Selected
Psychological and Behavioral Determinants of EFL Students’ Achievement:
Perspectives and Analyses
By Janpha Thadphoothon
It has been recognized
that English is a major language for global communication. In addition to their
national languages, nowadays, most countries around the world have put more
emphasis on English language education, realizing that English has played
greater roles in international trade, technology, education, entertainment, and
other aspects of social life. English language achievement of students,
therefore, has become one of the significant criteria determining how
successful foundation education is. A large amount of resources and a considerable
portion of time, especially in formal education situations, have been spent on
English education: planning, implementing, supervising, testing, evaluating,
and training.
Numerous papers and
studies have been carried out to determine factors that influence achievement’s
levels of EFL students. The structure, processes, and content of classroom
instruction are certainly the major influences on EFL achievement. In addition,
educational researchers agree that characteristics of individual students and
their families and how students spend their non-school hours are also important
contributors to how well or not so well their English is.
English teachers often
give suggestions to students and other interested individuals based mainly on
theoretical understanding, their experiences and even gut feeling, rather than
definite or substantial empirical evidence regarding what factors can
satisfactorily determine English achievement of students in general. Giving
advice to students on academic issues is perhaps one of the important functions
of teachers, which must be treated seriously with careful considerations. It
would be a pity if students take the advice that is inadequate, misleading, and
arbitrary by nature. Perhaps the sound intention of teachers alone is not
enough, but it must also be accompanied by competency. Giving advice to
students on how to study English successfully, often regarded by some as
something trivial, is not a small matter. It can sometimes change their lives.
To adopt the philosophical words of Oscar Wilde:
“
We should treat all the trivial things of life seriously and all the serious
things of life with sincere and studied triviality.”
Being an EFL teacher,
I am occasionally asked by students who are eager to know more about English. “
Ajarn (To translate literally, it means teachers or masters, the title Thai
students use to address their teachers), I want to be good at English. What
should I do?” is probably one of the most frequently asked questions. Some of
the questions by those who failed are usually more direct. They would ask,
“Ajarn, you know this is my third time or so with this course, how can I pass
it? I want to graduate this semester. My parents expect me too. This is killing
me. Please help me, I beg you.”
My advice is often
simple and conservative, which is most often based on my limited experience in
EFL world and textbooks on English language learning and teaching I have read.
I usually suggest they read textbooks, do homework nightly, consult a
dictionary or ask a teacher when facing difficult words or expressions and so
on. Sometimes I would shoot the breeze using self-exploratory techniques. I
would ask the students.
Do
you like English?
Have
you ever actually used English with native speakers?
Do
you enjoy learning it?
How
do you learn English?
Does
your family expect you to be good at English?
However, I don’t ask
them why they learn it, for I am aware of the fact that English is a compulsory
course. Why they should or should not learn English is beyond me… When I asked
what factors were the causes of their limited knowledge of English despite a
number of formal schooling years, several interesting facts become evident:
Teachers
Students
themselves
Opportunities
in using English
Interestingly, having ample
opportunity to use English is one of the main reasons the students cited for effective
studying of English. English language learning environment which offers them
ample opportunity to use English, is, therefore, very significant, according to
the students’ belief. In fact, most students know the answer, the condition and
causes of successful English learning. The question is, “ How can they access
the supportive learning environment?” It wouldn’t be possible like an ideal
world or the Walden Two (By Skinner) community giving them what they want or
allowing all of them to go and study or actually live in the target language
community, and use that particular language for a semester or a few years.
I have often wondered
about the advice and suggestions I give to my students. I have been haunted by
the words of Alexander Pope: “ A little learning is a dangerous thing” It is
generally believed that giving wrong or misleading advise is perhaps worse than
giving no advice at all. During the 4th CULI International
Conference held in Bangkok in December 1999, prominent ESL/EFL scholars like
John Oller, David Nunan, Fred Davidson, Jack Richard, and some others suggested
we should focus our inquiries and investigations our classes. Following my
curiosity and taking their professionally sound advice, I began my
investigation for practical explanations on “ what factors make students learn
English successfully and not so successfully.”
