MENERVA's Testimonies
Cult & Votive, Epigraphic, Iconographic and Literal Testimonies of Menerva in the Etruscan-Italic World
by Thanchvil Cilnei
Episode I: Cult & Votive Testimonies of Menerva
The data of Cult places, which can be related with any certainty to the goddess Menerva, in the form of a temple (place) with an altar and a votive depot, or any of these three features can be divided into three groups:
Cult places in Etruria----------------------> Chapter 1
Cult places in Latium----------------------> Chapter 2
Cult places in Southern Italy------------> Chapter 3
Within these three chapters there is a division of cult places according to the amount of data in relation to every cult place:
the places with the most data are described first, the places with the least data are described last. In our description of the cult places we always discuss the following criteria:
1. Location of the cult place/sanctuary
2. The divinity/divinities worshipped in the cult place/sanctuary
3. The function of the divinty; the kind of worship
4. Are any other divinities worshipped at the same place?
5. Beginning and ending dates of the cult activity, eventual hiatus.
As much as there have been data to answer to these criteria, we have mentioned them. After every chapter a schematic overview of the discussed data wil be given.
Chapter 1: The Menerva Cult in Etruria.
First of all, we have to remark that since some time there has been an idea, that in Etruria, and as a matter of fact, in all of Italy, the choice of the place for a sanctuary was very much linked to places which were already considered sacred or divine, because of their natural location or by tradition. In some cases, especially in Latium, we have literal evidence of stories related to gods, goddesses and divine power in certain places.
Unfortunately, very much of Etruscan mythology and legendary legacy is lost, but the study of Etruscan cult places has yielded the evidence, that the Etruscans chose special places for the sanctuaries of their gods: hill- and mountaintops, riversides, wells and capes(1). Next to this, the Etruscans must have lived with the idea that "the divine is everywhere"(2).
According to I. Edlund was the natural location of a place not the only reason to erect a temple or cult place in that specific place(3).
Other reasons she mentions are: historic happenings on a specific place, specific religious reasons, for example a place being the specific place where the will of a certain god had been made clear to the people on various occasions (like an oracle place) or the mentioning of a specific place to become a cult place according to the clearly outspoken wished of a certain god. Next to this, there are political and social reasons for picking a special place to become a cult place. Of the latter two reasons the sanctuaries just inside or outside the walls of a city are the utmost example(4).
For the study of the placing reasons of Etruscan and early Italic sanctuaries we mainly have to rely on archaeological and epigraphic material, the interpretation of which is not always easy and clear. Some foundation legends have been passed through and adapted in Roman literature, after many generations of oral tradition.
Veii: The Sanctuary of "Portonaccio"
the podium of the "Portonaccio" Temple
Place of the cult/sanctuary: just outside the western part of the city wall.
I. Edlund connects to this the fact that Menerva, just like her Greek counterpart (Athena Polias), was the protector of the city. From her sanctuary, just outside the city, she could have control over in- and outbound traffic. Travellers could seek and find rest and refreshment in the temple quarters after their journey and pray for hospitality and good trade in the city, before setting foot in it. The name of Tulumnes on the handle of a bucchero vase from the 6th century B.C. is the name of an important family from Veii. The inscription goes like this:
TLE 38: velthur tulumnes pesnu zinaine mene mul[u]vanice
The vase was found inside the sanctuary and it shows that important families had connections with it (5). The sanctuary in Pyrgi (to which we will come later) is probably a good example of a sanctuary of Menerva founded by a local family. It could well be that the Veian family Tulumnes founded the "Portonaccio"-sanctuary, or elevated it to higher importance. Since Menerva was not only the protector of cities, but also of heroes, army leaders probably prayed for help and a good ending of battles in this sanctuary. An example of this fact is a dedicatory inscription with the name Avile Vipiiennas :
TLE 35: mini muluv[an]ece avile vipiiennas
This inscription has been found on a bucchero vase in the "Portonaccio"-sanctuary. The name Vipiiennas (later: Vipinas) comes from Vulci. Livy states that Servius Tullius (Etr. Macstrna) was supported by sons of the Vipina- clan from Vulci (Caelius Vibenna)(6).
Deity worshipped in the sanctuary: Menerva.
During and right after the excavation of the temple complex, the structure was believed to have been dedicated to Apollo, because of the finding of several terracotta sculptures (the famous terracottas made by the only Etruscan artist known by his name: Vulca), one of which was a sculpture of Apollo.
