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Justin Chen Essay #4: Ulysses From the opening intonation of “introibo ad altare Dei” (3) in James Joyce’s Ulysses, the theme of Christianity is inextricably linked to the novel’s development, serving alternately as a source of allusions and as a backdrop to the motives and the interior reflections of the various characters. It would be quite difficult to prove that Christianity serves just one particular role in the novel. Indeed, although Joyce’s use of Christianity reveals a great deal about Stephen and Bloom, among others, equally important is the view of society obtained from observing comments on Christianity from characters like Molly, Leopold, and Stephen. Thus, Christianity in the novel necessarily serves multiple “serious purposes.” First, it is utilized as a rich source from which to draw allusions and references throughout the novel. Second, the role of Christianity as depicted by Joyce can be seen as a reflection on the society of the early twentieth-century on which Ulysses was based and its changing views of the Christian institution. Finally, and probably most importantly, Christianity serves as a familiar concept or set of ideas, the reactions to which reveal further information about the various characters in the novel. The role of Christianity as a source for allusions should not in any way be diminished. In fact, without some knowledge of Christian lore, in reading through Ulysses one would most certainly run into a number passages with no other context for comprehension. An example of a Christian allusion is Joyce’s manipulation of the Apostle’s Creed in chapter 12. The citizen has just been discussing ignorant belief in the British navy, prompting Bloom’s ever-facile mind to construct a passage beginning, “They believe in rod, the scourger almighty, creator of hell upon earth…” (270) , and so forth. In fact, the passage is basically just a Bloomian word-play on the virtually catechismal Apostle’s Creed, which begins, “I believe in God the Father almighty, creator of heaven and earth…” However, the purpose of this allusion, as is the case with many of the other Christian allusions throughout the novel, is not readily clear. Joyce may be exploiting the catechism-like nature of the Apostle’s Creed to show that those who automatically believe in the British navy have a sort of blind faith akin to that of Christians. Another example of Joyce’s use of Christianity as a source for allusion is his repeated imagery involving the blood of the lamb. This is of course an appeal to the Christian notion that Jesus, the quintessential innocent lamb, was doomed to die so that mankind could be cleansed of its sins through His blood. The lamb’s blood imagery is used, for instance, in the so-called Hades episode in chapter 6. Bloom contemplates to himself, “It’s the blood sinking in the earth gives new life” (89). This quote is a reference to the idea that man is granted new life by Christ’s sacrifice. As in the case of the Apostle’s creed allusion, although the reference may not be obvious, it gives the novel a more three-dimensional character by alluding to the richly extensive and well-known body of thoughts and ideologies that make up the Christian religion. The second role of Christianity in the novel, as a reflection of early twentieth-century society’s evolving views of the Christian institution, is mainly typified by its scientifically objective rejection by most of the characters. Indeed, many of the Christian rites depicted in the book are seen as nothing more that—mere ritualized processes or formalities with little or no true significance; perhaps these treatments of Christianity are a reflection of Joyce’s own beliefs. An example of this can be seen in Bloom’s reflections on a Catholic mass. He observes to himself, “Wonderful organisation certainly, goes like clockwork… Repentance skindeep. Lovely shame. Pray at an altar. Hail Mary and Holy Mary. Flowers, incense, candles melting. Hide her blushes” (68). Thus, he views the entire concept of confession and atonement as a sort of task or process which, though perhaps aesthetically pleasing, may have little or no true spiritual significance. Similarly, Bloom observes a priest during the graveyard episode and thinks to himself, “He must be fed up with that job, shaking that thing over all the corpses… All the year round he prayed the same thing over them all and shook water on top of them…Tiresome kind of a job” (86). Bloom’s almost clinical appraisal of Christian rites once again suggests his removed, skeptical nature, and it also serves as a testament to the growing view of Christianity as a mere process with little true spiritual value. Bloom also uses a reverend’s name as a jumping-off point for one of his tangential reflections. He ponders to himself, “The reverend Dr. Salmon: tinned salmon. Well tinned in there. Like a mortuary chapel. Wouldn’t live in it if they paid me… Nature abhors a vacuum” (135). Again, this statement reveals Bloom’s critical view of Christianity. Although his statements are not directly malignant, he does manage to make oblique slights at Christianity by comparing the reverend to a piece of tinned fish. This comparison perhaps suggests that the reverend is prepackaged, an therefore sterile and uninteresting, or encased in his own position, and therefore removed from reality. His final comment also suggests that the reverend’s “vacuum”-like role is somehow unnatural or even abhorrent to nature. Thus, even though Bloom is largely being fanciful, his statements reveal a subtle contempt for Christianity and represent a certain modern-day cynicism toward Christian institutions. Perhaps a subtler example of a modern societal view of Christianity is Stephen’s observation to Mr. Deasy, “That is God…A shout in the street” (28). This sentiment suggests that the only important manifestation of God is in the natural world and in the daily activities that make up existence. Stephen’s comment comes as a response to Mr. Deasy’s statement that “All human history moves toward one great goal, the manifestation of God” (28). Thus, Stephen rejects the notion that God has a grand overarching plan for humanity; rather, he believes that God—or perhaps even someone or something else—created the world, and that is the only reality that is readily accessible to human comprehension. Stephen later suggests an extremely modern view of Christianity, and indeed, religion in general toward the end of the catechismal chapter 17, when the unknown “interviewer” asks, “Did [Stephen] find four separating forces between his temporary guest and him?” to which the reply is, “Name, age, race, creed” (554). This idea of creed or religion as one of the barriers between the communion of souls can also be seen in Joyce’s Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. Another example of Christianity as a reflection on society can be seen in Molly’s