, Senate President Quezon, who was in Manila, expressed his objections to the pending independence legislation. In December 1932, he sent a one-man mission ( Aquino ) to Washington with "definite instructions" regarding his objections. Aquino, however was won over by Osmena and Roxas to their side.
The following year Quezon left Manila at the head of the eleventh mission. The home-bound OSROX Mission met the Quezon Mission in Paris. The two missions failed to come to an understanding. With strained relations, they returned together to Manila.
Shortly after their arrival, the Philippines was convulsed by a political war between the Antis and the Pros. It eclipsed the famous Osmena-Quezon fight in 1921, which split for the first time the Nacionalistas into two warring factions – the unipersonalistas ( Osmena Wing ) and the Colectivistas ( Quezon Wing ). On October 17, 1933, the Quezon-controlled Philippine Legislature rejected the HHC Act. The following month, Quezon himself led the twelfth mission to Washington to secure a better independence act.
Inauguration of the Commonwealth Government. On the beautiful morning of November 15, 1935, the Commonwealth of the Philippines was inaugurated amidst colorful ceremonies held on the steps of the Legislative Building in Manila. The historic event was witnessed by a crowd of around 300,000 people.
The invocation prayer was read by Archbishop Gabriel M. Reyes of Cebu. After the prayer, Secretary of War George H. Dern, as the personal and official representative of President Roosevelt, delivered an address in which he extolled the progress of democracy in the Philippines. He was followed by Governor-General Murphy, who read the proclamation of the President of the United States. The oath of office was then administered to President-elect Quezon, Vice-President-elect Osmena, and the Members-elect of the National Assembly by Chief Justice Ramon Avancena of the Philippine Supreme Court. After the oath-taking ceremony, Secretary of War Dern, on behalf of the President of the United States, proclaimed the termination of the Government under the Jones Law and the birth of the Commonwealth of the Philippines. Thereupon President Quezon delivered his inaugural address. A long parade ended the inaugural ceremonies.
Achievements of the Commonwealth. Immediately upon assuming the presidency of the Philippine Commonwealth, Quezon undertook the task of laying the foundations of the future Philippine Republic. According to President Quezon, "I would rather have a government run like hell by Filipinos than a government run like heaven by Americans." Among the achievements of the Commonwealth were as follows:
The 2nd World War ( Philippine Setting )
The second world war was by far the greatest armed conflict in the history of mankind. Basically, it was a life-and-death struggle between democracy and totalitarianism. The Philippines joined it on December 8, 1941, immediately after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, because of the Filipino’s love of freedom and loyalty to America. The heroic role played by the fighting Filipinos during the war won the esteem of the world and proved their right to be ranked among the free nations of modern times.
The Philippines Prepares for War. As the crisis mounted in the Pacific, the Philippines also girded for war. The military training of the youth was intensified. First aid courses were given in all schools and social clubs. On April 1, 1941, President Quezon created the Civilian Emergency Administration ( CEA ), with branches in the provinces and towns. Blackout practices were held, the first of which took place in Manila on the night of July 10, 1941. Evacuation centers were established and air raid drills were conducted in Manila and other cities.
On July 26, 1941, Lt. Gen. Douglas MacArthur, Military Adviser to the Philippine Commonwealth, was called back to active service by President Roosevelt and took command of the newly-formed United States Armed Forces in the Far East ( USAFFE ). Into this Army command were inducted 100,000 Filipino soldiers, whom MacArthur had trained in modern warfare.
Outbreak of the War. At dawn of Monday, December 8, 1941 the newspaper boys awakened Manila with shrill cries "Extra! Extra! Japan raids Hawaii!" the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, mightiest U.S. naval base in Hawaii, took place exactly at 2:30 a.m. of the same date ( Philippine time ). According to American time, it was 7:55 a.m. December 7, 1941 – "a date which will live in infamy", as President Roosevelt said.
At last, the war, which the Filipinos dreaded, had come. The Pacific – by name an ocean of peace – became an arena of a global war. The people were shocked by the news of war. There was excitement everywhere, but no panic. Men from all walks of life, including college boys as young as sixteen years of age, jammed the Army headquarters, volunteering for combat service.