The votive depot pointed out findings, which not only related to Apollo, but to other gods as well. It even seemed that the worship of another deity than Apollo was important in this area.
Votive inscriptions on bucchero sherds found in the temple area point more or less to the worship of three important female deities: Turan (=Aphrodite-Venus), Artumes (=Artemis-Diana) and Menerva. The most certain of those three are believed to be Menerva and Turan, because on the only sherd on which an inscription points to Artames, the lecture of the word referring to this goddess is not completely readable:
TLE 45: mi th.. xnies: [a]ritimi pi turan pi mx.....nuna ...
Some read for [a]ritimi: hritimi
After the excavation, study of the structure of the temple lead to the conclusion, that the building may have contained three cellae, so the possibility arose that a triad (= three gods belonging together religiously according to Etruscan belief) might have been worshipped here(7). According to research done by L.Banti, there are very few parallells for a triad Turan-Artumes-Menerva in Etruria and Italy and the evidence pointing to it is uncertain. By the way, "hritimi"(ThesLE suppl.) is as uncertain as is [a]ritimi in TLE 45. The word in case may also be an epitheton or just a word in the phrase, not dealing in particular with one of the deities worshipped in the temple. The word occusr only once in a Veian inscription; the word or name "aritimi" occurs only once in an inscription from outside Veii (TLE 737: mi : fleres : svulare : aritimi).
The name of Turan occurs more often, in Veii, however, only once, namely in inscription TLE 45.
The name of Menerva occurs three times with quite certainty in Veii:
NRIE 864, 886: Menervas (6th century B.C.
Glotta 33, 306: L.TOLONIO/DED.MENERVA (Portonaccio Temple, 3rd century B.C.)
The inscriptions from the 6th century B.C. were found within and around the temple building of the "Portonaccio"-sanctuary, the inscription from the 3rd century B.C. was found elsewhere in Veii. These inscriptions point to a worship of Menerva in the form of dedicacy (the last -s in "Menervas" refers to the genitive/dative form, meaning that something belongs to someone or is given to someone). The inscription from the 3rd century B.C. is in (a pre-classic form of) Latin. The abbreviation DED. refers to "dedit"(=he/she gave/has given), which refers to a dedication.
Although the referrals are not that many in general here, these inscriptions and the finding inside the temple building of fragments of terracotta statues of Menerva and Hercle (=Hercules), have led to the conclusion that the most important deity of this sanctuary must have been Menerva.
Function of the divinity/kind of worship:
Menerva was worshipped here as a healing deity. Proof of this is the large water bassin found in the sanctuary (18, 25 m x 5,43 m), directly next to the northern wall of the temple. Water was poured in through a system of small waterpipes, leading sulphured water in directly from a well south of the temple.
the "Portonaccio" Sanctuary in Veii: the so called "piscina"
Terracotta votives in the form of body parts, dating from the 6th century B.C. onwards, which have been found inside and around the temple building, have emphasized the healing aspects of the cult of Menerva, which has been attended to in this sanctuary. It can also be assumed that Menerva was worshipped here as an oracle giving goddess, an aspect of Menerva, at least as important as her healing capacities (the so called Minerva Medica in Rome). S. Steingraeber assumes, that in the end of the 6th century B.C. a connection must have been created between Veii as a place of Oracles and divination and the sanctuary of Apollo in Delphi (Greece). The influence on the Etruscan culture and religion by the Greeks in this period contributed to this connection(8). The Oracle of Veii might have played such an important role in that part of Etruria, that the Veians could have easily depicted the bond with Delphi on the roof of their main temple (the terracotta statues indeed depict the story of the birth and deeds of the god Apollo): the number of the (mainly fragmentized) statues is 8, dating from the end of the 6th century B.C. and traditionally said to be made by Vulca, the only Etruscan artist known by name, who was said to have travelled to Greece to visit cities and learn from skilled Greek craftsmen(9). As said, the eight statues were found badly fragmentized; Apollo, Hermes and Herakles can be identified quite easily; more difficult is this in the case of the woman with the baby on her arm, the warrior with a likewise small figure on his arm and fragments of a man with a snake(?). Various interpretations are: Leto with baby Apollo, Aeneas and Anchises, Aphrodite with child, Creusa with Ascanius, Aeneas with Ascanius, Apollo strangling the python(10).
the so called Leto with baby Apollo from the roof top of the "Portonaccio" Temple.