The selected
psychological and behavioral determinants of EFL performance of students appear
to be the following: (1) attitudes towards studying English, (2) experience with
English printed materials, (3) experience with English songs, (4) experience in
viewing English programs on TV, and (5) student study habits. The five
variables were selected because they are practical, whereas other background
variables e.g. such as gender, ethnicity, or family socioeconomic status, which
have been widely regarded as the most influential individual differences, were
not included in this study, mainly because there is not much we can do about
it. If I were to base my advice on such
variables, some of which would be:
Blokes,
statistics say women outperform men in English. You might consider changing your
gender if you wish to improve your English.
Pity,
you have already been born --- some years ago in a farmer family of Nongkai.
You should have been born in a banker family.
I think it is better to do what we can, not what things
should be. As Professor Stephen Hawking of Cambridge University puts it, “ One
has to be grown up enough to realize that life is not fair. You just have to do
the best you can in the situation you are in.”
‘Attitude’ has been
one of psychological constructs many researchers in various fields use as a
predictor of behavioral outcomes. It is believed that one’s attitude influences
one’s behavior. In the ESL/EFL context, it is often used to predict the
students’ English achievement. Many researchers have revealed that, among other
things, attitude plays considerably significant role as far as learning a foreign
language is concerned. Here are some of them:
Gardner and Lambert
(1972) suggested that ‘positive attitude’ enhances second language learning,
whereas ‘negative attitude’ does not.
Shah (1999) studied
certain characteristics of low-achievers, and found that, in the Malaysian ESL
context, lack of a positive attitude contributed to the students’ low
achievement.
Crew (Crew, 1994,
cited in Shah, 1999) found that students with positive and favorable attitudes
performed better in second/foreign language learning.
In the Thai context,
Chindakul (1988) showed the significant correlation between attitudes towards
English and English achievement. The significantly positive correlation between
student attitudes towards English reading and the students’ reading
comprehension has also been proven (Wipatchananon, 1990).
Printed
materials refer to general books, textbooks, newspapers, or magazines.
Students’ exposure to such materials is perhaps directly linked to the actual
achievement.
Unlike the past,
nowadays students have abundant access to English media, especially from TV.
Almost every household has a TV set and the Hollywood films have played a
significant role in this regard also. With the advancement of telecommunication
technology, it is now possible in Thailand to view TV with English programs
similar to those in the US, the UK, or any English speaking countries. In term
of language learning, English from TV can serve as the meaningful input for viewers.
According to Krashens’ input hypothesis, learning a language takes place
unconsciously as the students focus on the meaning of the input.
Johnson and Krug
(Johnson and Krug, 1980, cited in Krashen, 1982) reported a modest but
significant 0.34 correlations between proficiency in English and the subjects’
report of the amount of leisure time they spent speaking and listening to
English.
This experience refers
to the extent to which students listen to English songs on the radio, CDs or
tape cassettes. Listening to English
songs is fun, and memorizing the verse is perhaps one effective way to learn
vocabulary and grammar.
Study habits refer to
students’ study behaviors such as asking teachers when they don’t understand,
studying in the library, doing homework regularly, or preparing lessons in
advance.
Study habits were
found to be one factor contributed to the beginners’ success in English
(Wongsotorn, 1987).
Based on the above
findings, I initially hypothesized that:
1. The
EFL students’ attitudes towards studying English influence their English
achievement;
2. The
EFL students’ English experience from printed materials influence their English
achievement;
3. The
EFL students’ experience from English songs influence their English
achievement;
4. The
EFL students’ English experience from viewing English programs on TV influence
their English achievement;
5. The
EFL students’ study habits will affect their English achievement.
In
addition to the above-mentioned hypotheses, I tested the following hypotheses
to find out whether the low achievers or the weaker students and high achievers
or better students have the same or different patterns of characteristics.
Thus, such hypotheses are as follow:
6. The
low achieving EFL students’ attitudes are different from the high achieving EFL
students’.
7. The
low achieving EFL students’ experience with printed materials is different from
the high achieving EFL students’.
8. The
low achieving EFL students’ experience with English songs is different from the
high achieving EFL students’.
9. The
low achieving EFL students’ experience in viewing English programs on TV is
different from the high achieving EFL students’.
10.
The low achieving EFL students’ study habits are
different from that of the high achieving EFL students.
Attitudes towards Studying English
A 5-point Likert-type scale was used, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5
(strongly agree), such that higher score reflected higher degree of positive
attitudes to ward studying English. Internal consistency reliability
(Cronbach’s a)
was .78. The four items were:
§ I
feel happy when I study English.