First Japanese Air Attacks on the Philippines. A few hours after the Pearl Harbor attack, Japanese air squadrons swept Philippine skies. The first point to be bombed was Davao City in Mindanao. The air attack took place at 6:30 a.m. December 8, 1941. Tuguegarao, Baguio, Iba, Tarlac, and Clark Field were subsequently raided. The enemy air attacks were most destructive at Clark Field, where the American Air Force was blasted on the ground.
Before sunrise of Tuesday, December 9, the city of Manila experienced its wartime raid. The sleeping residents were awakened from their slumber by the wailing alarm of the sirens. The Japanese planes soared over the moonlit city and bombed Nichols Field. The USAFFE anti-craft batteries thundered to action and filled the sky with bursting flak.
For the first time in their lives, the Manilans witnessed the frightful spectacle of a real war – the zooming of planes, the explosions of bombs, and the wanton destruction of human lives and property. Apalled by such terrible experience, they prayed for Divine Protection, for they realized that only God stood between them and death.
Japanese Invasion Begins. On December 10 the Japanese invaders made their first successful landing at Aparri and Vigan in Northern Luzon. Two days later, more assault forces made a beachhead in Legazpi in Southern Luzon. Way down south in Davao the Japanese landed on December 20. Two days later the main Japanese invasion forces, under the command of Lt. Masaharu Homma, landed in Lingayen. Other landings took place at Atimohan and Mauban on December 24.
General MacArthur could not stop the enemy landings because his Air Force had been destroyed on the first day of the war and he lacked naval support after the withdrawal of Admiral Thomas C. Hart’s fleet to the south. The enemy dominated both air and sea.
While the invading Japanese were landing at various points of the archipelago, their planes were busy bombing the military objectives and the civilian evacuation centers. At noon of December 10 they bombed the U.S. Navy Yard at Cavite, reducing it to a heap of smoldering ruins, and raided Nichols Field and Fort McKinley. Captain Jesus Villamor and two other Filipino pilots bravely engaged the raiders in battle. Villamor shot down one enemy plane. He was the first Filipino to win the fame in aerial combat. For this feat, he was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross by General MacArthur.
On December 11, over Batangas airfield, Captain Villamor and five other Filipino airmen attacked two enemy formations of 27 planes each. Two Japanese palnes were shot down during the dogfights, but Villamor lost two men – Lt. Cesar Basa and Lt. Geronimo Aclan.
The Fall of the Philippines. The fall of Bataan marked the doom of the Philippines. Rocky Corregidor, guarding the entrance to Manila Bay, continued to defy the Japanese forces, but with the capture of Bataan it could no longer resist the enemy assaults.
General Wainwright displayed superhuman efforts to defend the island-fortress, but in vain. No general could save Corregidor then. And no army of the size that he had under his command could hold the place against overwhelming odds.
On May 6, 1942, Corregidor fell. Nearly 12,000 Fil-American soldiers were taken prisoner. Fortunately, unlike their comrade-in-arms of Bataan, the Corregidor prisoners did not undergo the rigors of a "Death March". With the fall of Corregidor, organized resistance against Japanese invasion of the Philippines came to an end.
General Wainwright, the valiant defender of Corregidor, suffered humiliation at the hands of his captor, General Homma, during the surrender negotiations. After concluding the unconditional surrender of all forces under his command, he was taken to Manila. At 11:40 p.m. of May 7, he personally read over the Radio KZRH ( at the Heacock Building, Escolta, Manila ) an order to all sector commanders throughout the Philippines to cease further resistance to Japanese arms and surrender their forces to the nearest Japanese army authorities. The order was eventually obeyed by his subordinate American officers. On May 10, Major-General William F. Sharpe, Jr. commander of the Visayan-Mindanao forces, in compliance with the order, surrendered to the Japanese in Malaybalay, Bukidnon.
The war was over as far as the American forces in the Philippines were concerned. But to the Filipino people, the war was still on. Many Filipino officers and men refused to heed Wainwright’s order. They fled to the hills with their arms, and with the help of the civilian population, they waged a relentless guerilla warfare against the Japanese invaders.
The 3rd Philippine Republic
The United States wanted the Philippines to have self-government but realized that the people needed much help before they would be ready for independence. The United States government built schools and roads, installed sewage systems, vaccinated the people to protect them from smallpox and cholera, and drilled deep wells to provide pure drinking water.
