ࡱ>   Y f[bjbjWW "==U]8LZfhhhhhh$Z-  ff  j2f.@s 24Below are the notes I always try to have handy whenever I could possibly get into a discussion with an evolutionist. I am merely the compiler of these, and their source is in the many brilliant creationists who lead the battle against the false dogma of evolution. I have typically refrained from citing these men below, because these notes were originally designed for use in the public school systems science classrooms, and I wanted to avoid mentioning creationism at all costs to avoid getting into the issue of whether or not creation is scientific or not, and also to try to center the debate on purely scientific grounds. My apologies and thanks alike to the men from whom the information below reached me. CONTENTS THEORY OF EVOLUTION WHY EVOLUTION IS NOT SCIENCE OPTIONS FOR ORIGIN OF UNIVERSE EVIDENCE FOR A YOUNG EARTH DATING METHODS EVIDENCE AGAINST AN EVOLUTIONARY ORIGIN OF LIFE ARGUMENTS AGAINST VARIOUS TRANSITIONS BETWEEN BIRDS AND REPTILES EVIDENCE AGAINST SUPPOSED HORSE FOSSIL SERIES EVIDENCE AGAINST SUPPOSED WHALE FOSSIL SERIES APE-MEN BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS EVOLUTION CANT ACCOUNT FOR SYMBIOSIS REFUTING SEVERAL SUPPOSED CASES/EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION MORE REASONS WHY EVOLUTION IS IMPOSSIBLE/ILLOGICAL FAMOUS SCIENTISTS WHO REJECTED EVOLUTION INTERESTING QUOTES THEORY OF EVOLUTION (MORE PROPERLY CALLED THE EVOLUTION MODEL) The theory (more of an unsubstantiated conjecture) of evolution, namely that variation within a species (an population potentially capable of interbreeding and supposedly exclusively capable of interbreeding with members of the same species) gradually resulted in all diversity between species, is what is commonly referred to by evolution. Evolution can also mean change over time, but this meaning is not what is referred to by the theory of evolution. Evolution is rarely used in biology to mean simply change over time. Minor variations (differences within a species) could easily be called just that (variations, that is), and divergence of species, though limited, can be called speciation. Evolutionist G. A. Kerkut defines the general theory of evolution (GTE) as the theory that all the living forms in the world have arisen from a single source which itself came from an inorganic form. (Source: G. A. Kerkut, Implications of Evolution, p. 157) Traditional scientific (evolutionary) scenario The universe came into being billions of years ago purely by natural processes (see OPTIONS FOR ORIGIN OF UNIVERSE) The earth formed from interstellar dust around 4.6 billion years ago Life began a few billion years ago in the form of a simple, unicellular organism, which could have been preceded by some other form of organized system capable of self-replication (see EVIDENCE AGAINST AN EVOLUTIONARY ORIGIN OF LIFE) All forms of life on earth are descended from a common ancestor, the above-mentioned unicellular organism Natural selection acting upon random mutations, as well as other factors, resulted in these simple creatures changing into more advanced forms of life over great amounts of time through an accumulation of small genetic changes (see MORE REASONS WHY EVOLUTION IS IMPOSSIBLE/ILLOGICAL) Life continued to develop over eons of time into higher and higher life forms by these same processes (see BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS EVOLUTION CANT ACCOUNT FOR, SYMBIOSIS) Man is descended from the same relatively recent ancestor as apes (see APE-MEN) WHY EVOLUTION IS NOT SCIENCE Operational science requires experimentation and observation. Evolution cannot today be observed, nor can experiments be done that show evolution. Religion: a set of beliefs concerning the cause, nature, and purpose of the universe (Source: The Random House College Dictionary of the English Language, College Edition, 1st definition) Evolution is, therefore, of a religious nature! Myth: a belief or a subject of belief whose truth or reality is accepted uncritically (Source: The Random House College Dictionary of the English Language, College Edition, 3rd definition) Evolution is a myth, as its proponents accept its tenets without any unequivocal evidence that supports it in favor of any alternatives. Indeed, it is accepted in spite of the lack of evidence, such as the lack of evidence that natural circumstances can result in a violation of the law of biogenesis, the lack of transitional forms in the fossil record, the lack of evidence that random mutations in the germline can result in entirely new kinds of creatures, and the lack of evidence that the impossible odds against the evolutionary scenario can and have been circumvented Operational science can only concern the present, not the past. There are two kinds of evolution, which are: Microevolution (also known as horizontal evolution or the special theory of evolution): This is genetic variation within a group. No new information is produced by uninhibited random processes. There is sorting and loss of information Biston betularia is an example of this Antibiotic-resistant bacteria Darwin finches This is what natural selection really results in This can and does happen This probably should not be called evolution, as it is simply alterations in gene frequency within an existing population, possibly involving the loss of information, but there is no increase of viable new information that is passed on from generation to generation in order to produce an entirely new kind of creature Macroevolution (also known as vertical evolution or the general theory of evolution): This is what evolutionists often attempt to pass off microevolution as evidence for, though macroevolution, the gradual change over time from single-celled organisms into more complex forms of life and, eventually, man through a lengthy series of transspecies changes, would require the production of brand-new coherent information (an increase in specified complexity) in the germline cells (for sexual reproducers). There is not one single instance of this ever happening that can be shown to have actually occurred. There is not one incontrovertible example of a new, improved, functional gene being generated by inheritable chance mutations and natural selection This is required by the so-called Theory of Evolution This might be better termed, in general, universal common descent, though GTE (general theory of evolution) is a suitable name, as is simply evolution Natural selection may explain the survival of the fittest, but it cannot explain the arrival of the fittest.Hugo deVries (Source: Species and Varieties: Their Origin by Mutation, 1905, pp. 825-826) No matter how numerous they may be, mutations do not produce any kind of evolution.Pierre-Paul Grass (Source: Evolution of Living Organisms, Academic Press, 1977, p. 88) Uniformitarianism (the assumption that all rates are constant and have been constant throughout the history of earth and the cosmos, and that natural processes acting in the present are responsible for everything in the past) is an unproven assumption with many evidences against it, such as: Catastrophes, such as the eruption of Mount St. Helens, have been shown to produce effects that are identical to what is assumed (by uniformitarianism) to have required millions of years to form When uniformitarianism is applied to certain cases, it produces results that clearly conflict with results from other cases in which uniformitarianism has been applied (ex. radiometric dating of fossil by two different methods and getting ages differing by a few billion years) Absolute uniformitarianism is unproven and unsubstantiated. If you enter a room in which there is a dripping faucet over a bucket of water, you could measure how much water the basket contains and at what rate it is entering. You cannot be absolutely certain that the answer you get by that method for how long the faucet has been dripping is correct because there is no evidence that the rate remained constant and no evidence that excess water was not added to the bucket, nor is there evidence that no water was removed There is a difference between normal/operational science and origins/historical science. An analogy is that the laws that govern the operation of a computer are not the same ones that made the computer in the first place. Operational science, the sort that lets us put a man on the moon and cure diseases, relies on the scientific method and deals in events happening in the present that can be repeated. It cannot, however, deal with unrepeatable occurrences in the past, such as evolution. This is in the realm of origins science, which relies on inferences, the principle of causality, and analogy (intelligence is required to generate complex coded information today and it is not at all unreasonable to infer that the same was true in the past). Generally speaking, variation (differences between individuals within a species) cannot accumulate into diversity (differences between separate species). Species are difficult to define, though the concept of a species is an attempt to group together an interfertile set of individuals that can produce fertile offspring. However, dogs and wolves have been known to breed, yet they are considered two different species. The same case exists between horses and donkeys, yet mules, though traditionally considered infertile, have been known to breed mule offspring OPTIONS FOR ORIGIN OF UNIVERSE Universe is merely an illusion No serious scientist should even bother to contemplate this. It defies all logic. Besides, why bother study what is not even real? Everything becomes beyond meaningless if this is true, though how it could be true is entirely inconceivable Universe has always existed According to second law of thermodynamics, universe would have achieved heat-death an eternity ago Universe came into being of its own accord and was caused as a product of natural laws (Big Bang Theory) Ex nihilo, nihil fit (Out of nothing, nothing comes) Defies first law of thermodynamics: matter and energy cannot be created or destroyed (by natural means) Defies second law of thermodynamics in that it requires absolute chaos to produce order Cold expanding gas would not condense to form hot stars Every effect must have a causenothing cannot cause everything You cannot fudge this by appealing to quantum mechanics. Either there is nothing to begin with, in which case there is no quantum vacuum, no pre-geometric dust, no time in which anything can happen, no physical laws that can effect a change from nothingness into somethingness; or there is something, in which case that needs explaining.David Darling, astronomer (Source: On Creating Something from Nothing, New Scientist, vol. 151, issue 2047, 14 September 1996, p. 49) Universe had a