§ English
is boring.
§ I
feel uneasy when I speak English.
§ I
am confused when I study English.
English
Experience fromWatching TV A
5-point Likert-type scale was used, ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (to a very
large extent), such that higher score reflected more English experience from
TV. Since it was a single item scale, internal consistency reliability was
assumed to be 1.The item was “ I watch English programs on TV.”
English Experience from Reading Printed Materials in English
A 5-point Likert-type scale was also used, ranging from 1
(not at all) to 5 (to a very large extent), such that higher scores reflected
more English experience from printed materials. Internal consistency
reliability (Cronbach’s a)
was .78.
English Experience from Listening to Music in English A 5-point Likert-type scale was used, ranging
from 1 (not at all) to 5 (to a very large extent), such that higher score
reflected more English experience from English songs. The item asked was, ‘I
listen to English songs.’
Study Habits. A 5-point
Likert-type scale was used, ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always), such that
higher score reflected more effective study habits. Internal consistency
reliability (Cronbach’s a)
was .72. The four items were:
§ I
ask a teacher when I don’t understand.
§ I
do my homework or assignment and hand it in on time.
§ When
I have free time, I go to study in the library.
§ I
prepare in advance before I attend the class, and I review the lesson after the
class.
Students’ Levels of English Achievement
The students’ English grade(s) from the previous semester(s) were used as a
measure of EFL achievement. They were weighted such that higher grades
reflected higher English achievement, ranging from 7 (A) to 0 (F).
Table 1: Means and
Standard Deviations of Variables
|
Variables |
Mean
|
Standard Deviation |
|
Attitudes towards
Studying English (ATT) |
3.17 |
.64 |
|
Experience from TV
viewing(TV) |
3.74 |
1.08 |
|
Experience from
English printed materials (PRINT) |
2.30 |
.93 |
|
Experience from
English songs (SONG) |
3.70 |
.86 |
|
Study Habits (HABIT) |
3.10 |
1.92 |
|
Levels of English
Achievement (ACH) |
2.03 |
1.92 |
Table 1 shows
that, on average, the students’ attitudes were neutral (M=3.17). In other
words, they were still undecided whether they enjoyed studying or not. They
reported that they often watched English programs on TV (M= 3.74) and listened
to English songs (M= 3.70). As for reading English printed materials such as
textbooks, magazines or newspapers, they reported that they occasionally read
them (M= 2.30). And on average, they had moderately effective study habits. In
addition, their overall EFL achievement was found to be quite low (M = 2.03).
|
|
Variables
|
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
|
1. |
Attitudes towards
Studying English |
1.00 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
2. |
Experience from TV |
.14 |
1.00 |
|
|
|
|
|
3. |
Experience from English
printed materials |
.05 |
.25* |
1.00 |
|
|
|
|
4. |
Experience from
English songs |
.10 |
.33** |
.10 |
1.00 |
|
|
|
5. |
Study Habits |
.21* |
-.01 |
.27** |
.10 |
1.00 |
|
|
6. |
Levels of English
Achievement |
.42** |
.22* |
.24* |
.20 |
.20 |
1.00 |
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05
level (2-tailed).
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01
level (2-tailed).
From table 2, the
students’ levels of English achievement were significantly correlated with (1)
their attitudes towards studying English at the 0.01 level, (2) with their
experience from TV, and (3) with their experience from printed materials. Their
study habits were significantly correlated with both their experience from
English printed materials and their attitudes towards studying English. Amongst
those variables that were not significantly correlated with each other were the
correlation between: 1) their attitudes towards studying English and their
experience from TV, 2) their experience from printed materials and their
attitudes towards studying English, 3) their attitudes towards studying English
and their experience from English songs, 4) their study habits and their
experience from TV, 5) their study habits and their experience from English
songs, and 6) their levels of achievement and their study habits and their
experience from English songs.
Tables 3:
Summary of Regression Analyses for Variables Predicting the Levels of EFL
Achievement of the Students
|
Model |
Unstandardized Coefficients |
Standardized Coefficients |
t |
Sig. |
||||
|
B |
Std. Error |
Beta |
||||||
|
1.
(Constant) ATT
|
-1.946 1.253 |
.929 .287 |
.420 |
-2.095 4.370 |
.039 .000 |
|||
|
2.(Constant) ATT
PRINT
|
-2.884 1.216 .458 |
.988 .280 .193 |
.408 .22 |
-2.095 4.342 2.373 |
.004 .000 .020 |
|||
|
Model |
R |
R Square
|
Adjusted
R Square |
Std.