William Howard Taft was the first civil governor of the Philippines (1900 to 1904). In 1916 the United States Congress passed the Jones Act, which gave the Philippines an elected legislature. In 1934 the Tydings-McDuffie Act set the date for Philippine independence at July 4, 1946. This act made the Philippines a commonwealth and gave it almost complete control over its own affairs. The United States kept control of defense, foreign relations, and important financial policies. Manuel Quezon, elected in 1935, was the first president of the Philippine Commonwealth.
World War II broke out in the Pacific on December 7, 1941. The Philippine Islands were one of Japan’s chief objectives. On January 2, 1942, Manila was captured. President Manuel Quezon went to Washington, D.C., where he organized his government in exile. Upon his death in 1944, he was succeeded by Sergio Osmena, the vice-president. While the Philippines were occupied by the Japanese, U.S. and Filipino guerillas kept resistance alive. In 1945 the Japanese were driven out.
The Philippines became independent on July 4, 1946. Manuel Roxas y Acuna was elected the first president of the new Republic of the Philippines. War damage was wide spread, and the Communist-led Hukbalahaps (Huks) occupied considerable areas in Luzon and Panay. These problems were overcome, largely because of the enthusiasm of the Filipinos for their independence. Money was given by the U.S. to help repair war damage.
In 1948 President Roxas died and was succeeded by the vice-president, Elpidio Quirino. In 1949 Quirino was elected for a full four-year term. In November 1953 Ramon Magsaysay, a famous guerilla fighter during World War II, was elected president.
Magsaysay began a widespread program of improvements for the new republic. In order to defeat the Huks, he kept the Philippine Army constantly in the field, introduced land reforms, and gave farm lands on Mindanao to all Huks who would surrender. When he was killed in an airplane accident in March 1957, Magsaysay was succeeded by the vice-president, Carlos P. Garcia. In November 1957, Garcia was elected for a four-year term, and in 1961 Diosdado Macapagal succeeded him.
In 1965 Macapagal ran for reelection, but was defeated by Ferdinand E. Marcos, the Nationalist candidate. Marcos immediately embarked on a campaign to improve the economy. With the aid of large U.S. loans, he began a four-year program to increase agricultural output. In 1969 Marcos became the first man to be reelected to the presidency since Philippine independence.
The Republic of the Philippines was an original member of the United Nations. It also belongs to the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), established in Manila in 1954.
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On February 23, 1945, Manila was a free city once more. A little over a year later, on July 4, 1946, the third Philippine Republic was proclaimed, with Manuel L. Roxas as President.
Problems of rehabilitation and reconstruction were faced by the Roxas administration but before programs could be undertaken for their solution, President Roxas died in office on July of 1948. He was succeeded by his Vice-President, Elpidio Quirino, who went to win a presidential term of his own in 1949.
In 1953 the government attempted unsuccessfully to end the Huk rebellion by a peace parley with the rebel leaders. In the presidential elections, held on November 10, former Defense Minister Ramon Magsaysay won a decisive victory over the incumbent Quirino, and because of his vigorous conduct of the campaign against the Huks, the back of the rebellion was broken, although it was not entirely suppressed.
Congress approved, on August 11, 1955, legislation empowering President Magsaysay to break up large landed estates and distribute the land to tenant farmers. On September 6 the Philippines and the United States concluded a trade agreement on private U.S. investment in Philippine enterprises.
In the mid-1950s the United States and the Philippines jointly acknowledged Philippine ownership of U.S. military bases in the islands. The Philippine Senate also ratified the peace treaty with Japan and a Philippine-Japanese agreement providing for $800 million in Japanese reparations. President Ramon Magsaysay died on March 17, 1957, in a plane crash. His Vice-President, Carlos P. Garcia, took over the reins of government and in November 1957, was elected to the presidency, and Diosdado Macapagal, a Liberal Party candidate was elected president in 1961 and lost to Ferdinand Marcos, a Nationalista Party candidate in 1965 election.
On February 23, 1945, Manila was a free city once more. A little over a year later, on July 4, 1946, the third Philippine Republic was proclaimed, with Manuel L. Roxas as President.
Problems of rehabilitation and reconstruction were faced by the Roxas administration but before programs could be undertaken for their solution, President Roxas died in office on July of 1948. He was succeeded by his Vice-President, Elpidio Quirino, who went to win a presidential term of his own in 1949.