beginning that cannot be attributed to the natural laws currently functioning EVIDENCE FOR A YOUNG EARTH Eruption of Mount St. Helens created a 140-feet-deep canyon; at that rate, the Grand Canyon could have been formed in 40 days For the Colorado River to have carved the Grand Canyon, it would have had to flow 3,200 feet uphill Polystratic trees argue against millions of years for strata to form; how can a tree stand there for millions of years without rotting to wait for the strata to catch up? Fossils and rocks can and must form rapidly and perhaps not all that long ago Turtle fossilized with head still partially out of shell Fossilized dinosaur bone (partially unfossilized, it appears) has been found containing preserved red blood cells (Source: M. Schweitzer and T. Staedter, The Real Jurassic Park, Earth, June 1997, p. 55-57) The shapes of the blood cells are still recognizable Both the tissue and liquid removed from it were colored reddish brown, the color of hemoglobin Experimentation (injection of fossil extracts into rats resulting in detectable antibodies built up specifically against the compound) proved that there is definitely hemoglobin in the specimen (not just heme with a few amino acids attached, as this could not produce such a specific response in the rats immune systems) For a hemoglobin protein to survive 65 million years would be a difficult task if frozen in liquid nitrogen in a lab, let alone in environmental conditions of any sort Living bacterial spores in bee intestines in amber supposedly 25-40 Ma (mega-annum, or million years ago) have been recovered, cultured, and identified (Source: Ral J. Cano and Monica K. Borucki, Revival and Identification of Bacterial Spores in 25- to 40-Million-Year-Old Dominican Amber, Science, vol. 268, 19 May 1995, pp. 1060-1064) There is also the question of how bacteria biopolymers can remain intact over millions of years in dormant bacteria; or, conversely, if bacteria are metabolically active enough to repair biopolymers, this raises the question of what energy source could last over such a long period.R. John Parkes (Source: Nature, vol. 407, 19 October 2000, pp. 844-845) Human artifacts have sometimes been found petrified or encased in stone or coal, including a hat, a bag of flour, a bell, a hammer, a bottle, an entire ham, and other things Ichthyosaur fossilized while giving birth DNA, as has been allegedly found in specimens of creatures up to (supposedly) 200 Ma, cannot survive for that length of time (Reference/Source: Nature, vol. 352, 1 August 1991, p. 381) We know from chemical experiments that it [DNA] degrades and how fast it degrades. After 25 million years, there shouldnt be any DNA left at all.Rebecca L. Cann, as quoted by Virginia Morell (Source: Virginia Morell, 30-Million-Year-Old DNA Boosts an Emerging Field, Science, vol. 257, 25 September 1992, p. 1862) If things must lay around for millions of years and wait for sediments to catch up, they will rot away long before fossilizing Helium content in atmosphere is 1/2000th what we could expect of an atmosphere billions of years oldit would have accumulated in a maximum of 2 million years (the rate of influx has been measured at 13 million helium atoms per square inch per second, while the maximum rate of escape into space is about 0.3 million atoms per square inch per second) The rotation of the earth is slowing. Extrapolating backward several billion years, the continents would have been forced into the equatorial regions and the earth would resemble a flat pancake by now. If it has been slowing for billions of years at this rate, it should have stopped already. Existence of short-period comets testify that solar system must be less than 10,000 years old Earths magnetic field has a half-life in intensity of 1,400 years. Going back just 100,000 years, the earths magnetic field would have been comparable to that of a neutron star. As to magnetic reversals, these can happen quite rapidly, as evidenced by reversal patterns within now-hardened basalt rock, though the volume of lava had to have cooled within 15 days (Source: R. S. Coe and M. Prevot, Evidence Suggesting Extremely Rapid Field Variation During a Magnetic Reversal, Earth and Planetary Science Letters, vol. 92, 1989, pp. 292-298) While magnetic reversals can increase the fields intensity, they will decrease the fields total energy, which appears to have a half-life of 700 years If mans history truly extended back a million years and todays growth rates are typical, we should have 108600 people alive today. The number of electrons that could fit into the known universe is estimated at 10130. At a more conservative estimate of 0.5% growth rate per year, we should still have 102100 people alive today Recent lunar measurements indicate a rate of recession of two inches per year. At this rate, it could have orbited the earth for a maximum of 1.4 billion years. Too much closer and the tides would have drowned the earth twice a day! Calculations based on the measured permeability of the cap rock reveal that oil and gas pressures beneath (sometimes around 20,000 psi) could not be maintained for much longer than 10,000 years in many instances Evolutionists propose that coal was formed millions of years before humans, but human skeletons and artifacts have been found in coal deposits Types of plants involved in coal beds and deposit textures testify to turbulent waters, not a stagnant swamp No evidence of meteor strikes below surface The geologic column does not exist outside of the textbook; there are many places with out-of-order layers, and the place on earth with the most layers present, the Grand Canyon, has only half! The geologic column is more of a concept than a reality. Eighty to eighty-five percent of the earths land surface does not even have 3 of the 10 geologic periods appearing in the correct order required by Evolutionism. Even the walls of the Grand Canyon include only about 5 of these periods.Edmund M. Spieker, evolutionist Preserved in the rock are extremely fragile formations, such as ripple marks, which erode in only a few decades when exposed, even if on a hard rock surface Lack of bioturbation (disturbance of sediments by living organisms, such as happens relatively quickly in surface layers) indicates rapid deposition with no time for organisms to disturb sediments in between Sedimentary rock layers are deformed (having been so in a soft, unconsolidated condition as shown by the state of the rock), but rock can harden quite speedily and, in an old-earth scenario, these layers had to be laid down millions of years prior to deformation Example from the Grand Canyon: the Tapeats sandstone is said to be 550 Ma and the Kaibab limestone is said to be 250 Ma, but the Kaibab Upwarp (the plateau that the Grand Canyon is carved through) is thought to be only 70 Ma, meaning that (if the earth is old) the Tapeats sandstone would have been 480 Ma at the time of upwarp Graptolites, used as an index fossil much as the trilobite, are used to date rocks 360 to 570 Ma. Scientists recently found living graptolites! The fossil tracks that [Jerry] MacDonald has collected include a number of what paleontologists like to call problematica. On one trackway, for example, a three-toed creature apparently took a few steps, then disappearedas though it took off and flew. We dont know of any three-toed animals in the Permian, MacDonald pointed out. And there arent supposed to be any birds. Hes got several tracks where creatures appear to be walking on their hind legs, others that look almost simian. On one pair of siltstone tablets, I notice some unusually large, deep and scary-looking footprints, each with five arched toe marks, like nails. I comment that they look just like bear tracks. Yeah, MacDonald says reluctantly, they sure do. Mammals evolved long after the Permian period, scientists agree, yet these tracks are clearly Permian.Doug Stewart (Source: Petrified Footprints: A Puzzling Parade of Permian Beasts, The Smithsonian, vol. 24, July 1992, p. 78) DATING METHODS Relies on consistent decay rate Relies on 0% daughter element present at beginning Relies on none of either element leaching out Relies on none of either element leaching in None of these assumptions can be proven; in fact, there is evidence to the contrary! Volcanic lava rocks from Hawaii were subjected to K-Ar testing, resulting in ages between 160 million and 3 billion years (a range of 2.84 billion years) since lava cooled and potassium clock was set; lava was actually from eruption in 1801 (Source: William J.J. Glashouwer and Paul S. Taylor, The Earth, a Young Planet, a film produced by Eden Communications, Gilbert, AZ, 1983, quoting Dr. Harold S. Slusher, an astrophysicist and geophysicist) Tests made on volcanic rocks from Russia yielded results ranging from 50 million to 14.6 billion years of age (another excessively large range, this time covering 14.55 billion years); historical research determined rocks had actually erupted only a few thousand years ago. If rocks of known age get dates so far off, how can dates for rocks of unknown age be considered accurate? Apollo 11 rock samples dated with U-Pb method gave dates of 4.6 billion years, 5.4 billion years, 4.8 billion years and 8.2 billion years; another test with K-Ar method gave date of 2.3 billion years. Thats a range of 5.9 billion years! If all of the age-dating methods (rubidium-strontium, uranium-lead and potassium-argon) had yielded the same ages, the picture would be neat. But they havent. The lead ages, for example, have been consistently older.Everly Driscoll (Source: Dating of Moon Samples: Pitfalls and Paradoxes, Science News, vol. 101, 1 January 1972, p. 12) U-Pb transition creates helium-4 as a byproduct, but amount of helium-4 in samples dated by U-Pb dating as millions of years old is not what it should be if the samples are truly that old When Australopithecus was found in Ethiopia, K-Ar dating of surrounding volcanic ash gave age between 1 and 2 million years; carbon dating on animal bones found alongside were carbon dated directly, yielding an age of just 15,000 years. Bones of Zinjanthropus got 2 million years from K-Ar to volcanic ash, but animal bones in same deposit got 10,000 from carbon dating (Source: Robert Whitelaw, Time, Life, and History in the Light of 15,000 Radiocarbon Dates, Speak to the Earth, p. 339) Half-life of C-14 is only 5,730 years; in five half-lives, very little C-14 remains, making accurate ages beyond that impossible for C-14 dating Scientists, including Dr. Libby (inventor of C-14 dating), acknowledge that C-14 production exceeds the decay rate by about 25%, yet the system assumes that formation and decay rate are in equilibrium, which would evidently be reached in 30,000 years of consistent environmental conditions with no major catastrophic changes. C-14 dating assumes that formation rate in atmosphere has been constant for at least 70,000 years C-14 dating assumes that the content ratio is the same in all kinds of specimens worldwide C-14 dating assumes that ancient specimens are not contaminated with solutions containing modern amounts of C-14 C-14 dating assumes that there is no loss of C-14 except by radioactive decay C-14 formation rate can be increased by decay of the earths magnetic field, solar flares, and sunspots C-14 formation rate can be altered by air pollution from volcanic activity and industrial burning, changes in cosmic radiation levels reaching the upper atmosphere, and meteors or asteroids falling to earth. Not all organisms get all of their carbon from the air; some get it from water and soil, which can have low C-14 amounts, making things seem much older Fresh seal skins dated at 1,300 years old by C-14 dating (Source: Wakefield Dort Jr., Mummified Seals of Southern Victoria Land, Antarctic Journal, Washington, vol. 6 [Sept.