Contact Jacalyn C. Spoon
Native Americans in Juvenile Literature
by Jacalyn Spoon
Introduction
It is my goal to evaluate old and new childrens nonfiction books on Native Americans, to assess whether advances in cultural understanding have been made. The majority of the juvenile books I have used are housed in the active collection of the Groton Public Library. While at the library on the day I began my project, I met a neighbor. The young boy told me he was also doing a paper on American Indians. While I looked through the collection I questioned the accuracy of the books that he would read. Would the books he consult have out dated perspectives? Would the publication date really matter? What view of Native peoples would he be exposed to? Would he learn the "truth" as it was told in generations past? The one that I was taught as a child glossed over the 1800’s, skipped the Trail of Tears, Wounded Knee and other incidents of genocide perpetrated by the United States as if they had never happened. Or, would the books he chose give all of the truths even the ones that white America, wishes to forget. The New York state social studies review and development committee has recognized that many children’s history books tell the story of history through the eyes of Euro-Americans. History is thus skewed leaving out important facts, values and insight. If we continue to look through the blue eyes of the European immigrant our society will forever be divided. A multicultural perspective is necessary. Education is the basis for understanding people of backgrounds other than our own. With understanding comes cooperation.
I have focused my attention on two areas of interest, the presentation of women’s roles and religion as depicted in children’s books. Having grown up in New York state, I was introduced to the Iroquois Indians at an early age, yet as an adult I had no concept of gender roles in the Iroquois society. I had no idea how many tasks generally considered the domain of men in my white American upbringing, were strictly female tasks in some Native American societies including the Iroquois. Tasks such as crop cultivation, hide tanning and the building of the family home are stereotypically considered male, yet in many Native American tribes this is woman’s work. I was interested in knowing if women’s roles are being depicted accurately in juvenile literature.
Since religion and ceremony is an important aspect of Native American life ways, I have attempted to evaluate the importance given to religion and ceremony in these books.
I chose to evaluate two books that are still available for sale: Indians by Edwin Tunis originally published in 1959 and revised in 1989, and American Indian by David Murdoch, a picture book with limited text. American Indian can currently be found in all of the popular book stores and in children’s toy stores where learning toys are the focus.
Indians by Edwin Tunis
Edwin Tunis (1897 - 1973) is the author and illustrator of Indians. Originally written in 1959, Indians was revised, updated and reprinted in 1979 by Dr. Lorraine E. Williams. Books In Print targets Indians to grade 5 and up (1997).
The setting is the everyday life of the Indians of North America in the time of first European contact, before changes resulted from that contact.
I have found the large pencil type drawings of Mr. Tunis to be accurate when compared to descriptions or photos of actual artifacts. In a drawing titled ‘War is declaired’ an Iroquois warrior holds a ball-headed war club (Tunis 1979:62) almost identical to the real artifact found at the Denver Art Museum (5oo Nations, Alvin 1994:266-267). A late prehistoric Iroquois pottery vessel found in Winsor, Broome Co. New York appearing in The Archeology of New York State (Ritchie 1980:321) is recreated almost exactly in a drawing that appears on page 67 in Indians (Tunis 1979) except that Mr.Tunis has added what looks like a base to the pot. Admittedly I didn’t have high expectation for Indians, but I found the majority of the facts I checked to be accurate or at least very close to current knowledge.
Mr. Tunis’ interest in race is made clear from the very beginning, most likely a product of his time and generation. He writes the following about the Algonquian people of the Great Lakes region; "Some believe that they stem from the dark branch of the white race which originated in Spain and further" (Tunis:1979:17). "All of these different people mixed up a little by interbreeding, are called Indians. To consider them a single race, as we thoughtlessly have done, is absurd" (Tunis:1979:17). With this sentence he is obviously trying to overcome racial barriers and stereotypes that were solidly in place during the writing of the first edition of this book in 1959. Yet, he is still perpetuating these same stereotypes. With this book remaining on the shelves of the local library and currently for sale at book stores it only helps to perpetuate these stereotypes in the minds of future generations.
Mr. Tunis was demeaning to the Hopi as a whole when he described them this way; "Lest they sound like paragons, it must be said that cleanliness was not their main concern." (Tunis:1979:116). Mr. Tunis was not even discussing cleanliness. He had been discussing the good behavior of the Hopi children and the intelligence of the people as a whole. Why he found it important to write what can only be seen as a demeaning slam to the Hopi people could only be his need to continue his version of white superiority in the minds of our children.