The figure with the snake is uncertain, because the thing he is holding could be well something else than a snake. The certain statues of Apollo, Hermes and Herakles probably point to the myth of Herakles and the Cerynthian Deer. The statues were placed behind eachother on the very top of the temple roof and they could be spotted the best from the north.
S. Ferri's interpretation that the figure with the snake is Apollo strangling the python is uncertain and it seems to make the bond between Veii and Delphi a bit uncertain, too(11); but Veii's Oracle had a reputation that carried itself far outside of the Veian territory, as prove the votives given by people from outside Veii, like Avle Vipina, who probably came from Vulci (TLE 35).
Other divinities worshipped at the same place:
In the 6th century B.C., Apollo (Etr. Ap(u)lu) was accepted within this sanctuary. The statue of Apollo on the roof of the temple states this. The group of statues dates from the end of the 6th century, when the sculptor Vulca was back from Greece and active as major sculptor in Veii. Whether there has been an Apollo-cult with a separate altar for the god is not clear, because traces of an altar for him have not been located yet. Next to Menerva another deity or other deities seem to have been worshipped here, as becomes clear in votive inscriptions (TLE45: Turan). Etruscan bronze mirrors show scenes of Menerva and Turan, often in combination with Hercle (Gerhard, ESI, 155-6, V, 64c). Hercle must have played a major role in the sanctuary, probably next to Menerva: his statue is among the ones on the roof top and, moreover, he is depicted in one of the two fragmented terracotta statues, that have been found in the cella of the temple. These statues of Menerva and Hercle have been found in a very fragmented condition, nevertheless have they been preserved in such a state, that they could be identified. They are made in exact the same style and belong together. They date from the end of the 6th century B.C.(11a). Menerva is dressed in armour, consisting of chest protection (ornated with volutes and a palmet) and a partially preserved helmet. Her left arm show traces of a shield attachment. In her right hand she probably held a weapon. She is wearing a long chiton.Next to her is Hercle, depicted as a young, musculous man without a beard and with curly hair. his statue has been preserved less well than Menerva's, but the remains of his lion skin and club are still visible.
Hercle doesn't not wear the lion skin on his head and shoulders, like he his usually depicted in Greek and Roman art, but tied around his waist to cover his loins. The Hercle-figure on the roof top of the temple is depicted with the lion skin in the traditional way on his head and shoulders. G. Colonna points out that the wearing of the skin on head and shoulders can be called the "Greek fashion" and that the wearing of the skin around the waist only occurs in figurative art dealing with Herakles/Hercules in Italy, presumably in the 6th and 5th centuries B.C. We will get back to this later.
The group of statues inside the temple cella depicts Hercle's apotheosis (12). This can be deduced from Greek examples, in which Herakles is introduced on Mt. Olympus by Athena and where Athena stands next to or behind Herakles. A kylix painted by the Sosias painter depicts a similar scene.
Comparable to this couple of statues in Veii is a group of statues from the archaic temple near the S.Omobono in Rome (Menerva and Hercle next to eachother) and a fragmentary preserved group of statues from Satricum (525-500 B.C.), which shows Menerva and a male figure, which cannot be identified very well. Although the remains are fragmentary, Colonna throws a link between this group from Satricum and the groups from the temple near the S. Omobono and from the temple in Veii.
The oldest votives date from the 7th century B.C. and was found near the so called "antae-altar", 30 m east of the "Portonaccio Temple" (13). This altar and the room linked to it, stretching out to the east, probably data from the 7th or early 6th century B.C. These are the oldest building structures that have been found in this area.
The temple itself probably dates from the end of the 6th century, it is an Etruscan podium temple. The podium measures 18,5 x 9,5 m. It is not certain whether the temple had 2 or 3 cellae. The outside of the temple was ornated with antefixae and the famous terracottas by Vulca, which had been painted in rich colours. The problably open tympanon was decorated on top with a painted quadriga-group, to either side of which a horned volute in terracotta had been attached. Behind this, on the roof top, the eight terracotta statues were visible (14).
The "Portonaccio Sanctuary" has probably been in use continuously as a place of worship for Menerva until late 1st century B.C. The war between Veii and Rome and the ultimate capture of Veii in 396 B.C. could not prevent the sanctuary from functioning. From the time after 396 B.C. dates a dedicatory inscription in Latin (Glotta33, 306: 3rd century B.C.), commemorating an offering done by L. Tolonios. This man might well have been a descendant of Tulumne (TLE36 and 38) and Lars Tolumnius, a man of importance in Veii, mentioned by Livius (15). Votives from the 3rd, 2nd and 1st centuries B.C. have been found, but especially the finds from the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C. are very few in number. It is, therefore, thought that the sanctuary played a lesser role in the Veii region than before.