-Oct. 1971]: p. 221) Living mollusks dated at 2,300 years old by C-14 dating (Source: Keith and Anderson, Radiocarbon Dating: Fictitious Results with Mollusk Shells, Science, vol. 141, 1963, p. 634) Living plants growing by springs dated at 17,300 years old by C-14 dating Wood from growing trees dated at 10,000 years old by C-14 dating (Source: B. Huber, Recording Gaseous Exchange Under Field Conditions, The Physiology of Forest Trees, Ronald Publishers, New York, 1958) Living snails dated at 27,000 years old by C-14 dating (Source: Alan C. Riggs, Major Carbon-14 Deficiency in Modern Snail Shells from Southern Nevada Springs, Science, vol. 224, 6 April 1984, p. 58) Heating, deformation of rocks, and percolation of water through the rocks can cause parent or daughter atoms to be transported Research suggests that certain conditions (such as exposure to neutrino, neutron, or cosmic radiation) can alter radioactive decay rates Non-radiometric dating methods, such as varve dating and ice-core dating, are founded on the assumption that it is necessary for a constant, slow rate to have formed the observed features Varves (rock formations consisting of alternating bands of fine dark and coarse light sediment) can, as experimentation has demonstrated, be formed quickly as moving water moves differently sized particles sideways into position (Source: P. Julien, Y. Lan, and G. Berthault, Experiments on Stratification of Heterogeneous Sand Mixtures, TJ, 8(1):3750, 1994) Mount St. Helens produced 25 feet of finely layered sediment in a single afternoon Evaporites (fine bands in large deposits, located in Texas, containing calcium sulfate and calcium carbonate) are likely not a gradual formation, as high levels of chemical purity indicate that they were not exposed to the dry climate for lengths of time, but they could have been formed as a rapid hydrothermal deposit EVIDENCE AGAINST AN EVOLUTIONARY ORIGIN OF LIFE Violates law of biogenesis (life must come from other life) Molecular oxygen would poison any reaction leading to biologically significant molecules The probability of a single protein molecule being arranged by chance is 1 in 10161, allowing the entire supposed age of the earth and all of the atoms on earth For the minimum set of 239 protein molecules required for the smallest theoretical form of life, it would be one chance in 10119,879, which would take an average of 10119,841 years (Source: Dr. James Coppedge, Evolution: Possible or Not?, pp. 110, 114) Mathematicians generally consider anything with less than one chance in 1050 to have zero probability of occurring (Borels Law). The more statistically improbable a thing is, the less we can believe that it just happened by chance.Dr. Richard Dawkins (Source: The Necessity of Darwinism, New Scientist, vol. 94, 15 April 1982, p. 130) All life contains left-handed amino acids, yet equal amounts of left-handed and right-handed would form, were it possible to form more than a few at all The meeting participants did agree on one thing: Homochiralitythe total predominance of one chiral form, or enantiomeris necessary for present-day life because the cellular machinery that has evolved to keep organisms alive and replicating, from microorganisms to humans, is built around the fact that genetic material veers right and amino acids veer left.Jon Cohen (Source: Getting All Turned Around Over the Origins of Life on Earth, Science, vol. 267, 3 March 1995, p. 1265) The atmospheric conditions simulated in the famous Stanley Miller-Harold C. Urey experiment would not have even been similar to the supposed atmosphere of the early earth, as evidence abounds that Earth has had an oxidizing, rather than reducing, atmosphere for a vast majority, if not all, of its existence Lightning was simulated in the Miller-Urey experiment as a small electric discharge, but actual lightning would have destroyed any organic compounds. DNA cannot do its work, including forming more DNA, without the help of catalytic proteins, or enzymes. In short, proteins cannot form without DNA, but neither can DNA form without proteins.John Horgan (Source: In the Beginning, Scientific American, vol. 264, February 1991, p. 119) But as researchers continue to examine the RNA-world concept closely, more problems emerge. How did RNA arise initially? RNA and its components are difficult to synthesize in a laboratory under the best of conditions, much less under plausible prebiotic ones.John Horgan (Source: In the Beginning, Scientific American, vol. 264, February 1991, p. 119) However, the macromolecule-to-cell transition is a jump of fantastic dimensions, which lies beyond the range of testable hypothesis. In this area all is conjecture. We simply wish to point out the fact that there is no scientific evidence. The physicist has learned to avoid trying to when time began and when matter was created, except within the framework of frank speculation. The origin of the precursor cell appears to fall into the same category of unknowables. (Source: Davis Green and Robert Goldberger, Molecular Insights into the Living Processes, 1967, pp. 406-407) The probability of the chance formation of the smallest, simplest form of living organism known is 1 to 10340,000,000.Harold Morowitz (Source: Energy Flow in Biology, Academic Press, 1968) ARGUMENTS AGAINST VARIOUS TRANSITIONS BETWEEN REPTILES AND BIRDS Archaeopteryx Fossils of modern birds have been found in same rocks as Archaeopteryx Archaeopteryx had fully-developed feathers Archaeopteryx had moving mandible and maxilla, whereas in reptiles, only mandible moves Archaeopteryx and the kinds of dinosaurs from which Archaeopteryx supposedly evolved can be found in the same layer A pair of crow-sized birds (larger specimen was closer to the size of a pheasant), Protoavis texensis, have been located in Post, Texas, by Sankar Chatterjee (a paleontologist from Texas Tech University), that are dated at 75 Ma prior to Archaeopteryx, and Protoavis texensis has even more features in common with modern birds than Archaeopteryx (Source: T. Beardsley, Nature, vol. 322, 1986, p. 677) Some modern birds have been found with claws (ex. ostrich, South American hoatzin, African touraco) A modern bird (not to mention several fossil birds) has been found with teeth in the beak (ex. tooth-billed hummingbird) (Source: Bird Gives Scientists Something to Chew On, National Geographic, July 2002) Paleontologists have tried to turn Archaeopteryx into an earth-bound, feathered dinosaur. But its not. It is a bird, a perching bird. And no amount of paleobabble is going to change that.Alan Feduccia, ornithologist, University of North Carolina (Source: Virginia Morell, Archaeopteryx: Early bird catches a can of worms, Science, vol. 259, 5 February 1993, pp. 764-765) I conclude that Archaeopteryx was arboreal and volant, considerably advanced aerodynamically, and probably capable of flapping, powered flight to at least some degree. Archaeopteryx probably cannot tell us much about the early origins of feathers and flight in true protobirds because Archaeopteryx was, in the modern sense, a bird.Alan Feduccia (Source: Evidence from Claw Geometry Indicating Arboreal Habits of Archaeopteryx, Science, vol. 259, 5 February 1993, p. 792) Archaeoraptor liaoningensis Originated in Liaoning province of China Purchased in 1999 for $80,000 at an Arizona mineral show FraudulentArchaeoraptor is to dino-bird fossils what Piltdown man was to ape-man fossils Specimen consisted of a dinosaur tail attached to the body of a bird For science, this is a disaster. When pieces are stolen and smuggled out, sometimes blocks of fossils are matched together mistakenly. That can be a big mistake, and it misleads the public.Dr. Xu Xing, paleontologist (Source: T. Friend, The missing link that wasnt, USA Today, front page, 1 February 2000) Bambiraptor Discovered by a Montana family in 1993 About the size of a chicken, but three feet long on account of tail Found in Upper Cretaceous rocks, placing it 75 Ma after Archaeopteryx according to the geologic column Nothing remotely resembling feathers was found with the fossil BPM 1 3-13 Named for the British Paleontological Museum in Liaoning Province in China Dated over 20 million years younger than Archaeopteryx, and thus useless as an intermediate between dinosaurs and birds Microraptor gui Name means little plunderer of Gu after paleontologist Gu Zhiwei Comes from Liaoning in China Dated to between 124-128 Ma Claimed to be dinosaur with feathers on hind legs and thus four wings Note the peculiarity that all the so-called feathered dinosaurs come from the same province in China, the same one the fraudulent Archaeoraptor came from Five of six Microraptor specimens were purchased, and purchased fossils should be regarded with suspicion in that there is no proof of geological context and they may have been doctored I have heard that there is a fake-fossil factory in northeastern China, in Liaoning Province, near the deposits where many of these recent alleged feathered dinosaurs were found.Alan Feduccia, leading paleo-ornithologist (Source: quoted in Discover Dialogue: Ornithologist and Evolutionary Biologist Alan Feduccia Plucking Apart the Dino-Birds, Discover, 24(2), February 2003) Sinosauropteryx prima Holotype (first named specimen) found in the Yixian Formation in Liaoning Province by farmer Li Yin Fang in June of 1996 Supposed feathers actually later identified as fibers of collagen (what tendons are made from) Still younger (according to evolutionary dating methods) than Archaeopteryx, a full-fledged bird Protarcheopteryx robusta and Caudipteryx zoui Discovered together in the Yixian Formation in the summer of 1997 Originally thought to be of the same species, but conclusion reached in the fall of 1997 that they