In 1953 the government attempted unsuccessfully to end the Huk rebellion by a peace parley with the rebel leaders. In the presidential elections, held on November 10, former Defense Minister Ramon Magsaysay won a decisive victory over the incumbent Quirino, and because of his vigorous conduct of the campaign against the Huks, the back of the rebellion was broken, although it was not entirely suppressed.
Congress approved, on August 11, 1955, legislation empowering President Magsaysay to break up large landed estates and distribute the land to tenant farmers. On September 6 the Philippines and the United States concluded a trade agreement on private U.S. investment in Philippine enterprises.
In the mid-1950s the United States and the Philippines jointly acknowledged Philippine ownership of U.S. military bases in the islands. The Philippine Senate also ratified the peace treaty with Japan and a Philippine-Japanese agreement providing for $800 million in Japanese reparations. President Ramon Magsaysay died on March 17, 1957, in a plane crash. His Vice-President, Carlos P. Garcia, took over the reins of government and in November 1957, was elected to the presidency, and Diosdado Macapagal, a Liberal Party candidate was elected president in 1961 and lost to Ferdinand Marcos, a Nationalista Party candidate in 1965 election.
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Independence and Constitutional Government, 1945 – 72. Demoralized by the war and suffering rampant inflation and shortages of food and other goods, the Philippine people prepared for the transition to independence, which was scheduled for July 4, 1946. A number of issues remained unresolved, principally those concerned with trade and security arrangements between the islands and the United States. Yet in the months following Japan's surrender, collaboration became a virulent issue that split the country and poisoned political life. Most of the commonwealth legislature and leaders, such as Laurel, Claro Recto, and Roxas, had served in the Japanese-sponsored government. While the war was still going on, Allied leaders had stated that such "quislings" and their counterparts on the provincial and local levels would be severely punished. Harold Ickes, who as United States secretary of the interior had civil authority over the islands, suggested that all officials above the rank of schoolteacher who had cooperated with the Japanese be purged and denied the right to vote in the first postwar elections. Osmeña countered that each case should be tried on its own merits.
Resolution of the problem posed serious moral questions that struck at the heart of the political system. Collaborators argued that they had gone along with the occupiers in order to shield the people from the harshest aspects of Japanese rule. Before leaving Corregidor in March 1942, Quezon had told Laurel and José Vargas, mayor of Manila, that they should stay behind to deal with the Japanese but refuse to take an oath of allegiance. Although president of a "puppet" republic, Laurel had faced down the Japanese several times and made it clear that his loyalty was first to the Philippines and second to the Japanese-sponsored Greater East Asia Coprosperity Sphere.
Critics accused the collaborators of opportunism and of enriching themselves while the people starved. Anticollaborationist feeling, moreover, was fueled by the people's resentment of the elite. On both the local and the national levels, it had been primarily the landlords, important officials, and the political establishment that had supported the Japanese, largely because the latter, with their own troops and those of a reestablished Philippine Constabulary, preserved their property and forcibly maintained the rural status quo. Tenants felt the harshest aspects of Japanese rule. Guerrillas, particularly those associated with the Huks, came from the ranks of the cultivators, who organized to defend themselves against Philippine Constabulary and Japanese depredations.
The issue of collaboration centered on Roxas, prewar Nacionalista speaker of the House of Representatives, who had served as minister without portfolio and was responsible for rice procurement and economic policy in the wartime Laurel government. A close prewar associate of MacArthur, he maintained contact with Allied intelligence during the war and in 1944 had unsuccessfully attempted to escape to Allied territory, which exonerated him in the general's eyes. MacArthur supported Roxas in his ambitions for the presidency when he announced himself as a candidate of the newly formed Liberal Party (the liberal wing of the Nacionalista Party) in January 1946. MacArthur's favoritism aroused much criticism, particularly because other collaborationist leaders were held in jail, awaiting trial. A presidential campaign of great vindictiveness ensued, in which Roxas's wartime role was a central issue. Roxas outspent and outspoke his Nacionalista opponent, the aging and ailing Osmeña. In the April 23, 1946, election, Roxas won 54 percent of the vote, and the Liberal Party won a majority in the legislature.
On July 4, 1946, Roxas became the first president of the independent Republic of the Philippines. In 1948 he declared an amnesty for arrested collaborators--only one of whom had been indicted--except for those who had committed violent crimes. The resiliency of the prewar elite, although remarkable, nevertheless had left a bitter residue in the minds of the people. In the first years of the republic, the issue of collaboration became closely entwined with old agrarian grievances and produced violent results.