Menerva temple at the porta di Caere:
Place of the cult: Veii, porta di Caere.
Divinity worshipped in the sanctuary: Menerva.
Menerva is supposed to have been worshipped in this temple, but this is not completely sure. according to some finds here, Steingraeber thought that the sanctuary was dedicated to Menerva, although he himself thinks it less certain than in the case of the "Portonaccio Temple". The finds at the porta di Caere are less numerous and give less clarity about the kind of cult in this small sanctuary (16). If this has been a sanctuary for Menerva, it must have been of less importance than the "Portonaccio Temple".
Function of the deity worshipped in this temple:
Nothing certain can be said about this. The only source of information about this sanctuary comes from S. Steingraeber, and this information is not very much. A cistern was found within the temenos of the sanctuary, which probably belongs to the oldest building phase of the temple (end 6th century B.C.). Maybe the cistern points out to the cult for a chthonic/healing deity.
Worship of other deities in this area: unknown.
Beginning and end of the cult, eventual hiatus:
The sanctuary has probably been founded at the end of the 6th century B.C. From this period the oldest remains have been preserved: the temenos, surrounded by a tufa wall (exact measurements were not given). Within this temenos, there was a small temple, of which the foundations and the a.m. cistern have remained. The small temple was replaced in Roman Republican times by a building, the function of which is not clear. A votive depot was found, it contained predominantly fragmentary material from the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C. The cult may have ceased to exist at the end of the 2nd century B.C., from later periods no material has been found in the area.
The oldest architectonic remains date from the late 6th century B.C., while the votives found in the area date from the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C. This produces an activity hiatus of two centuries.
Because there are no historical evidences whatsoever about this small temple and it's role in the Veii region, no questions concearning these things can be answered.
Thanchvil Cilnei
NOTES
(1) Edlund, I., The Gods and the Place, Skrifter utgivna av Svenska Institutet i Rom, 4, XLIII,Stockholm, 1987, 126, n.3
(2) Heiler, Erscheinungsformen,1978, 146-7
(3) Edlund, I., op.cit.,, 1987, 126
(4)Social and political reasons to found a sanctuary somewhere were often connected with religious reasons, to get permission from the gods and to emphasize the building of the sanctuary. Edlund states, that there was no political or social reason good enough to build a sanctuary somewhere, if there wasn't a good religious reason for it too.
(5) See: SE13, 1939, 457-8, nr.2; TLE36; Livius 4.17 (Lars Tolumnius, king of Veii in 428 B.C.)
(6) Edlund, I., op.cot.,1987, 66-7; TLE35;SE13, 1939, 455, nr.1; Livius (Vibenna).
(7) Banti, L., SE17, 1943, 187-224.
(8) Steingraeber, S., Etrurien; Staedte, Heiligtuemer, Nekropolen,Muenchen, 1981, 485.
(9) Plinius, Naturalis Historia,7, 1, 14.
(10) Ferri, S., AC6, 1954, 115-120; see also: Minto, SE22, 1948, 15 ff.
(11) Minto interprets the woman with child as Venus with Ascanius and the warrior with the smaller figure as Aeneas and Anchises, in the light of the so called "dea mater"-theory, in which Venus acts like this. Referring this theory to the "Portonaccio" Temple is connected with the assuming of the cult for three female goddesses in this temple (Turan, Artumes, Menerva). For "dea mater" on vases from Vulci, see: Boemer, Rom und Troja,1951, 16.
(11a) Colonna, G., Il maestro dell'Ercole e della Minerva - Veio, Opuscula Romana, Skrifter utgivna av Svenska Institutet i Rom,4, XLIV, Goeteborg, 1987, 21-2.
(12)G. Colonna,op.cit.,1987, 25; 33-34
(13) This votive material is the first proof of a cult on this place. Earlier cult activities in this area are, theoretically, possible, although it is best to rely on the earliest datable testimonies.
(14) All statues, fragments of statues, antefixae etc. are in the Museo di Villa Giulia in Rome. The statues on the roof top seem to form a unity with the temple building; the templebuilding, therefore, is mostly dated according to the dating of the roof top statues.
(15) Weinstock, Glotta 33, 1954, 306; Pallottino, M., Le Arti I, 1938-9, 402, ff. The dedicatory inscription was found in the votive depot of the "Portonaccio Sanctuary".