were different species Dated at about 25 million years younger than Archaeopteryx About the size of a turkey Probably flightless birds Several experts have concluded that the evidence does not support a non-avian classification Mononykus Bird fossil (liaoningornis) that was found in Liaoning province of China is claimed to have lived at border between Jurassic and Cretaceous, around 137-142 Ma. This is before the time Mononykus is claimed to have lived, or Deinonykus, for that matter While other paleontologists hail the new discovery, they remain unconvinced that Mononychus fits in the same phylogenetic category as Archaeopteryx and all later birds. Paul Sereno of the University of Chicago notes that Mononychus had arms built much like those of digging animals. Because moles and other diggers have keeled sternums and wrists reminiscent of birds, the classification of Mononychus becomes difficult, he says.R. Monastersky (Source: A Clawed Wonder Unearthed in Mongolia, Science News, vol. 143, 17 April 1993, p. 245) The Chinese bird, claim its discoverers, probably lived at the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundaryprior to the arrival of Deinonychus and Monoykusand could not possibly be descended from them. (Source: Jurassic Bird Challenges Origin Theories, Geotimes, vol. 41, January 1996, pp. 7-8) There is no known mechanism by which feathers could originally arise from scales. Birds and reptiles have two completely different kinds of lungs. An intermediary between these types could not survive The idea of feathered dinosaurs and the theropod origin of birds is being actively promulgated by a cadre of zealous scientists acting in concert with certain editors at Nature and National Geographic who themselves have become outspoken and highly biased proselytizers of the faith. Truth and careful scientific weighing of evidence have been among the first casualties in their program, which is now fast becoming one of the grander scientific hoaxes of our age the paleontological equivalent of cold fusion.Dr. Storrs L. Olson, Curator of Birds, Smithsonian Institution (Source: letter from Dr. Olson to National Geographic, dated 1 November 1999) EVIDENCE AGAINST SUPPOSED HORSE FOSSIL SERIES Series goes from four-toed Hyracotherium/Eohippus to three-toed Miohippus to one-toed modern Equus. Yet three-toed and one-toed horses lived together in North America! Many scientists believe that Hyracotherium was not a horse at all (its actually very similar to an animal called the hyrax) Bones are found in widely diverse locations such as India, North America, South America, and Europe In some places, two or more of the horse species were found in the same layer of rock, including Equus (Equus nevadenis and Equus occidentalis, to be precise) and Eohippus! (Source: Francis Hitching, The Neck of the GiraffeWhere Darwin Went Wrong, p. 30) In one location in South America, the chart is found upside-down in the record, with Equus deeper in the rock than the more primitive three-toed horse (Source: A. S. Romer, Vertebrate Paleontology, 3rd edition, 1966) Eohippus is completely unconnected by any sort of link to its supposed ancestors, the condylarths The uniform, continuous transformation of Hyracotherium into Equus, so dear to the heart of generations of textbook writers, never happened in nature.George Gaylord Simpson (Source: Life of the Past, p. 125-127) I admit that an awful lot of that [imaginary stories] has gotten into the textbooks as though it were true. For instance, the most famous example still on exhibit downstairs [in the American Museum] is an exhibit on horse evolution prepared perhaps 50 years ago. That has been presented as literal truth in textbook after textbook. Now I think that is lamentable, particularly because the people who propose these kinds of stories themselves may be aware of the speculative nature of some of the stuff. But by the time it filters down to the textbooks, weve got science as truth and weve got a problem.Niles Eldredge, curator of the American Museum of Natural History (Source: interview between Eldredge and Luther Sunderland, recorded in Darwins Enigma: Fossils and Other Problems, p. 78) EVIDENCE AGAINST SUPPOSED WHALE FOSSIL SERIES Series goes from Pakicetus, supposedly 50-55 Ma, to Ambulocetus, supposedly 49.5 Ma. It then goes to Rodhocetus at 46.5 Ma, to Procetus at 45 Ma, to Kutchicetus at 43-46 Ma, to Durodon at 37 Ma and Basilosaurus, also known as Eocene, at 37-40 Ma, to Aeticetus at 24-26 Ma, and finally to the modern whale. More imagination in the reconstruction than actual fossil The order of these is suspect Pakicetus inachus Original find consisted of a skull This was a quadrupedal land mammal, probably something like a wolf The subtle clues on which a relation to whales was based (the arrangement of cups on the molar teeth, a folding of a bone in the middle ear, and the positioning of the ear bones within the skull) can be found in some terrestrial animals and are not convincing evidence to link Pakicetus to whales Ambulocetus natans Fossils do not indicate anything other than another quadrupedal land mammal There is nothing to suggest it had fins Basilosaurus, about 70 feet long, dwelled solely in the water and there is no evidence of descent from any of the other supposed whale transitional forms Inferred posture and range of motion of the hind limb for Basilosaurus are unusual for a mammal APE-MEN Java man (Pithecanthropus erectus/Homo erectus) Discovered on Dutch East Indian island of Java (in Trinil, to be precise) in 1887-1891 by Dr. Eugene Dubois Discovery consisted of a skullcap, a femur, & three molar teeth Two clearly human skulls, the Wadjak skulls, were found in close proximity and in the same strata, disqualifying it as a human ancestor Tooth and femur found a year later and 50 feet away from skullcap and another tooth Remains were found in a riverbed, mixed in with the bones of extinct animals There is no evidence at all that these bones were part of the same creature.Professor Rudolf Virchow, Berlin (Source: W. A. Criswell, Did Man Just Happen?, p. 85-86) Another Pithecanthropus found in Java in 1926 turned out to be the knee bone of an extinct elephant (Source: W. A. Criswell, Did Man Just Happen?, p. 87) Piltdown man (Eoanthropus dawsoni) Fraudulentorangutan jaw stained with bichromate of potash to match dark brown human skull; Piltdown fossils & accompanying bones stained & reshaped Unearthed in 1912 by Charles Dawson Proclaimed to be 500,000-750,000 years old Chemical tests done on bones in 1953: fakes Peking man (Sinanthropus pekinensis/Homo erectus) Discovered in China On Chou KouTien (dragon-bone hill), 25 miles from Peking, China, in 1921, two molar teeth found Davidson Black, a Canadian physician, found another tooth in 1927 Almost-complete skull similar to Java man found by Black in 1929 Thousands of animal bones found in 1934, including elephants, deer, 14 skulls, 11 jawbones, 7 thigh fragments, 2 arm bones, a wrist bone, and 147 teeth Lower skeletons missing and skulls all bashed in at base Fourteen skulls discovered with assorted collection of tools and teeth All were lost during WWII except for 2 teeth Teilhard de Chardin invited Marcellin Boule, French scientist, to Dragon-bone Hill; Boule declared that the bones were obviously a bunch of battered monkey skulls and that everything had been discarded by hunters who had eaten them Natives in SE Asia lop off heads of monkeys, bash them in at back, and scoop out the brains to eat them Tools probably used on Peking man, not by him Bones of normal humans found in quarry as well Nebraska man (Hesperopithecus haroldcookii) Discovered in Nebraska in 1922 by Harold Cook Discovery consisted of single tooth Identical tooth discovered attached to skull of extinct wild pigs skeleton (Catagonus wagneri) Living herds (peccary, or Catagonus ameghino) discovered in Paraguay in 1972 A similar discovery based on a tooth, Southwest Colorado Man, is now known to have come from a horse (Source: W. A. Criswell, Did Man Just Happen?, p. 85) Ramapithecus Supposedly 12 million-17 million years old Made up from piece of jawbone two inches long Find made in India in 1930s Some living baboons have similar tooth and jaw structures Complete jawbone found in 1976 and attributed to Ramapithecus was clearly non-hominid Many now regard Ramapithecus as a member of Sivapithecus, supposedly an ancestral genus to the modern orangutan They themselves [Ramapithecus] nevertheless seem to have been apesmorphologically, ecologically, and behaviorally.Robert B. Eckhardt (Source: Population Genetics and Human Origins, Scientific American, vol. 226, January 1972, p. 101) Olduvai (Zinjanthropus bosei/Australopithecus) Found in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, in 1959 by Louis Leakey Called Nutcracker Man Claimed to be 1.8-4 million years old Now classified under Australopithecus, which has been removed from line of mans descent by Dr. Richard Leakey Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis/Australopithecus africanus) Found in 1974 in Ethiopia by Donald Johansen Knee joint said to prove Lucy walked upright Chimps that dwell in trees have the same sort of angle to the knee joint as Lucy Johansen publicly declared that he found the knee fragment a mile and a half away in a rock layer 200 feet down during a lecture at the University of Missouri, Kansas City, on 20 November 1986 Kanapoi hominid and Castenedolo Man, two finds of upright-walking people, have been found that are dated to have lived prior to Lucy Kanapoi hominid (Australopithecus anamensis) Found in Kanapoi, Kenya, in 1965 and given the designation KP 271 Initial find consisted of fragment of humerus Dates at 4.5 million years, yet appears to be human Called Australopithecus because thats far too early on the evolutionary time scale for a human The humeral fragment from Kanapoi, with a date of about 4.4 million, could not be distinguished from Homo sapiens morphologically or by multivariate analysis by Patterson and myself in 1967. We suggested that it might represent Australopithecus because at that time allocation to Homo seemed preposterous, although it would be the correct one without the time element.William Howells, Harvard anthropologist 1470 man (Homo habilis) Discovered in Kenya by Richard Leakey Either we toss out this skull or we toss out our theories of early man.Richard Leakey (Source: National Geographic, June 1973, p. 819) Claimed to be 2.8-2.9 million years old Skull found beneath volcanic ash claimed to be 2.6 million years old It simply fits no previous models of human beginnings.Richard Leakey (Source: National Geographic, June 1973, p. 819) Because of surprisingly large braincase, it leaves in ruins the notion that all early fossils can be arranged in an orderly sequence