The Marcos Dictatorship
Marcos Becomes President. In the presidential election of November 9, 1965, the Liberal Party was repudiated by the Filipino people at the polls. President Macapagal, running for reelection under the LP banner, was defeated, together with his teammate, Senator Gerardo Roxas. Senate President Ferdinand E. Marcos and Senator Fernando Lopez, NP candidates, were elected President and Vice-President, respectively. It should be recalled that both Marcos and Lopez were former Liberals.
With the stunning defeat of the LP, the NP once more became the party in power. Filipino voters enthusiastically voted for the Nacionalista candidates because of Marcos’ battle cry: "This nation can be great again".
Marcos’ First Term ( 1965 – 69 ). On December 30, 1965, Marcos took his oath of office as the sixth President of the Philippine Republic. Vice-President Lopez also was inducted into office at the same time. At the beginning of his administration, President Marcos was beset by serious problems. The national treasury was almost empty because of the extravagance of the Macapagal administration. The government was short of funds for essential services, including education, health, national defense, social welfare and infrastructure. .
Among the achievements of President Marcos during his first term ( 1965–1969 ) were the following:
Marcos Wins Reelection ( 1969 ). Evidently, the Filipino people were satisfied by President Marcos’ performance during his first term. In the local election of November 14, 1967 ( for eight senators and all local officials ), the Nacionalista Party won a sweeping victory. Only one Liberal senatorial candidate was elected. He was Benigno Aquino, Jr. former governor of Tarlac and the youngest of all senatorial aspirants. The Nacionalista victory was repeated in the presidential election of November 11, 1969 when President Marcos and Vice-President Lopez were reelected by the people. Their Liberal opponents were Senator Sergio Osmena, Jr., presidential candidate, and Senator Genaro Magsaysay, vice-presidential candidate. In this election, too, seven NP senatorial bets were added, namely, Arturo Tolentino, Gil Puyat, Lorenzo Sumulong, Ambrocio Padilla ( LP guest candidate ), Jose Diokno, Rene Espina, and Mamintal A. Tamano ( Muslim ). One Liberal senatorial candidate – Gerardo Roxas – survived the Nacionalista avalanche.
The reelection of President Marcos in 1969 was unprecedented in the political annals of the Philippine Republic. First he was the only President of the Philippines to be reelected for a second term. And, second, he was the first Philippine President to take his oath of office ( December 30, 1969 ) in the native language. All his predecessors - Quezon, Osmena, Roxas, Quirino, Magsaysay, Garcia, and Macapagal – took their oath of office in English.
President Marcos’ Second Term ( 1969 ). As President Marcos commenced his second term, somber clouds loomed in Philippine skies, auguring dark days for the young republic. The global economic crisis brought about by the rising oil price reached the Philippines, adversely affecting her economy. The prices of prime commodities spiraled skyward, many people became jobless, and the "floating peso" was devaluated.
On top of the economic recession, other evils plagued the nation, such as (1) the prevalence of dirty politics, (2) the rampage of graft and corruption in the government, (3) the widening gap between the rich and the poor, (4) the impotency of the 1935 Philippine Constitution to cope with the new socio-economic problems of the times; and (5) the rising tides of crime, communism, and subversion. These evils produced the disenchantment of the people ( particularly the young students ) with the government and society in general.
Movement to Change the Constitution. Since the Philippines achieved postwar independence in July 1946, there emerged a persistent movement to change the Constitution of 1935. In the light of the new situation, the Constitution of 1935 was found to be anachronistic because it was no longer in harmony with the new conditions of the times. Its defects became apparent, as follows: (1) it was a relic of colonialism, for it was drafted during the American regime and was an imitation of the U.S. Constitution; (2) too much powers given to the President may spawn a dictator; (3) imbalance among the three branches of government – legislative, executive, judicial; (4) lack of a provision regarding presidential election protests; (5) its Parity Amendment was a memento of American imperialism; (6) the COMELEC ( Commission on Elections ) was not granted adequate powers to prevent election anomalies; (7) the GAO ( General Auditing Office ) was virtually a watchdog without teeth; and (8) it had no provision on local autonomy.