stream-of-consciousness reflections at the end of the novel in which she ponders, “as for them saying theres no God I wouldn’t give a snap of my two fingers for all their learning why don’t they go and create something” (643). This quote demonstrates the growing disillusionment with Christianity among intellectual society. In addition, it reveals a little bit about Molly’s own faith. Molly seems to believe that it is wrong to reject God based on “learning,” and in fact her own belief in God is derived from the splendor of the natural world rather than any sort of rational or intellectual argument. Just as Molly’s thoughts on Christianity reveal more about her character to the reader, the final and seemingly most important role of Christianity in the novel is to serve as a familiar context by means of which more about each of the characters can be discovered. For example, Bloom’s comments about the mass reveal his scientific thought processes that typify much of his character. In fact, Bloom contemplates to himself earlier in the novel, “Good idea the Latin. Stupefies them first. Hospice for the dying. They don’t seem to chew it: only swallow it down. Rum idea: eating bits of a corpse. Why the cannibals cotton to it” (66). Not only does this passage reveal Bloom’s scientifically cynical outlook on Christianity, it also serves as an excellent example of the types of intellectual games and tangents on which he always seems to be embarking. In other words, his association of the Holy Communion and cannibalism not only reveals his irreverence for the institution of Christianity, it also demonstrates his penchant for following semi-ridiculous ideas to their logical conclusions. Throughout the novel, and especially in the disjointed chapter 15 whorehouse scene, this aspect of Bloom’s character is constantly reiterated. Of all the characters, Stephen certainly has the most revealing and thought-provoking relationship with Christianity. In fact, because Stephen’s character is ostensibly a fictional representation of Joyce himself, through Stephen’s musings on Christianity the reader obtains a more comprehensive view of the author himself. The first hint that Stephen’s religious convictions are at best questionable comes extremely early in the novel, when Buck Mulligan accuses him, “But to think of your mother begging you with her last breath to kneel down and pray for her. And you refused. There is something sinister in you…” (5). The idea that Stephen refuses to kneel down and pray, even for the sake of his dying mother whose love he believes to be possibly “The only true thing in life” (23), is an important one in the novel. Mulligan seems willing to attribute Stephen’s refusal to “the cursed jesuit strain” (7), but of course the problem is neither inherited nor caused by any sort of Jesuit upbringing. In fact, the true reasons for Stephen’s refusal are not based on such external grounds, but rather on more cognitive, internal rationalizations. In response to Haines’ statement, “You are your own master, it seems to me” (17), Stephen replies, “I am a servant of two masters… Kneel down before me… The imperial British state…and the holy Roman catholic and apostolic church” (17). Thus, Stephen demonstrates that his primary objections deal with being subjugated to a position of servitude, whether it be to the monarchy or the Church. Another revealing view of Stephen’s outlook on Christianity comes in the library scene, when Stephen is debating his theory of Hamlet with his friends. He states, “Fatherhood, in the sense of conscious begetting, is unknown to man. It is a mystical estate, an apostolic Thus, Stephen finally expresses his personal skepticism about Christianity. In fact, he portrays Catholicism as a conspiracy dreamed up by a “cunning Italian intellect” that is based on nothing more than an illogical paradox. This passage certainly reveals a great deal about Stephen himself. Although even as he formulates his arguments he feels as if he is “battling against hopelessness (170), his point is nevertheless a valid and interesting one, and it is evidence for the investment of a good deal of thought and intellect on Stephen’s part. The next revelation about Stephen’s thoughts on God is extremely subtle; Stephen converses with himself, as if in passing, “My will: his will that fronts me. Seas between” (178) and immediately moves on to another topic. Although this statement has no antecedents and is thus very vague in terms of pronoun references, one possible interpretation that can be drawn is that Stephen is referring to himself and God in the passage. If this is the case, Stephen seems to be putting himself on a level with God by the construction of his statement, implying almost a certain degree of arrogance. Again, Stephen’s unwillingness to bow to another force or to be relegated to an inferior position can be seen. An extremely telling exchange occurs near the end of the chapter 15 whorehouse scene, in which Stephen has an imaginary conversation with his dead mother. Stephen cries out, “Non serviam!,” Latin for “I will not serve!,” to which his mother, “moaning desperately,” pleads, “O sacred Heart of Jesus, have mercy on him! Save him from hell, O Divine Sacred Heart!” (475). This evidently does not please Stephen, for he cries out, “No! No! No! Break my spirit, all of you, if you can! I’ll bring you all to heel!” (475). In “the agony of her deathrattle” Stephen’s mother implores to God, “Have mercy on Stephen, Lord, for my sake! Inexpressible was my anguish when expiring with love, grief and agony on Mount Calvary” (475). Stephen remains defiant and cries out “Nothung!,” after which he smashes a chandelier in the dream sequence. This scene is extremely powerful, and it demonstrates Stephen’s adamant refusal to bow down to anyone, even when his very soul is at stake. As his mother appeals to God to save her son, Stephen challenges the world to try and wrest his last remaining possession, his soul, away from him. Stephen’s attitude here is consistent with his thoughts throughout the novel. For instance, early on he posits, “Darkness is in our souls… Our souls, shamewounded by our sins, cling to us yet more, a woman to her lover clinging, the more the more” (40). Stephen is unwilling to detach his own seemingly shamewounded and clinging soul from himself despite his mother’s best intentions. Although Joyce is clearly not a Christian, his knowledge of Christianity plays an extensive role in Ulysses. Firstly, he draws on Christian doctrines and mythology to provide a richer and more three-dimensional text. Secondly, Joyce explores the changing role of Christianity in society, especially with the trend toward rationalism and away from blind faith. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, the various characters’ views on Christianity reveal more about themselves to the reader and serve as a basis for greater comprehension of their thoughts and actions. |