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Justin Chen Heroism in Milton’s Paradise Lost In a literary work devoted to retelling the story of “man’s first disobedience” (I,1) against God and the tragic downfall of Adam and Eve, one would perhaps not expect to encounter many heroes. (i) Yet John Milton’s Paradise Lost adopts the format of an epic poem, a style that necessarily evokes in any student of the Western Canon the great heroes and heroics of such classical epics as Homer’s The Odyssey and Virgil’s The Aeneid. Indeed, as the poem unfolds and its characters are fleshed out for the reader, what at first appeared to be a straightforward story about sin and punishment evolves into a complex struggle between a God with unclear motives and a collection of characters who, at times, can seem almost heroic in their actions. Satan’s defiance of is described as courageous and daring, while Eve’s succumbing to temptation can be construed as an adventurous, even noble, attempt to prove herself in God’s eyes. And Adam’s conscious decision to eat of the forbidden fruit and die a spiritual death in order to remain with Eve can even be seen as a parallel to Jesus’ martyrdom on the cross for the sake of mankind. Despite the seeming valor of all these examples, however, Milton ultimately reserves the badge of heroism in Paradise Lost for those whose hearts, not actions, reflect true bravery and patience. Satan is a fascinating character in the epic, not just for his role as God’s primary adversary, but also for the obvious parallels between his descent from Heaven and Adam and Eve’s eventual forfeit of Paradise. He is in fact the first character described at any length, and we discover in the opening lines of the poem that he was “hurled headlong flaming from the ethereal sky… To bottomless perdition” (I.45, 47) for having “raised impious war in heaven and battle proud” (I.43-4) with “ambitious aim” (I.41). To the unsuspecting reader, this description merely recounts a well-known story about Satan’s disobedience and subsequent castigation. Yet to the reader concerned with the role of heroism in the epic, Milton’s word choice is particularly striking. Rather than reviling Satan using the most unflattering terms possible, as would be all too easy to do when describing the ultimate villain and enemy of God and mankind, Milton chooses words such as “ambitious” and “proud”—terms which, though possessing a negative connotation in the Christian schema, could be seen as positive traits in a classical hero. Along these same lines, Satan describes later in Book I his own “unconquerable will… And courage never to submit or yield” (I.106, 8). While these traits must be viewed in the context of his self-admitted “immortal hate” (I.107) for God, they nonetheless seem to imply certain very human qualities which, given a nobler cause, could easily be construed as extremely positive. Nor is the correlation between Satan and the heroes of ancient epics limited to personal characteristics; many of Satan’s actions also hearken back to those of familiar classical heroes. For instance, his quest for land in Book I bears a certain resemblance to Odysseus’ torturous sea journey back to Ithaca. He suggests to Beelzebub, his “closest mate,” that they approach a nearby “dreary plain” (I.180) to escape the “tossing of these fiery waves” (I.184) upon which they are floating. This exchange is reminiscent of the scene in Book V of the Odyssey in which Odysseus wears the scarf of Ino to float to the land of the Phaiakians unharmed. In general, Satan is engaged in a journey throughout much of Paradise Lost, a situation reminiscent of the Odyssey or the Aeneid. The combination of heroic verse, descriptions of Satan’s courage and indomitable will, and parallels to the adventurous voyages of classical epics, seems to set Satan up as some sort of heroic figure. Yet despite this apparent buildup, Satan is clearly not a hero in the poem. No hero in any classical epic is subject to the same degree of ignominy and defeat that Satan is. Hector, for example, is the sworn enemy of the Greeks in the Iliad, yet he is still portrayed as a sympathetic family man and praised for his valor in battle. Satan, in contrast, is thrown “with hideous ruin and combustion down/ To bottomless perdition” (46-7), surely not the reward of a great hero. Why is there such a striking contrast between the reader’s expectation for Satan as a hero and his actual disastrous fate? The answer lies in Milton’s own views on heroism. In casting Satan in an arguably heroic light, Milton sets up a sharp contrast between his actions and his motives. That is, although Satan appears to possess the traits of, say, a valorous warrior from the Iliad, he does not possess the “upright heart and pure” (I.18), which, according to Milton, the Holy Spirit “prefer[s]/ Before all temples” (I.17-8). And in that sense, Satan can never be designated a true hero. Satan, according to the unfallen angel Zephon, once “stood in heaven upright and pure” (IV.837), an obvious allusion to the “upright heart and pure” from the opening lines of the poem. But after his fall, Satan laments, “Which way shall I fly/ Infinite wrath, and infinite despair?