This book is written from a white male perspective. There are few references to women or their roles throughout most of the book. The few illustrations of women that there are, depict them often in the role of servant to men. When Mr. Tunis does touch on a women’s role in a society he is often demeaning.
Portrayal of Women
Iroquois longhouses and villages are discussed but Tunis (1979) neglects to mention that the women helped build those tremendous houses and owned them. He briefly notes that most Hopi buildings were constructed by women. This discussion, however, is after several paragraphs that describe the House Priests duties, a man, as official architect and read about the men who helped quarry and place stones and bring the timber used in the roofs.
Tunis takes the time to describe a mans relationship to his children and his family, but women are only mentioned by chance. He writes "when a man married, he left his home and went to live with his wife’s family, but he didn’t become a member of his wife’s clan. His children, however, did belong to her clan." (Tunis:1979:59) " A man inherited property from his mother’s brother rather than from his father" (Tunis:1979:59). We don’t get any clear idea of a woman’s inheritance from Tunis’ writings.
Tunis reports that decisions of the League of Iroquois were made by men who are now spoken of as sachems. When Oswalt and Neely (1996:408) describe a sachems role in the council they appear much less powerful. "At a League Council meeting, sachems could not decide an issue according to their person feelings, but were obligated to reflected their constituency". This is certainly a different view of the sachems role than that depicted by Mr. Tunis. In a picture titled "The council" (Tunis:1979:58) only men are depicted. Three pages later he describes the meetings of the council as public, and "everybody who could possibly attend them did" (Tunis:1979:60). The damage has been done. The women are effectively excluded in the mind of the young person who formed an image of this council meeting. Oswalt and Neely (1996:408) quote Lafitau who describes a women’s role as "having all the real authority" and "they are the soul of the council, the arbiters of peace and war; they hold the taxes and the public treasure" This is not the message we are left with after reading Mr. Tunis’s text. The matrilineal succession of title or office of sachem is not discussed at all.
Iroquois women’s clothes are described as similar to Algonquian women’s Tunis (1979:46) states that "short leggings and a rather long deerskin skirt." typify female attire. He further notes that in the "winter they added a short circular cape, fringed on its lower edge" (Tunis 1979:46). He describes the shirt worn by Algonquian women as "a skin with a hole in it, worn poncho fashion."(Tunis 1979:46). "Northern Algonquian women wore a kind of dress made from two skins, hung from the shoulders front and back and belted at the waist. Over this in cool weather they wore a pair of cape sleeves. These were joined at the back of the neck and caught together by a strip across the chest. They were sewn at the wrists but otherwise were entirely open." (Tunis:1979:46). According to other sources this information is inaccurate. For example Oswalt and Neely (1996:399) state that in Iroquoian society "Women wore underskirts that hung from the waist to just above the ankles, over this garment they wore long dresses with fringed sleeves and fringe along the bottom" with emphasis throughout that these and other garments were decorated with porcupine quills. Although clothing decorations of porcupine quills are mentioned it is treated as if of minor importance.
Little mention is made of the Three Sisters; corn, beans and squash, or cultivation in general. This is an especially problematic oversight as the Iroquois cultivated most of their food. This can easily be explained if we remember that cultivation was a women’s task and Mr. Tunis appears to not have much concern for tasks primarily the responsibility of women.
Although I have focused discussion on the portrayal of Iroquois women. I would like to point out that other sections of Indians also marginalize indiginous women. When describing The Coast Townsmen Mr. Tunis does just that, the only mention of women is in a description of clothing and body piercing. His lack of attention to gender roles is again obvious, focusing his discussion on male roles and the importance he places on men in all aspects of everyday life.
Portrayal of Religion and Ceremony
While generally ignoring many aspects of religion among Native Americans Mr. Tunis has also made many false or misleading statements when writing about religion and religious ceremonies. I have outlined only a few errors.
A meeting of the Iroquoian False Face Society is described as being held during the New Year Festival and "during one point the boys of the villages went masked to each house, demanding presents on a trick-or-treat basis" (Tunis 1979:68). No mention is made of the False Face Societies healing purposes. Besides poor reporting of an Iroquois religious tradition we are subject to poor editing as well. The drawing of a False Face mask is found eight pages earlier than this absurd description of the False Face Society.
The religion of the Hopi is described as elaborate and Mr. Tunis admits to his inability to describe the Hopi religion in any detail. He does make it clear throughout the chapter titled "The Desert Townsmen" that religion and religious ceremonies are present in most every aspect of the Hopi life. He describes a marriage ceremony and the washing of the hair of the bride and groom but neglects to tell his readers that the mingling of their hair in the same washing container symbolizes their marital union (Tunis 1979:127).