of evolutionary change.Richard Leakey (Source: National Geographic, June 1973, p. 819) Skull 1470 has a cranial capacity well within the range of modern humans Homo habilis is a flawed taxon, or category, because it is a mixture of fossils that can legitimately be called human, and other fossils that are definitely not human.Marvin L. Lubenow You could hold the [upper jaw] forward, and give it a long face, or you could tuck it in, making the jaw short.Alan Walker, paleoanthropologist Radioactive dates later thrown out in favor of fission-track dating, which gave date of 1.9 million years Laetoli footprints from site A Found by Mary Leakey near Laetoli, Africa In brief, a small bear walking bipedally (a cub looking for mama bear?) could have produced the Laetoli A trail.Dr. Russell Tuttle (Source: The Pitted Pattern of Laetoli Feet, Natural History, vol. 99, March 1990, p. 62) He [Tuttle] found that the prints of a Himalayan black bear match the Laetoli [A-trail] prints very closely.Wray Herbert (Source: Hominids Bear Up, Become Porpoiseful, Science News, vol. 123, 16 April 1983, p. 246) Laetoli footprints from site G (attributed to Australopithecus afarensis) Found by Mary Leakey near Laetoli in Africa Footprints are identical to those made by modern humans, yet they are classified as australopithecine because they are dated 3-3.75 million years old Dr. Russell Tuttle of the University of Chicago, an expert on hominid limbs and gaits, says that the footprints are virtually identical to modern man and that australopithecine footprints would be significantly different In sum, the 3.5-million-year-old footprint trails at Laetoli site G resemble those of habitually unshod modern humans. None of their features suggest that the Laetoli hominids were less capable bipeds than we are. If the G footprints were not known to be so old, we would readily conclude that they were made by a member of our genus, Homo.Dr. Russell Tuttle (Source: The Pitted Pattern of Laetoli Feet, Natural History, vol. 99, March 1990, p. 64) Here is something of an enigma.William Howells The whole basis on which paleontologists classify fossil apes and humans is misleading. The time has come to admit that the system by which we name things is inadequate in dealing with things that have a time dimension.Richard Leakey (Source: interview with Leakey, Vancouver Sun, 19 March 1982) Neanderthal Man (Homo neanderthalensis/Homo sapiens neanderthalensis) First found by Johann C. Fuhlrott in Neander Valley, near Dusseldorf, Germany, in 1856 Skullcap, pelvis, and a few other bones were saved Professor Rudolf Virchow of the University of Berlin studied these bones of Neanderthal Man in 1872; he saw evidence of Homo sapiens who suffered rickets in childhood, arthritis in old age, and had been struck in the head several times before death If you were to give Neanderthal Man a shave and modern clothing, he most likely wouldnt stand out at all. Neanderthals brain size was 10-15% larger than that of modern humans Burial sites attest to advanced culture and society Actual examination of the original fossil skulls have revealed important differences from the sketches of those skulls Lower jaw of Pech de lAz skull actually does properly articulate with the skull when teeth are placed in centric occlusion as they should be (Source: Jack Cuozzo, Buried Alive) La Chapelle-aux-Saints skull fits properly with jaw and has an artificially sharpened upper bicuspid The skull of Broken Hill Man or Rhodesian Man, found 60 feet down in a mine in Zambia, has a bullet hole in the skull! This would have shattered a dry fossil. Therefore, it would seem that this Neanderthal was killed by a bullet. That is impossible if this man had actually lived 200,000 years ago as postulated. This skull reveals many characteristics associated with Neanderthals, yet is obviously a modern human being. It has a flattened and enlarged pituitary fossa (location of pituitary gland in middle of skull) and air pockets in paranasal sinuses of the head. Most of the teeth are badly decayed, and the bones of the vault of the skull are thicker than normal. This could easily be an example of a Homo sapiens specimen with acromegaly (Source: Jack Cuozzo, Buried Alive) In Poland in 1908, a skeleton showing Neanderthal characteristics was found actually buried in a suit of armor (Source: Neanderthal in Armor, Nature, vol. 77, 23 April 1908, p. 587) Cro-Magnon Cave found in 1940 near Lascaux, France Ancient cavern covered in colorful paintings of horses, deer, and bison Skeletons found buried in another cave at Les Eyzies, France, in 1868 Over 70 French sites have been found with Cro-Magnon art Artwork is fine and detailed No evidence of great age of paintings Some people live in caves today! Keep in mind that the cranial capacity of modern humans can vary from 700 cc to 2200 cc (granted, these are the extremes) Also keep in mind that estimation of cranial capacity from fragmentary remains is difficult BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS EVOLUTION CANT ACCOUNT FOR Bombardier beetle Secretory lobes produce a concentrated mixture of hydrogen peroxide and hydroquinone Mixture goes to storage chamber called collecting vesicle, which is connected, but separated from, the explosion chamber Explosion chambers ectodermal glands secrete enzyme catalysts, such as catalase, into the chamber When beetle is threatened, it shoots the hydrogen peroxide-hydroquinone mixture into the explosion chamber via a duct with a sphincter muscle Hydrogen peroxide decomposes into ordinary water and oxygen Oxygen reacts with hydroquinone to yield more water and quinone, a highly irritating chemical These reactions produce large quantities of heat The solutions temperature rises to the boiling point A vaporized portion and the oxygen exert great pressure on the walls of the explosion chamber With sphincter closed, duct leading to outside is the only exit Muscles allow steam jet to be directed at cause of danger Sea slug Nudibranch sea slug feeds on sea anemones Sea anemones are covered in stinging cells Sea slug has digestive system capable of handling stinging cells without exploding them Tiny tubes lined with cilia carry stinging cells to waving spurs on back of sea slug Sea slug stores stinging cells to use in its own defense; it can shoot them at any fish daring to attack it Firefly Luciferin combined with enzyme called luciferase and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) Light is produced when oxygen is added Ability is called bioluminescence Light is called a cold light because of efficiencyno measurable heat is produced Contrast to our light bulbs, which convert 80% of the energy they use into heat Woodpecker Legs and claws good for gripping trees Beak is harder than beaks of other birds Beak is connected to skull through shock-absorbing tissue not found in any other bird Tongue is about four times longer than beak and wraps around back of skull Tongue is barbed in two to three hundred species of woodpecker Some species produce a sticky substance coating tongue for baiting ants Tongue used to penetrate deep into tree to catch ants and grubs Keen sense of smell and hearing to detect insects under the bark Tail feathers stiff to brace woodpecker when perching on a vertical branch Trilobite eye Trilobite eyes have a special double lens design Design allowed them to see underwater perfectly without distortion Eye design evidences knowledge of Abbes Sine Law, Fermats Principle, and various other principles of optics Trilobite supposedly halfway between the first living things and ourselves Water beetle Beetle secretes detergent substance from gland when in danger Detergent propels beetle away from danger Detergent reduces surface tension of water behind beetles path, causing pursuing insect to sink Decoy-fish (lives in waters off Oahu, Hawaii) Dorsal fin has lure on end that looks like smaller fish, complete with eye and mouth When decoy-fish raises lure, it stops gill movement and ceases breathing Lure turns deep red, and part attaching lure to decoy-fish becomes transparent Decoy-fish remains perfectly still while moving lure from side to side, causing mouth to open and close Rhodicthys Fish is a bright red color Lives 1.5 miles beneath surface of ocean in total darkness Why have such bright coloring? A trait that provides no advantage has no reason to be spread throughout the species by natural selection. How would such a trait become a part of the genetic blueprint for the entire species? Neoscopelus macrolepidotus Lives deep in the sea Colored in azure blue, bright red, silver spots, and black circles Why evolve such bright colors? Caterpillar of Lobster moth in Britain Legs hang down like scales surrounding buds of beech tree When attacked, it lowers flaps on sides to reveal black wounds to fool attacker into thinking that caterpillar had already fallen victim to a parasite Hawk skeletons Most animals have hollow bones in order to obtain the most efficient ratio between bone strength and body weight This is even more crucial for birds The bones of hawks and several other birds have an even more advanced design. Their bones have inner diagonal struts that provide maximum strength with the least possible weight. In the world of engineering, this is called the Warren truss The Warren truss required millions of dollars and untold man-hours for humans to devise SYMBIOSIS Gardening ants + Bulls Horn Acacia tree of Central/South America Tree is furnished with hollow thorns Ants live in thorns Tree also covered in small bumps that provide food for ants Ants make raids to nip off any shoot that dares grow near their tree Tree is guaranteed space and sunlight, valuable commodities in a tropical jungle Experiments have shown that if ants are removed, tree will die in two to fifteen months Egyptian plover + Nile crocodile Form of cleaning symbiosis Plover walks willingly into mouth of crocodile to clean out parasites Crocodile allows plover to leave unharmed Other forms of cleaning symbiosis, such as in fish Hermit crab + Sea anemone Hermit crabs can be seen with sea anemone living on back Sea anemone protects hermit crab from attackers Sea anemone eats food particles left by hermit crab Leaf-cutting ants of Brazil + fungus Ants form colonies of eight million ants Ants take cuttings of leaves and bring them back to the nest Rather than eating the leaves, they use them as mulch to cultivate fungus garden Fungus is used as food for young ants Fungus depends on ants for mulch Fungus can be afflicted by a virulent mold that badly hinders growth Some ants have a waxy white coating that is actually a tangled mat of bacteria that produce antibodies that kill mold Termite + microorganisms Termite contains numerous microorganisms in its intestines Termite itself cannot