/ Which way I fly is hell; myself am hell” (IV.74-5). Thus, Satan carries his hell with him—his evil motives are internalized, and no number of heroic actions can compensate for this shortcoming. Milton’s philosophy is intimately tied to the Christian notion that true belief is the sole requirement for a holy life. In Colossians 2:16, Paul writes to the Church at Colosse, “Therefore do not let anyone judge you by what you eat or drink, or with regard to a religious festival, a New Moon celebration or a Sabbath day.” (ii) While Paul’s explicit purpose in making this statement is to free believers in Christ from the tyranny of Judaic laws and customs (he had just emphasized the “circumcision done by Christ” over “circumcision done by the hands of men” in Colossians 2:11), on a more general level, Paul appears to be stressing the precedence of true Christian belief over false Christian-like actions—Paul goes on to caution, “Do not let anyone who delights in false humility and the worship of angels disqualify you for the prize” (Colossians 2:18). This distinction between religiousness and religiosity plays strongly into Paradise Lost, as we have now seen with the example of Satan. Though his actions mimic those of a great classical hero, his true motives result in rejection by both Milton and God. The characters of Adam and Eve can be analyzed similarly, a fact that probably contributes to the inevitable sympathy many readers have for Satan’s plight in the poem. Eve is the first of the pair to assert a desire for heroism when she suggests to Adam that they work separately during the day so as to maximize their efficiency in the Garden of Eden. It could be argued that Eve’s desire to split off from Adam is simply a part of her nature, for Eve is extremely independent from Adam even on the very first day of her creation, when she declares him “less fair,/ Less winning soft, less amiably mild,/ Than that smooth watery image” (IV.478-80) of her own reflection in the pool. Yet when Adam questions her about her motives for working alone, she does not cite a need for independence, but rather responds that whoever single-handedly defeats Satan will “double honour gain/ From [Satan’s] surmise proved false, find peace within,/ Favour from heaven, our witness from the event” (IX.332-4). This statement is in essence the expression of a desire to be proven a hero through the successful overcoming of a foe. Furthermore, Eve’s reasoning during the exchange with Adam can best be described as martial or war-minded. She seems to be discussing military strategy, not division of labor, when she states, “Our trial, when least sought,/ May find us both perhaps far less prepared,/ The willinger I go, nor much expect/ A foe so proud will first the weaker seek; So bent, the more shall shame him his repulse” (IX.380-384). The first part of this statement is a calculation on Eve’s part that once separated, she and Adam will be much more alert and prepared for an attack than they if they were constantly together, a definite military strategy. The latter half of the statement is a rather transparent manifestation of Eve’s desire to prove her heroism on the “field of battle,” which she feels she must do alone. As we have already observed from the example of Satan, however, heroism is not in itself a good thing in Paradise Lost unless it is accompanied by suitable intentions and reverence to God. Adam says as much when he cautions Eve that she may “fall into deception unaware,/ Not keeping strictest watch” (IX.362-3), and then states, “Seek not temptation then, which to avoid/ Were better” (IX.364-5). This warning is an allusion to, among others, the passage in Romans in which Paul states, “I urge you, brothers, to watch out for those who cause division and put obstacles in your way that are contrary to the teaching you have learned. Keep away from them… By smooth talk and flattery they deceive the minds of naïve people… I want you to be wise about what is good, and innocent about what is evil” (Romans 16:17-19). The reasoning behind both Adam’s and Paul’s statements hinges on the notion that it is better to avoid evil rather than try to overcome it. In insisting on working separately from Adam, then, Eve is in essence courting danger as a means of demonstrating her own heroism, an impulse that we now know to be misguided. Eve’s true intentions are revealed even more clearly by the argument Satan uses to win her over. He contemplates insidiously, “Will God incense his ire/ For such a petty trespass, and not praise/ Rather your dauntless virtue?” (IX.692-4). It is indeed this argument that is instrumental in convincing Eve, for immediately at the conclusion of the serpent’s speech we are told that “his words replete with guile/ Into her heart too easy entrance won” (IX.733-4). Thus, Eve appears primarily interested in God’s image of her “dauntless virtue”—that is, her courage—and therefore makes the fatal mistake of disobeying His commands. When Adam discovers that Eve has succumbed to Satan’s temptation, he engages in a conflicted inner monologue, decides to sacrifice to remain with her, and then states in a resigned manner, “Bold deed thou hast presumed, adventurous Eve,/ And peril great provoked, who thus hast dared” (IX.921-2). Again, Milton’s word choice support the image of Eve as a daring, courageous hero. Precisely as in the case of Satan, though, Eve is clearly not a hero, for she has unwittingly doomed all of mankind to an existence out of Paradise and apart from God. Indeed, Adam’s praise for Eve is ultimately ironic, for he is fully aware that she is no hero worthy of accolades. Again, motives have proven to be more important than actions for Milton—while Eve is set up by imagery and word choice as a great classical hero, the final outcome of her actions is anything but heroic. The last pseudo-heroic character left to consider is Adam. Indeed, Adam’s decision to taste the forbidden fruit for Eve’s sake is arguably the climax of the poem. The tragedy of his fatal choice is perhaps magnified by the fact that he consciously gives up earthly Paradise, despite adequate knowledge of the negative consequences of such an action—he demonstrates awareness that Eve’s transgression is effectively