Error of the Estimate |
||||
|
1 |
.420 |
.177 |
.167 |
1.760 |
||||
|
2 |
.476 |
.226 |
.209 |
1.716 |
||||
a. Predictors:
(Constant), ATT
b. Predictors:
(Constant), ATT, Print
Based on Table 3, attitudes alone could predict the EFL
achievement of the students up to 17 per cent. By adding the next variable,
experience from printed media, it could increase by 5 per cent, the accuracy of
the prediction. By employing the stepwise estimation procedure, the final
predictive equation was obtained, after dropping non-significant independent
variables, namely, Study habits, Experience from viewing TV, and Experience
from English songs. Two variables: Attitudes towards Studying English and
Experience from English Printed Materials, made significant contribution the
prediction (Criteria: Probability-of-F-to-enter <= .050,
Probability-of-F-to-remove >= .100). In addition, all independent variables were freed from
multicollinearity. A common cutoff threshold is a tolerance value of .10.
The
equation based on such data is:
Achievement (Y) = –2.88+ (1.22) ATT + (.46) PRINT
In
addition to running the regression analysis, I examined the data leading to
testing hypotheses 6- 10 for more understandings of the EFL students’
characteristics.
|
Variables |
Groups |
N
|
Mean
|
Std. Deviation
|
Std. Error Mean |
|
ATT |
High Low |
44 12 |
2.9091 3.9583 |
.4416 .6557 |
6.658E-02 .1893 |
|
PRINTS |
High Low |
44 12 |
2.2045 2.9167 |
1.0018 .7930 |
.1510 .2289 |
|
SONGS |
High Low |
44 12 |
3.7045 4.0833 |
.8235 .6686 |
.1241 .1930 |
|
TV |
High Low |
44 12 |
3.8636 4.1667 |
1.0695 1.1146 |
.1612 .3218 |
|
HABITS |
High Low |
44 12 |
3.0795 3.3333 |
.6259 .7785 |
9.436E-02 .2247 |
High achievers are those who obtain B, B+, or A.
As hypothesized, it is shown from the table
above that the high achievers and the low achievers didn’t have the same
attitudes towards studying English. Moreover, it is also found that they had
different experience with printed materials. However, in terms of listening to
songs, watching TV, they were not significantly different from each other. Surprisingly, their study habits were not
different from each other. In summary, the data supported hypotheses 6 and 7,
but insufficient to support hypotheses 8-10.
First the study
revealed that students with higher degree of positive attitudes, and more
English experience from printed materials were those who had better grades or
achieved higher in English. Second, as hypothesized, the higher achievers and
the lower achievers have different attitudes towards English, and different
English experience from printed materials. However, they were found to have no
difference in terms of English experience from songs, English experience from
viewing TV, and study habits.
However, there are others
predictors remain to be further investigated, for examples, the class
attendance, the quality of instruction, self-efficacy, locus of control, and so
on.
As mentioned earlier,
one of the study’s objectives was to find more substantial or better ways in
giving the students suggestions concerning EFL. It is essential that students
should look over their own attitudes because this psychological construct was
found to have significant effect on their EFL performance. This study confirmed
that attitudes towards studying English alone could explain up to 17 per cent
of the achievement. The students should also read materials in English, e.g.
textbooks, general books, magazines, or newspapers and so on, as much as
possible. Reading will not only help them improve their academic achievement, but
will also help them learn more about other people’s experience to improve their
quality of life. Through reading, the students will become independent learners
with freedom to think and to live their lives.
For those whose
attitudes towards English are still neutral or negative, I would like to
suggest one theory to ponder upon before taking a constructive action. It is strongly
believed by psychologists that attitudes are an intrinsic part of the
individual’s personality. They function cognitively and motivationally. To
comprehensively investigate factors facilitating positive attitudes is beyond
this article. Most social psychologists agree that there is no single theory of
attitude formation and change. Nevertheless, for those who have realized that
they do not possess favorable attitudes towards English, and would like to change such situations, the
following is one possibility based on the theory of Cognitive Dissonance.
In The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance,
Festinger, the originator of the theory, states his basic hypotheses as
follows:
1. The
existence of dissonance, being psychologically uncomfortable, will motivate the
person to try to reduce the dissonance and to achieve consonance.