digest cellulose Microorganisms digest cellulose for termite Microorganisms can only live in the absence of free oxygen Experiments that involved killing all microorganisms with a dose of extra oxygen showed that the termites could not digest the cellulose, but when new microorganisms were injected, they were again able to digest cellulose REFUTING SEVERAL SUPPOSED CASES/EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION DDT-resistant mosquitoes Referring to insects resistant to pesticides, Francisco J. Ayala said, The genetic variants required for resistance to the most diverse kinds of pesticides were apparently present in every one of the populations exposed to these manmade compounds. (Source: Scientific American, September 1978, p. 57) Antibiotic-resistant bacteria Antibiotic resistance may be a result of three things Change in properties of what antibiotic interacts with Restriction of antibiotics access Destruction of antibiotic Penicillin-resistant Staphylococcus is a good example. A mutation can disable the gene that regulates the production of penicillinase, an enzyme that destroys penicillin. Because of the control genes deactivation, the bacterium overproduces penicillinase and is immune to penicillin (note that a gene is deactivated, denoting a loss of information). However, it is less fit in the wild because it wastes resources to produce the excess penicillinase HIV is also an example. It can evolve a resistance to a drug very quickly (sometimes through alterations in the shape of the protein coat). However, tests have shown that when these resistant specimens are thrown into competition with regular HIV under ordinary conditions, the resistant specimens are vastly out-competed Bodies of members of the Franklin expedition, frozen in the Canadian Arctic in 1845, contain bacteria resistant to antibiotics. Antibiotics began to be developed in the 1940s, so this cannot be a trait evolved by random mutation. Contamination has been ruled out as a possibility (Source: Rick McGuire, Eerie: Human Arctic Fossils Yield Resistant Bacteria, Medical Tribune, 29 December 1988, p. 1) Some bacteria have enzymes that normally have a useful function, but antibiotics turn them into poisons. If the gene is deactivated, or the enzymes shape is changed by a mutation (though this will have a detrimental effect on the enzymes efficiency), the antibiotic will be ineffective against the bacterium. However, the bacterium is incapable of competing with the non-resistant bacteria of the same variety under ordinary conditions. The mutation has a detrimental effect, though it may be beneficial under certain circumstances. What we are talking about here is information loss, but evolution requires massive information gain. Nylon-eating bacteria (Source: Don Batten, The Adaption of Bacteria to Feeding on Nylon Waste, TJ 17[3]:3-5) In 1975, Japanese researchers discovered bacteria capable of living on the waste products of nylon manufacture as their sole source of nitrogen & carbon Two species, Flavobacterium sp. K172 and Pseudomonas sp. NK87, were found that can degrade nylon compounds This ability stems from the enzymes F-EI, F-EII, and F-EIII in Flavobacterium and the enzymes P-EI and P-EII in Pseudomonas Since the enzymes have no catalytic effect on natural amide compounds, they seem to be new The genes for these enzymes are located on plasmid pOAD2 in Flavobacterium and on plasmids pNAD2 and pNAD6 in Pseudomonas Evolutionists claim that the new enzymes are a result of a random frame shift mutation There are five transposable elements on the pOAD2 plasmid. When activated, transposase enzymes coded in the plasmid cause genetic recombination. External stress such as high temperatures, exposure to a poison, or starvation can activate these transposases. The fact that so many transposases are present on the plasmid suggests that the plasmid might be designed to adapt if the bacterium is placed under stress. All five transposable elements are identical, each possessing 764 base pairs, over 8% of the plasmid. Random mutations could not produce three new degradative/catalytic genes, coding for EI, EII, and EIII, without any changes being made to the transposable elements. There is no evidence that these elements were added later. All three types of nylon-degrading genes appear only on plasmids, but none appear on the main chromosomes of Flavobacterium or Pseudomonas. The odds of these genes having a random origin are extremely low. If the genome of Flavobacterium is about 2,000,000 base pairs, the pOAD2 plasmid comprises 45,519 base pairs, and there were 5 pOAD2 plasmids per cell (about 8-10% of the total chromosomal DNA), then the chance of getting all three of the genes on the pOAD2 plasmid would be about 0.0015. Adding the probability of the nylon-degrading genes of Pseudomonas also only being on plasmids, the probability falls to 2.3 x 10-6 The antisense DNA of four nylon genes in the two bacteria lacks any stop codons in 1,535 bases. The probability of this happening by chance in all four antisense sequences is about 1 in 1012. Furthermore, the EIII gene in Pseudomonas is clearly not phylogenetically related to the EII genes of Flavobacterium, so the lack of stop codons in the antisense strands of all genes cannot be due to any commonality in the genes themselves (or in their ancestry). Also, the wild-type pOAD2 plasmid is not necessary for the normal growth of Flavobacterium, so functionality in the wild-type parent DNA sequences would appear not to be a factor in keeping the reading frames open in the genes themselves, let alone the antisense strands. Japanese researchers demonstrated that the ability could be developed in Pseudomonas aeruginosa from bacteria not possessing the ability in only nine days, suggesting something other than random mutation The nylon-degrading genes represent a totally new gene family, evidently ruling out gene duplications as the cause. Homology Common structure is not what actually matters; common genetic programming to develop those structures is. Many so-called homologous structures are produced under the direction of entirely different genes Similarity is not necessarily proof of common descent Similar DNA is not at all a surprise. We must process a lot of the same things and perform many of the same functions Just 1% of DNA difference is a lot of different information. Consider how much information is actually contained in the DNA altogether! Going by structure, one might expect the fish, dolphin, shark, and whale to be closely related If a certain body plan happens to be efficient, it should not come as a surprise that it is found in multiple organisms! If there were not a common chemical thread throughout all of life, we could not function on the same planet or consume each other (or even common compounds) for nutrition Many homologous structures develop differently embryologically, such as the human hand compared to the frogs It is now clear that the pride with which it was assumed that the inheritance of homologous structures from a common ancestor was misplaced; for such inheritance cannot be ascribed to the identity of genes. The attempt to find homologous genes has been given up as hopeless what mechanism can it be that results in the production of homologous organs, the same patterns, in spite of their NOT being controlled by the same genes: I asked this question in 1938, and it has not been answered. It is useless to speculate on any explanation in the absence of facts.Sir Gavin de Beer (Source: Homology, an Unsolved Problem, 1971) The cytochrome c of man differs by 14 amino acids from that of the horse, and by only 8 from the kangaroo. Similar facts are found in the case of hemoglobin; the  chain of this protein differs from that of the lemurs by 20 amino acids, by only 14 from that of the pig, and by only 1 from that of the gorilla. The situation is practically the same for other proteins.  Pierre-Paul Grass (Source: Evolution of Living Organisms, p. 194) Vestigial organs Examples of vestigial organs cited in the 1960s included the thyroid and pituitary glands; pretty much all the old vestigial organs now have had their functions discovered Tailbone (coccyx) is required as attachment point for muscles Appendix has a function (contains lymphatic tissue and helps control bacteria entering intestines) similar to the tonsils, though we can live without it Hip bones in whales are not proof of descent from land animals but rather assist in reproduction Regardless, vestigial organs would be a case of structures on the way out, not new ones coming in. This is just another case of informational loss when the generation of new information is what evolution requires Fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) Countless mutant fruit flies have been produced through carefully controlled breeding of generations of Drosophila Some mutants had four wings or legs where the antennae should be A normal fruit fly has wings growing on the second thoracic segment and the halteres, a pair of organs necessary for balancing and control of flight, on the third These mutations are in the homeobox (or hox, for short) genes, which direct other genes and act as architects of the body None of these mutations resulted in any new information; they simply altered where the preexisting information was expressed Also note that, in all cases, the mutant fruit flies are less fit for survival than their normal relatives The four-winged fruit fly, which has two second thoracic segments and no third, lacks muscle attachments to the extra wings, so it is less capable of flight as a result of its mutation The four-winged mutant is produced through three mutations (bithorax, postbithorax, and anterobithorax) that all affect one gene called Ultrabithorax Darwins finches Natural selection in large vs. small beaks oscillates between dry and wet years Referring to the change back after the drought ended, Jonathan Weiner, author of The Beak of the Finch, said, Selection had flipped. The birds took a giant step backward, after their giant step forward. At least half of the species of finch known on the Galapagos are known to hybridize, though it is infrequent. Following the 1982-1983 El Nio, it was observed that some of these new hybrids were successfully reproducing, sometimes even doing better than the parental species. It appears that the population is actually merging at least as much as it is diverging. In long term, the diverging and remerging seem to balance out. B-cell hypermutation (Source: Royal Truman, The Unsuitability of B-Cell Maturation as an Analogy for Neo-Darwinian Theory) B-cell hypermutation involves the exceedingly fast mutation (about a million times the rate of ordinary somatic and germline cells, happens over a few days) of certain parts of