It was not until March 16, 1967 that the agitation for a new constitution assumed concrete form. On this date Congress adopted Joint Resolution No. 2 providing for the calling of a Philippine Constitutional Convention to make the necessary changes in the Constitution.
On June 17, three months later, Congress enacted R.A. No. 1913 submitting to the people for approval or disapproval two amendments to the Constitution, as follows: (1) increasing the number of congressmen from 120 to 180 and (2) allowing senators and congressmen to serve as delegates to the 1971 Convention without forfeiting their seats in Congress. These two amendments were submitted to the people in the local elections of November 14, 1967 and both were rejected by an overwhelming vote. The first was disapproved by a vote of 3,299,485 against only 737,887 in favor and the second, by a vote of 3,286,879 against only 652,127 in favor.
Finally, on August 24, 1970, President Marcos signed R.A. 6132 which Congress had promulgated. Popularly known as the "1970 Constitutional Convention Act" it provided for he election on November 10, 1970 of the delegates to the Constitutional Convention which would convene in Manila on June 1, 1971.
Martial Law and the new society. For the first time since regaining our freedom in 1946, the Filipinos experienced the impact of martial law ( 1972 – 81 ). President Marcos used martial law in order to prolong his stay in power. He claimed other reasons in public – to save the Republic and reform the society – but these objectives were secondary to his primary aim of becoming dictatorial president and establishing a political dynasty. "Power corrupts," as Lord Acton of England said, " and absolute power corrupts absolutely." Thus, the strong powers assumed by Marcos eventually did far more harm than good, because under the New Society which he established, the Philippines suffered the worst political, economic and moral decline in its postwar history.
Proclamation of Martial Law. At 7:30 p.m. of September 23, 1972, President Marcos appeared on nationwide radio and television to formally announce that he had placed the entire Philippines under Martial law as of 9 p.m. of the previous day, September 22, 1972, by way of implementing Proclamation No. 1081, which he had signed even earlier, on September 21, 1972.
It seemed typical of the deceitful way in which the country was to be ruled for the next fourteen years under President Marcos that he prepared and signed the martial law edict in secret, and he told the public about it only after his military agents had arrested the opposition and silenced the media.
The Legality of Martial Law. Martial law is an extraordinary measure taken by the head of state to defend or to protect the people from extreme danger due to lawless violence, anarchy, rebellion, or invasion. As President of the Republic, Marcos had the authority to impose martial law under Article VII ( Section 10, Paragraph 2 ) of the 1935 Constitution. His critics pointed out, however, that when martial law was proclaimed, the country was not being invaded or threatened with invasion, anarchy, insurrection or rebellion. It is true that there were demonstrations and subversive forces, but these did not justify the extreme measure taken by President Marcos.
People Power Revolution and Democracy Once Again
The longer President Marcos remained in power, the more his government oppressed and impoverished the people. Blinded with power and ill-gotten wealth, he merrily deceived our people and deprived them of their God-given rights, without any thought for the day of judgment. Gifted by God with the power of faith, our people humbled themselves and prayed for divine intervention, while awaiting for the wicked to stumble in their own snares.
Snap Presidential Election of 1996. By 1985, the political and economic instability in the country caused fears that the violent overthrow of the Marcos dictatorship was forthcoming. President Marcos was forced to call for a snap presidential election in order to prove that he was still in control of the situation. A superstitious man despite his intelligence, President Marcos selected February 7, 1986 as the date for the snap election, because " 7 " was his lucky number.
The formidable, well-oiled and richly-funded pro-government KBL party proclaimed President Marcos and Assemblyman Arturo M. Tolentino as their official candidates for president and vice-president, respectively, in a pompous and extravagant celebration. On the other hand, the opposition parties had a difficult time in organizing for the surprise election at first. Finally the United Nationalist Democratic Party ( UNIDO ) and PDP Laban jointly fielded their official candidates – Mrs. Corazon C. Aquino ( Ninoy’s widow ) for president and Salvador H. Laurel ( son of the late President Jose P. Laurel ) – in much simpler ceremonies.