2. When
dissonance is present, in addition to trying to reduce it, the person will
actively avoid situations and information that would likely increase the
dissonance.
3. The
presence of dissonance, gives rise to pressures to eliminate the dissonance.
The strength of the pressures to eliminate the dissonance is a function of the
magnitude of the dissonance.
The theory of
cognitive dissonance offers another practical approach to attitude change.
Dissonance operates as a continuum, from relative absence to moderate or large
amounts. If the dissonance becomes greater than the resistance to change, the
cognitive areas will be altered, thus decreasing the dissonance. Based on such
hypotheses, an English teacher can ask a student who is found to have negative
attitudes towards English to voluntarily write an essay supporting the idea of
increasing the amount of English hours at school. It can be seen that that the
student is doing something against his or her cognition, hence, dissonance
occurs. He or she will try to reduce such an uncomfortable state by changing
his or her attitudes. There are many practical ways to apply the theory,
depending on the situations and factors.
This study revealed
that the high achievers and the low achievers had different attitudes towards
studying English. It appeared that the high achievers had moderately positive
attitudes, but the low achievers’ attitudes were somewhat halfway between the
continuum: extremely positive and extremely negative. In other words, the low
achievers reported that they were still undecided. This situation is promising
if the administrators or EFL teachers wish to change their attitudes to the
preferable direction and degree --- the positive ones. To change the attitude
of those of the undecided decide is perhaps much easier than to make the
decided changing their stands, especially if theirs are very extreme. Moreover,
there are other conditions of attitude change. Amongst other factors such as
family background, age, intelligence, education, class, occupation and geography
all need to be carefully considered.
Limitations of the
study
1. The
small sample may not adequately represent the total number of the student
population. Therefore, any inference regarding the findings should be done with
care.
2. Using
EFL grade(s) as indicators for EFL achievement may not be enough to represent
the universe its construct.
References
Shah, Parilah.
(December, 1999) Low achievement among
Malaysian English Language Students: Perceptions of Experience. Paper
presented at the 4th CULI International Conference, Bangkok.
Krashen, S.(1982). Second language acquisition and second
language learning. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Krashen, S. (1985) The
input hypothesis: Issues and implications. London: Longman.
Gardner, R. C. and
Lambert, W. E. Attitudes and motivation
in second language learning. Rowley: Newbury House, 1972.
Vipathananon, Yuwanuch
(1990) The relationships between language aptitude, attitudes towards reading,
motivation in reading English of Mattayomsuksa 4 students in
Bangkok. In A summary of thesis 1988-1989, pp.386-387. Bangkok: The
Graduate School of Silapakorn University, 1990.
Yuvanuch,
Vipatchanon. (1989) The relationships
between language aptitude, attitudes towards reading, reading motivation, and
English reading comprehension of Mathayom Suksa 4 Students, Bangkok. The
abstracts of thesis-graduate school Silpakorn University, 1988-1989.
Chanatee,
Sawatdirirk. (1983) The relationships between motivation, social background, study habits
and learning achievement in English of Mathayom Suksa 3 students In A
collection of thesis of 1990, Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press, 1983.
Jindakul,
Cholthicha. (1992) The relationships between study habits, English interest, attitudes
towards English teacher, and English achievement of Mattayomsuksa 4 students in
Bangkok. In A collection of thesis of 1990, pp. 398-399. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press, 1992.
Cooper, Haris,
Valentine C., Jeffrey, and Nye, Barbara. “ Relationships
between Five after-school activities and academic achievement” Journal of
Educational Psychology, pp. 369-378, Vol. 91, No.2 ,1999.
Wongsotorn, Achara. (1987) The relationship between learning mode and
the beginners’ success in English. RELC Journal, 18(1), 31-45.
Shah, Parilah. (1999) Low achievement among Malaysian English
Language Students: Perceptions of Experiences. Paper presented at the 4th
CULI International Conference in Bangkok.
Note:
Observed Significance
Level
Often called the p
value. The basis for deciding whether or not to reject the null hypothesis. It is the probability that a
statistical result as extreme as the one observed would occur if the null hypothesis were true. If the observed
significance level is small enough, usually less than 0.05 or 0.01, the null
hypothesis is rejected.
Low (D, D+, F)
High (B, B+, A)