a death sentence, and laments, “Me with thee hath ruined, for with thee/ Certain my resolution is to die” (IX.906-7). He goes on to tell Eve, “Our state cannot be severed, we are one,/ One flesh; to lose thee were to lose myself” (IX.958-9). Interestingly enough, Eve’s reaction to this speech is a glorification of Adam: “Oh glorious trial of exceeding love,/ Illustrious evidence, example high!” (IX.961-2). Again, the language of heroism is invoked in this passage—Eve’s praise implies that Adam has successfully passed some sort of test or trial. Yet Milton’s description of Adam’s actual tasting of the fruit is much less flattering: “He scrupled not to eat/ Against his better knowledge, not deceived,/ But fondly overcome with female charm” (998-9). Adam has sacrificed himself not out of love of God, but out of love for Eve. What would have in most instances been considered a truly heroic sacrifice ends up with disastrous consequences—namely, the exile of the entire human race from Paradise. Thus, as we have already seen in the cases of Satan and Eve, actions alone are again insufficient to demonstrate true heroism. Indeed, Milton puts to rest any doubts about the heroism of Adam and Eve in the opening lines of the crucial and tragic Book IX. He first disparages the classical epic tradition by stating that he is “not sedulous by nature to indite/ Wars, hitherto the only argument heroic deemed” (IX.27-8), thus invalidating previous definitions of heroism as intimately tied to great martial actions. Milton goes on to complain that the ancient epics leave “the better fortitude/ Of patience and heroic martyrdom/ Unsung” (IX.31-3), a phrase that Alastair Fowler takes to imply “a hierarchy of heroic virtues, with patience superior to fortitude” (pg. 469). (iii) In Milton’s introduction can again be seen the subordination of more traditional conceptions of heroism to the Christian notion that inner virtues such as patience take precedence over outer displays of courage. At this point in the analysis, one is tempted to wonder whether anyone in the poem can actually fit Milton’s requirements for a hero. Yet there are clearly instances of characters throughout Paradise Lost that posses the vitally important “upright heart and pure.” A vivid example of such a character is the angel Abdiel, who counsels Satan, “All honor to [God] done/ Returns our own. Cease then this impious rage,/ And tempt not these; but hasten to appease/ The incensèd Father, and the incensèd Son” (V.844-7). Abdiel is clearly a heroic figure—he is described as “faithful found,/ Among the faithless faithful only he;/ Among innumerable false, unmoved” (V.896-8), and praised by Milton for not “swerv[ing] from truth, or chang[ing] his constant mind/ Though single” (902-3). Thus, Abdiel’s heroism is not demonstrated in his actions, but in his inner devotion to God. The products of his piety are indeed outer, perhaps heroic, strength—he remains “unshaken, unseduced, unterrified” (V.899) despite being “alone/ Encompassed round with foes” (V.875-6)—but it is ultimately his purity of heart that is of primary importance. Milton also draws on stories from the Old Testament to support his views on piety and heroism. When the angel Michael takes Adam to the top of the hill to show him a vision of the future, they together view an enactment of God’s favoring of Abel over Cain. As Adam watches, "[Abel’s] offering soon propitious fire from heaven/ Consume[s] with nimble glance, and grateful steam;/ The other’s [Cain’s] not, for his was not sincere” (XI.441-3). This familiar story from the book of Genesis is a typical example of the notion that it is not the deed, but rather the intention, that truly matters to God. Adam later sees the story of Noah, who emerges from a race of wicked men, “and of their doings great dislike declare[s],/ And testifie[s] against their ways… But all in vain” (XI.720-1, 726). This story resounds of the angel Abdiel’s steadfastness in the face of the scorn of Satan’s followers, perhaps to demonstrate that heavenly patience can indeed be realized on earth as well. Milton includes both of these particular episodes and a few others as a way of reemphasizing the importance of that inner devotion which is so central to the apostle Paul’s writings. By drawing on the characters of Satan, Adam, and Eve, Milton demonstrates that the actions which would have been considered truly courageous in previous epic poems such as The Odyssey or The Aeneid are not necessarily heroic at all in God’s eyes. Milton includes the characters of Abdiel, Cain, and Noah, among others, to exemplify the true inner devotion that, in the end, he believes is of supreme and primary importance. Paradise Lost therefore forces the reader to reexamine his concept of heroism and bravery. Perhaps Adam summarizes the point best when he realizes near the end of the poem that “suffering for truth’s sake/ Is fortitude to highest victory” (XII.569-70), to which the angel Michael replies, “Add virtue, patience temperance…then wilt thou not be loath/ To leave this Paradise, but shalt possess/ A paradise within thee, happier far” (XII.583, 585-7). It is the attaining of this inner paradise, which stands in diametrical opposition to Satan’s inner hell, that Milton believes is the ultimate manifestation of true heroism.
i) Milton, John. Paradise Lost. Edited by Alastair Fowler: 2nd edition. Addison Wesley Longman Inc., NY. 1998. Citations are in the format (Book.Lines) – thus, (I.45, 47) refers to Book I, Lines 45 and 47. ii) The New International Version (NIV) Study Bible. Edited by Kenneth Barker, et al. The Zondervan Corporation. 1995. iii) From the notes by Alastair Fowler for Book IX, lines 31-32, of the edition cited above. |