President Marcos, an unscrupulous politician, craftily planned the KBL strategy before, during, and after the elections, if need be to steal the results in his favor. No effort was spared in the use of "guns, goons and gold" to intimidate or entice voters to support the Marcos-Tolentino ticket. Behind the scenes, the government party implemented a massive strategy to fake the results of the elections in favor of the KBL candidates. Meanwhile, in public, the battle cry of the KBL was " Marcos pa rin! " ( "We’re still with Marcos! " )
In spite of the Marcos’ government gimmicks, dirty tricks, and unlimited funds, the opposition candidates, "Cory" Aquino and "Doy" Laurel, drew larger crowds who voluntarily went to their rallies as an expression of popular sympathy and support. The Aquino-Laurel ticket had two slogans that were overwhelmingly applauded by the crowds – "Tama na, sobra na, palitan na!" ( Enough is enough – change them!" ) and "Ituloy ang laban ni Ninoy!" ( "Continue Ninoy’s fight!" )
By and large, the snap presidential election of February 7, 1986 was one of the most historic elections in Philippine history. For the first time, a woman candidate, Mrs. "Cory" Aquino, ran ( and won ) for President of the Republic. Secondly, it proved that no matter what evil tactics may be devised by wicked politicians, the will of the people could not be frustrated, thus confirming the maxim, Voxpopuli, vox dei ( The voice of the people is the voice of God ). Thirdly, it was the most expensive and dirtiest elections, resulting in the government’s illegal use of hundreds of millions of pesos from public funds and the loss of many lives, including that of the opposition leader Evelio Javier, Jr., former governor of Antique province, who was brutally murdered by pro-government goons although he was unarmed. Finally, it was the most confusing election in modern history, with both sides claiming to have won.
Results of the Snap Election. In the honest counting of the votes cast at the snap presidential election, Aquino and Laurel had won at the polls. As tabulated by the National Citizens Movement for Free Elections ( Namfrel ), the result of the election showed that, despite massive cheating, intimidation and bribery by the government, Aquino and Laurel had a margin of around 800,000 votes to win against the KBL candidates.
The so-called "official" tallies made by the Commission on Elections, as certified by the Batasang Pambansa, did not reflect the will of the people because they were based on dubious documents, many of which had been tampered with. Thirty COMELEC tabulators walked out of the Philippine International Convention Center ( PICC ), where the supposedly official tabulation was being done, in protest of anomalous computerized tampering of the results. Consequently, the hasty proclamation of the Batasan that Marcos and Tolentino were elected as president and vice-president, respectively, was rejected by the people.
On February 15, 1986, the Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines issued a pastoral letter to be read in all Catholic churches, declaring that the government had lost its moral basis due to the electoral fraud, and they called on the people to protest peacefully and for the government to make amends for the irregularities. On Sunday, February 16, 1986, the opposition held a huge rally attended by some four million people at Luneta. Mrs. Aquino called for a peaceful non-violent civil disobedience movement (e.g. boycotting of crony media and commercial products, etc. ), and she promised to rally the support of the people to her cause throughout the country.
Significantly enough, no foreign government congratulated President Marcos on his alleged "victory" at the polls.
The "People Power Revolution" of February 1986. Exerting only the collective force of their faith and unselfish sacrifice, the people fulfilled one of Rizal’s prophesies in his book, El Filibusterismo, wherein our national hero wrote: " When a people reaches that height, God will provide a weapon, the idols will be shattered, the tyranny will crumble like a house of cards and liberty will shine out like the first dawn."
The "People Power Revolution" began as a bloodless military revolt of the reform movement in the Armed Forces of the Philippines, led by Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile and ( then ) Deputy Chief of Staff, Lt. Gen. Fidel Ramos. At 6 p.m. of Saturday, February 22, 1986, Minister Enrile and General Ramos gave a press conference to announce their withdrawal of support from President Marcos. Minister Enrile admitted that Mrs. Aquino had won the elections and that President Marcos had been deceiving the people for some time. He called on Marcos to resign and for the people to support the military defectors.
Immediately, priests and nuns led by Cardinal Sin and ordinary citizens inspired by Corazon Aquino, Agapito "Butz" Aquino, Salvador Laurel and others, joined the anti-Marcos soldiers. With the merging of these three powers – military, church, and people power – the initial defection by a handful of brave military leaders turned into a people’s revolution. After the appeals for public support were aired over Radio Veritas, the Catholic radio station, thousands of people streamed to Camp Aguinaldo and Camp Crame, where the military defectors and reformist troops waited for the attack of Marcos’ soldiers.
On the morning of the following day, Sunday, February 23, thousands more came and reinforced the human barricade around the two camps. By nightfall, the situation became critical, as Marcos loyalist trooped under the command of General Fabian Ver prepared to attack.