the genome of B-cells in order to optimize productivity B-cell hypermutation can only be called random in a superficial sense These hypermutations can only be beneficial to the B-cells, for the hypermutations only occur in a very small part of the B-cells genome and the original genes are preserved to be passed on in the creatures germline B-cells have a very small genome, and these hypermutations are limited to the fine-tuning of an already intricate system What we observe is an example of a complex machinery capable of adapting to solve a class of problem: recognition of foreign antigens to protect the vertebrate creature.Royal Truman Embryological recapitulation The drawings, drawn by Ernst Haeckel in 1868, were denounced as fraud in 1874 Haeckels drawings omit the earliest stages entirely and begin midway through development The earlier forms of the actual embryos are actually less similar than they are at the later pharyngula stage The DNA for each embryo codes solely for that individual Though the animals may look similar, the developmental pathways can be very different The so-called gill slits are actually folds of skin. The convex parts of the folds are called pharyngeal arches and the concave parts are called pharyngeal clefts To cut to the quick of this drama, Haeckel had exaggerated the similarities by idealizations and omissions. He also, in some casesin a procedure that can only be called fraudulentsimply copied the same figure over and over again.Stephen Jay Gould (Source: Natural History, March 2000) It is now firmly established that ontogeny does not repeat phylogeny.George Gaylord Simpson (Source: LifeAn Introduction to Biology, 1965, p. 241) Peppered moths (Biston betularia) Both varieties (Biston betularia typica and Biston betularia carbonaria) were present before and after the industrial melanism Only the frequencies shifted This represents only a shift in the population of a species from pre-existing choices This has no instance of new information being introduced Molecules-to-man evolution requires enormous quantities of new information to be generated MORE REASONS WHY EVOLUTION IS IMPOSSIBLE/ILLOGICAL There are proven limits to biological change. As said by Pierre Paul Grass, when commenting on the mutations of bacteria, What is the use of their unceasing mutations if they do not change? In sum, the mutations of bacteria and viruses are merely hereditary fluctuations around a median position; a swing to the right, a swing to the left, but no final evolutionary effect. (Source: Evolution of Living Organisms, p. 87) There is no evidence whatsoever of new information being generated. That would violate the informational application of the law of entropy. Everything runs inexorably from order to disorder, while evolution requires chaos to beget order. In the words of British astronomer Sir Arthur Eddington, If your theory is found to be against the second law of thermodynamics, I can give you no hope; there is nothing for it but to collapse in deepest humiliation. (Source: The Nature of the Physical World, Macmillan, New York, 1930, p. 74) It is certain that the conceptual connection between information and the second law of thermodynamics is now firmly established. (Source: Myron Tribus and Edward C. McIrvine, Energy and Information, Scientific American, vol. 225[3], September 1971, p. 188) In Darwins day, fossils were extremely rare. He believed that when more fossils were found, his theory would be vindicated. It has been over 140 years and the poverty of the fossil record can no longer be pleaded. We have found countless fossils and we have even fewer transitional forms today than we did in Darwins time There is no instance of new information arising from random gene mutations in the germline. It is, in fact, impossible, yet evolution requires it. Many of the so-called proofs cited for evolution are informational decreases or fluctuations in gene frequency No known mechanism can account for the changes required by evolution Evolution violates multiple scientific laws. Evolution is not even a true scientific theory, barely a hypothesis! Actually, it is more of a model or a metaphysical research program Spontaneous generation was disproved centuries ago, yet evolution adds time to the mix and spontaneous generation has suddenly become perfectly acceptable Natural selection tends to preserve a species by weeding out unfit mutants, not change a species dramatically. Regardless, there is no evidence that new information can be randomly produced. Natural selection selects the currently most advantageous from the traits already found in a species and makes it more prevalent A mutation can be considered an error in the replication of DNA prior to its translation into protein.Francisco J. Ayala (Source: The Mechanisms of Evolution, Scientific American, vol. 239, September 1978, p. 58) FAMOUS SCIENTISTS WHO REJECTED EVOLUTION (*DIED PRIOR TO THE RELEASE OF THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES ) Lord William Kelvin, absolute temperature scale, transatlantic cable, thermodynamics Louis Pasteur, bacteriology, law of biogenesis, pasteurization, vaccination & immunization Joseph Lister, antiseptic surgery Blaise Pascal*, barometer Charles Babbage, computer science Sir Isaac Newton*, calculus, dynamics, law of gravity, reflecting telescope Johannes Kepler*, celestial mechanics, physical astronomy Carolus Linnaeus*, classification system, systematic biology Michael Faraday, electric generator, electromagnetics Robert Boyle*, chemistry, gas dynamics Gregor Mendel, genetics Leonardo da Vinci*, hydraulics Rudolf Virchow, pathology James Joule, reversible thermodynamics Lord Francis Bacon*, scientific method James C. Maxwell, statistical thermodynamics Samuel F. B. Morse, telegraph Sir Humphrey Davy*, thermokinetics Wernher von Braun, rocket science, leading founder of NASA Raymond V. Damadian, inventor of MRI scanner INTERESTING QUOTES One cannot be exposed to the law and order of the universe without concluding that there must be design and purpose behind it all...Dr. Wernher von Braun (Source: a letter from Dr. Braun to a Mr. Grose, read by Dr. John Ford to the California Board of Education on 9/14/72) It is in scientific honesty that I endorse the presentation of alternative theories for the origin of the universe, life, and man in the science classroom.Dr. Wernher von Braun (Source: a letter from Dr. Braun to a Mr. Grose, read by Dr. John Ford to the California Board of Education on 9/14/72) It would be error to overlook the possibility that the universe was planned rather than happening by chance.Dr. Wernher von Braun (Source: a letter from Dr. Braun to a Mr. Grose, read by Dr. John Ford to the California Board of Education on 9/14/72) I suspect...that the sun is 4.5 billion years old. However, given some new and unexpected results to the contrary, and some time for frantic recalculation and theoretical readjustment, I suspect that we could live with Bishop Usshers value for the age of the earth and sun. I dont think we have much in the way of observational evidence in astronomy to conflict with that.John A. Eddy, astrophysicist (Source: Raphael G. Kazmann, Its About Time: 4.5 Billion Years, Geotimes, vol. 23, September 1978, p. 18taken from Eddys Time, Trees and Solar Change at a symposium held at Louisiana State University on 13 April 1978) The complexity of the simplest known type of cell is so great that it is impossible to accept that such an object could have been thrown together suddenly by some kind of freakish, vastly improbable event. Such an occurrence would be indistinguishable from a miracle.Dr. Michael Denton, microbiologist (Source: Evolution: A Theory in Crisis, p. 264) No matter how numerous they may be, mutations do not produce any kind of evolution.Dr. Pierre-Paul Grass (Source: Evolution of Living Organisms, Academic Press, 1977, p. 88) The family trees that adorn our textbooks have data only at the tips and nodes of their branches; the rest is inference, however reasonable, not the evidence of fossils.Stephen Jay Gould (Source: Natural History, May 1977, p. 14) An honest man, armed with all the knowledge available to us now, could only state that in some sense, the origin of life appears to be almost a miracle, so many are the conditions which would have had to have been satisfied to get it going.Dr. Francis Crick (Source: Life Itself Its Origin and Nature, p. 88) There is something fascinating about science. One gets such a wholesale return of conjectures out of such a trifling investment of facts.Mark Twain (Source: Life on the Mississippi, p. 156) In a way some aspects of Darwinism and neo-Darwinism seem to me to have held back the progress of science.Colin Patterson (Source: The Listener, vol. 106, 8 October 1981, p. 390) [Evolution] is a general postulate to which all theories, all hypotheses, all systems must henceforward bow and which they must satisfy in order to be thinkable and true. Evolution is a light which illuminates all facts, a trajectory which all lines of thought must followthis is what evolution is.Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, as quoted by Theodosius Dobzhansky, as quoted by Francisco J. Ayala (Source: Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution, Theodosius Dobzhansky: 1900-1975, Journal of Heredity, vol. 68, January/February 1977, p. 3) Take the human body alonethe chance that all the functions of the individual could just happen, is a statistical monstrosity.George Gallup, originator of the well-known Gallup polls (Source: Cora A. Reno, Evolution on Trial, Moody Press, Chicago, 1970, p. 103) You cannot fudge this by appealing to quantum mechanics. Either there is nothing to begin with, in which case there is no quantum vacuum, no pre-geometric dust, no time in which anything can happen, no physical laws that can effect a change from nothingness into somethingness; or there is something, in which case that needs explaining.David Darling (Source: On Creating Something from Nothing, New Scientist, vol. 151, 14 September 1996, p. 49) Paleontologists are traditionally famous (or infamous) for reconstructing whole animals from the debris of death. Mostly they cheat.Stefan Bengtson, Institute of Paleontology, Uppsala University, Sweden (Source: The Solution of a Jigsaw Puzzle, Nature, vol. 345, 28 June 1990, p. 765) The geologic column is more of a concept than a reality. Eighty to eighty-five percent of the earths land surface does not even have 3 of the 10 geologic periods appearing in the correct order required by Evolutionism. Even the walls of the Grand Canyon include only about 5 of these periods.Edmund M. Spieker, geologist (Source[?]: Mountain-Building and the Nature of the Geologic Time Scale, Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, vol. 