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However, this could also reflect a link between T and dominance. steroid injections Steroid discussion forums. Should studies support such a link, a major interpretive hurdle remains; incarcerated individuals are likely to differ from the general populace in many ways that might relate to aggressive behavior, T levels, or both. The generality of such findings is limited, providing little information about T and aggression in the general populace. Indeed, Dabbs (1996) noted that "Relatively few people out of the entire population engage in criminal behavior, regardless of their testosterone levels (p. steroid injections Athletes using steroids. 180)" suggesting crucial differences between incarcerated subjects and the general population that are not exclusively related to or a result of endogenous T. Such studies highlight the difficulty in generalizing from index cases (such as prisoners or individual "pathological" cases) to the general population. Also of interest is the fact that the relationship between dominance and endogenous T is not uni-directional. steroid injections Steroids medical use. Endogenous T levels not only predict dominant behavior, but are also predicted by it. Winning (the act of dominating) has been associated with an increase in T from pre to post-competition (see Elias, 1981; Gladue, Boehler, & McCaul, 1989; Mazur & Booth, 1998). Hence, increased levels of T in dominant samples might be a result rather than a cause, although this finding has not been universally supported (see Suay et al. , 1999, for instance). In addition, some researchers have reported pre-contest rises in T, suggesting an anticipation of future need. This anticipatory rise in endogenous T suggests a system whereby a classically conditioned expectation exerts its influence, a system with implications for psychological theories of the AAS/aggression relationship. In summary, the relationship between endogenous T and aggression is complex. As with most relationships between physiology and complex behavior, it reflects a "biopsychosocial" process, involving an interaction between the biological substrate of hormonal action, the psychology of the individual, and the social environment in which behavior occurs. Additionally, inconsistent definitions and operationalizations (e. g. , discriminating dominance from aggression), the bi-directional effects of T and dominance/aggression, and the lack of longitudinal studies of the T/aggression link in large representative samples, are a few of the factors that complicate the examination of this relationship. AAS and aggression in humansEven a cursory search of the psychological and psychiatric literature finds it replete with empirical reports and case studies suggesting that AAS users score more highly than the norm on personality scales measuring hostility. Regardless of this seeming consensus, it has recently been acknowledged that, although AAS use and aggression are correlated, the full extent and nature of the relationship remains unexplained and a clear inference of causality cannot be drawn (Beel, Maycock, & McLean, 1998). For instance, Riem and Hursey (1995) presaged Dabbs' (1996) sentiments regarding T and aggression, but in relation to AAS use, commenting that "In sum, not all AAS users exhibit aggressive behavior, even though all experience increases in sex steroids (p. 250). " Although AAS use is reportedly widespread (see Brower, 1992), relatively few AAS users exhibit overtly aggressive behavior (rage). Factors that might underlie this variability will be discussed later in this series. The literature on endogenous T and aggression/hostility provides little assistance in clarifying the potential AAS/aggression relationship in humans for a number of reasons.
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