At about 8 p.m. the attacking forces, riding in armored tanks and carriers under the command of Brig. Gen. Artemio Tadiar, arrived at Epifanio de los Santos Avenue ( EDSA ) in front of Camp Crame. But they could not assault the camp because thousands of unarmed civilians had formed a vast human barricade to block the way. Priests and nuns knelt or sat in front of the tanks, and behind them were many more citizens ready and willing to sacrifice their lives. People rushed to the soldiers and offered them food and drinks in a gesture of love, while children were hoisted up to the tanks giving fresh flowers and friendly embraces to the Marcos troops. Evidently moved by the astonishing scene, General Tadiar ordered a retreat.
During the next two days, February 24 and 25, the confidence of the people soared because the tide turned in their favor. Some 85% of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, including Air Force, defected to the side of Minister Enrile and General Ramos. Millions of citizens from all walks of life took turns in maintaining the people’s barricades, and thousands more came from nearby provinces. As the media became liberated, the entire country now knew what was happening. Foreign media people also flashed the news about the Philippines to other parts of the world, and even foreigners became fascinated with the courageous outpouring of selfless sacrifices shown by the Filipino people. According to Fr. Francisco Araneta, the events in February were not only people power but also " God power " at work.
President Marcos was doomed. On the night of Tuesday, February 25, he and his family, and some friends ( including General Ver ), fled Malacanang Palace and were taken by the U.S. Air Force to Guam and then to Hawaii. It was all over. The people had won, after a peaceful revolution of only four days. To celebrate the downfall of the Marcos dictatorship, the people lit bonfires and danced and sang in the streets of the main cities of the country. They flashed the famous "L" sign with their fingers and cried tears of joy and thanksgiving. People everywhere knelt to praise and thank the Lord for such a powerful demonstration of His miracles.
Corazon Aquino, First Lady, President of the Philippines. On the morning of Tuesday, February 25, the last day of the people’s revolution, Corazon Aquino was inducted into office at Club Filipino as the first lady President of the Philippines. At the same time, Salvador H. Laurel took his oath of office as Vice-President.
In her brief and simple inaugural message to the people, President Aquino expressed her gratitude to the people and the military who joined ranks in fighting for our freedom. She appealed to all Filipinos to "work for national reconciliation which was what Ninoy came back for" and to unite in the rebuilding of our beautiful country. In conclusion, she said: " I would like to end with a plea that we continue praying so that God will help us, especially during these difficult times. And if you all agree, I wish you to sing with me the Lord’s prayer."
Restoration of Democracy in the Philippines. The first thing which President Aquino did upon assuming office was the restoration of democracy in our country. She formed a small cabinet of 14 ministers, ordered to release of all political prisoners and restored the writ of habeas corpus in Region IX and XII in Mindanao. She threw open the doors of Malacanang Palace to the public, while she herself preferred to work in the small Guest House. Thousands of people who visited the Palace were shocked at how Marcos and his family had lived there in luxury and debauchery for 20 years while our people lived in increasing misery. They saw evidence of Marcos’ medical treatment – special equipment and medical supplies which originally belonged to other hospitals but which could not be used by other patients. They also saw examples of the former First Lady, Imelda Marcos’ extravagant lifestyle – her 3,000 pairs of custom-made shoes, more than 1,000 gowns, hundreds of perfume bottles and bars of soap, and her oversized bed, more luxurious than that of Queen Marie Antoinette at the Versailles in France.
According to U.S. Congress investigators, ex-President and Mrs. Marcos had stolen money from the Philippines amounting to billions of dollars, which they had mostly hidden away in foreign companies, real estate, banks and personal property. This rapacious theft of the people’s money, according to official Aquino government investigator, former Senator Jovito Salonga, "was unprecedented in history."
Transitory Government and Provisional Constitution. In view of the sudden collapse of the Marcos regime after more than twenty years of dictatorship, the Aquino government was only transitory. Some called it a "revolutionary" government because it was born during the people’s revolution. In substance, it was a democratic government, for it was based on the people’s sovereign will and guaranteed human rights of the people.
Pending the drafting of a new Constitution and its ratification by the people, President Aquino issued Proclamation No.3 on March 25, 1986, promulgating the Provisional Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines, otherwise known as the " Freedom Constitution ".