40, August 1956, p. 1803) The rocks do date the fossils, but the fossils date the rocks more accurately. Stratigraphy cannot avoid this kind of reasoning, if it insists on using only temporal concepts, because circularity is inherent in the derivation of time scales.Dr. J. E. ORourke (Source: Pragmatism versus Materialism in Stratigraphy, American Journal of Science, vol. 276, January 1976, p. 53) I admit that an awful lot of that [imaginary stories] has gotten into the textbooks as though it were true. For instance, the most famous example still on exhibit downstairs [in the American Museum] is an exhibit on horse evolution prepared perhaps 50 years ago. That has been presented as literal truth in textbook after textbook. Now I think that is lamentable, particularly because the people who propose these kinds of stories themselves may be aware of the speculative nature of some of the stuff. But by the time it filters down to the textbooks, weve got science as truth and weve got a problem.Niles Eldredge, American Museum of Natural History (Source: interview between Eldredge and Luther Sunderland, recorded in Darwins Enigma: Fossils and Other Problems, p. 78) I fully agree with your comments on the lack of evolutionary transitions in my book. If I knew of any, fossil or living, I would certainly have included them. I will lay it on the linethere is not one such fossil for which one could make a watertight argument.Dr. Colin Patterson, British Museum of Natural History (Source: from a personal letter on 10 April 1979 to Luther D. Sunderland, quoted by Sunderland in Darwins Enigma: Fossils and Other Problems, p. 89) If your theory is found to be against the second law of thermodynamics, I can give you no hope; there is nothing for it but to collapse in deepest humiliation.Sir Arthur Eddington, astronomer (Source: A. S. Eddington, The Nature of the Physical World, Macmillan, New York, 1930, p. 74) The uniform, continuous transformation of Hyracotherium into Equus, so dear to the heart of generations of textbook writers, never happened in nature.George Gaylord Simpson (Source: Life of the Past, p. 125-127) What is the use of their unceasing mutations if they do not change? In sum, the mutations of bacteria and viruses are merely hereditary fluctuations around a median position; a swing to the right, a swing to the left, but no final evolutionary effect.Dr. Pierre-Paul Grass, editor of Traite de Zoologie (Source: Evolution of Living Organisms, p. 87) The primary scientific evidence is a pitifully small array of bones from which to construct mans evolutionary history. One anthropologist has compared the task to that of reconstructing the plot of War and Peace from 13 randomly selected pages.Constance Holden (Source: Science, 1981) But many of our pictures are incarnations of concepts masquerading as neutral descriptions of nature. These are the most potent sources of conformity, since ideas passing as descriptions lead us to equate the tentative with the unambiguously factual.Stephen Jay Gould (Source: Wonderful Life, 1989, p. 28) We believe as an article of faith that life evolved from dead matter on this planet. It is just that its complexity is so great, it is hard for us to imagine that it did.Dr. Harold C. Urey The question is: Can you tell me anything you know about evolution, any one thing that you think is true? I tried that question on the geology staff in the Field Museum of Natural History, and the only answer I got was silence. I tried it on the members of the Evolutionary Morphology Seminar in the University of Chicago, a very prestigious body of evolutionists, and all I got was silence for a long time, and then eventually one person said, Yes, I do know one thing. It ought not to be taught in high school.Dr. Colin Patterson, British Museum of Natural History (Source: speech given at American Museum of Natural History on 5 November 1981) It is not that the methods and institutions of science somehow compel us to accept a material explanation of the phenomenal world.Richard Lewontin, genetics professor at Harvard University The more one studies paleontology, the more certain one becomes that evolution is based on faith alone.Professor T. L. More (Source: B. G. Ranganathan, Origins?, p. 22) Darwins theory of evolution is the last of the great nineteenth-century mystery religions. And as we speak it is now following Freudianism and Marxism into the Nether regions, and Im quite sure that Freud, Marx, and Darwin are commiserating one with the other in the dark dungeon where discarded gods gather.Dr. David Berlinski, mathematician No coherent picture of the history of the earth could be built on the basis of radioactive datings.Curt Teichert (Source: Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, vol. 69, January 1958) The chance that higher life forms might have emerged in this way is comparable with the chance that a tornado sweeping through a junkyard might assemble a Boeing 747 from the materials therein.Sir Fred Hoyle, astronomer and professor at Cambridge University (Source: Hoyle on Evolution, Nature, vol. 294, 12 November 1981, p. 105) Natural selection is incompetent to account for the incipient stages of useful structures.Charles Darwin (Source: The Origin of Species, Sixth Edition, p. 66) The absence of fossil evidence for intermediary stages between major transitions in organic design, indeed our inability, even in our imagination, to construct functional intermediates in many cases, has been a persistent and nagging problem for gradualistic accounts of evolution.Stephen Jay Gould (Source: Is a New and General Theory of Evolution Emerging? Paleobiology, vol. 6, Winter 1980, p. 127) The whole basis on which paleontologists classify fossil apes and humans is misleading. The time has come to admit that the system by which we name things is inadequate in dealing with things that have a time dimension.Richard Leakey (Source: an interview with Leakey, Vancouver Sun, 19 March 1982) It is as a religion of science that Darwinism held, and holds mens minds. The modified, but still characteristically Darwinian theory has itself become an orthodoxy, preached by its adherents with religious fervor, and doubted, they feel, only by muddlers imperfect in scientific faith.Marjorie Grene, historian of science at the University of California at Davis (Source: Encounter, November 1959, pp. 48-49) I have come to the conclusion that Darwinism is not a testable scientific theory but a metaphysical research programmea possible framework for testable scientific theories.Sir Karl Popper, noted philosopher of science (Source: The Philosophy of Karl Popper, p. 134) Evolution requires intermediate forms between species and paleontology does not find them.David B. Kitts, Professor of Geology at the University of Oklahoma (Source: Paleontology and Evolutionary Theory, Evolution, vol. 28, September 1974, p. 467) It is certain that the conceptual connection between information and the second law of thermodynamics is now firmly established. (Source: Myron Tribus and Edward C. McIrvine, Energy and Information, Scientific American, vol. 225[3], September 1971, p. 188) In fact, evolution became in a sense a scientific religion; almost all scientists have accepted it and many are prepared to bend their observations to fit in with it.H. Lipson (Source: A Physicist Looks at Evolution, Physics Bulletin, vol. 31, May 1980, p. 138) Contrary to what most scientists write, the fossil record does not support the Darwinian theory of evolution because it is this theory (there are several) which we use to interpret the fossil record. By doing so we are guilty of circular reasoning if we then say the fossil record supports this theory.Ronald West, Assistant Professor of Paleobiology at Kansas State University (Source: Paleontology and Uniformitarianism, Compass, vol. 45, no. 4, May 1968, p. 216) Natural selection may explain the survival of the fittest, but it cannot explain the arrival of the fittest.Hugo deVries (Source: Species and Varieties: Their Origin by Mutation, 1905, pp. 825-826) It must be significant that nearly all the evolutionary stories I learned as a student have now been debunked.Derek Ager (Source: The Nature of the Fossil Record, Proceedings of the Geological Association, vol. 87, no. 2 [1976], pp. 132-133) In any case, no real evolutionist, whether gradualist or punctuationist, uses the fossil record as evidence in favor of the theory of evolutionMark Ridley (Source: Who Doubts Evolution? New Scientist, vol. 90, 25 June 1981, p. 831) The known fossil record fails to document a single example of phyletic evolution accomplishing a major morphological transition and hence offers no evidence that the gradualistic model can be valid.Steven M. Stanley (Source: Macroevolution: Pattern and Process, p. 39) Apart from very modern examples, which are really archaeology, I can think of no cases of radioactive decay being used to date fossils.Derek Ager (Source: Fossil Frustrations, New Scientist, vol. 100, 10 November 1983, p. 425) In other words, when the assumed evolutionary processes did not match the pattern of fossils that they were supposed to have generated, the pattern was judged to be wrong. A circular argument arises: interpret the fossil record in terms of a particular theory of evolution, inspect the interpretation, and note that it confirms the theory. Well, it would, wouldnt it?Tom S. Kemp, Curator, University Museum, Oxford University (Source: A Fresh Look at the Fossil Record, New Scientist, vol. 108, 5 December 1985, p. 66) The age of our globe is presently thought to be some 4.5 billion years, based on radiodecay dates of uranium and thorium. Such confirmation may be short-lived, as nature is not to be discovered quite so easily. There has been in recent years the horrible realization that radiodecay rates are not as constant as previously thought, nor are they immune to environmental influences. And this could mean that the atomic clocks are reset during some global disaster, and events which brought the Mesozoic to a close may not be 65 million years ago but, rather, within the age and memory of man.Frederic B. Jueneman (Source: Secular Catastrophism, Industrial Research and Development, June 1982, p. 21) If most evolutionary changes occur during speciation events and if speciation events are largely random, natural selection, long viewed as a process guiding evolutionary change, cannot play a significant role in determining the overall course of evolution.Steven M. Stanley (Source: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 72, 1975, p. 648) Mutations, in time, occur incoherently. They are not complementary to one another, nor are they cumulative in successive generations toward a given direction. 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