Mr. Tunis further displays his ethnocentric values when he describes the costumes of the Hopi religious ceremonies as "Bizarre". He also states that "In spite of their weird visages, there was something charming about the Katchinas" (Tunis 1979:129). In a description of Katchina dolls he writes that they were given to children to be played with. Osborn and Neely (1996:296) write that the Kachina dolls were not toys at all, but were images and they were hung from the rafters of the home. In addition, the Northwest Coast Indian religion he describes as difficult to think as a religion, since they had no formal way of worship.
Review
After completing my review of Indians I looked for professional book reviews. The reviews I found were mixed. A review from Scientific American 1979 credited to Philip and Phylis Morrison describes Indians this way; "So clearly drawn and honestly described are these things, that the book is a volume of first resort for readers", "the text is straight forward" (Book review digest 1980:1235). Originally from Science Library Journal 1979 is a review credited to Gale Eaton. Her reaction to Indians is similar to my own. Ms. Eaton describes the revised text this way; "In spite of this effort (the revision), minor traces of bias remain, especially in discussions of religious rites; We read of ‘bizarre costumes’ in Pueblo ceremonies and the ‘gruesome’ Carrier custom of having widows carry their husbands’ remains." Ms. Eaton also states that Mr. Tunis "shows a genuine respect and there is no substitute for his contribution in this area." (Book review digest:1980:1235). Perhaps at time that these reviews were written, there were no substitutes for Mr. Tunis’ work but today there are many substitutes found on the book shelves. I would not recommend this book be purchased for a young child, when so many other excellent books can be found.
North American Indian by David Murdoch
North American Indian written by David Murdoch in 1995 and photographed by Lynton Gardiner. This volume is part of the Eyewitness Books series written in association with the American Museum of Natural History. The book is filled with beautifully detailed photos of artifacts primarily from the collection of the American Museum of Natural History. A complete index is provided with the artifacts catalog numbers. Reproductions of photographs are credited in detail.
At the beginning of each section, a map is provided with shading to clarify the area discussed. The climate, landscape and subsistence, migration patterns, mode of travel, social and religious customs, and at least one significant historical account or fact is described for each area or tribe.
Photos of artifacts or replicas of artifacts are described in detail. What an object is made of such as wood from a certain tree or ivory is described. When changes were made as a consequence of European contact such as bead work in the shape of flowers instead of quill work these changes are described. Reference to the gender of the maker of an item is often revealed.
A famous historical drawing, painting or photograph is depicted in almost every chapter. Artists and Anthropologists such as George Catlin, John White, Frederick Remington and LeMoyne are featured. This gives the young reader visual links to other sources that he or she might have already come in contact with in other books.
In each section a famous Indian religious, spiritual or political leader is introduced, such as Dekanawidah of the Iroquois, Tecumseh and Tenskwataw of the Shawnee, Keokuk of the Sauk and Kintpuash of the Modoc. Their feats are described.
The photographs of artifacts are wonderful, clear and well colored. The captions that describe these artifacts are equally wonderful, as they describe events without bias. When a word that may be foreign to the young reader is introduced it is described in parentheses, such as when the word anthropologist occurs, it reads "Anthropologist (someone who studies cultures)" (Murdoch 1995:33).
Portrayal of Women
A conscious effort was made to include information about women. When women were the creators of objects we were told. If women were the user of a tool, we were told. The role that women held was also explored. In the beginning of the book we read about shamans and see the tools of a shaman. The text tells us that "shamans were special men and women who could heal the sick and capture some of this power to manipulate the ordinary world." (Murdoch 1995:10). Clearly a shaman can be male or female. Breaking down the stereotypical male role of a shaman. In the section on the Delaware, an effigy of a woman carved in wood is shown. It is described as a woman spirit guardian of health. Providing us with a glimpse into a spiritual role for woman.
The descriptions of Iroquois corn processing equipment makes it very clear who is processing this corn, the women. The text describing the grinding of corn into meal was described as a "long hard job" (Murdoch 1995:17), certainly not demeaning or an exaggeration either. Anyone who has simply canned fresh corn using current modern techniques can attest to the difficulty and time consumption involved in this work.
In almost every chapter we are introduced to either a woman who was influential in someway historically, or, a responsibility that was traditionally assigned to a woman. A woodcut of Pocahontas’s wedding is shown with some information about her kidnapping by the English and her story. A photo of Sarah Winemucca is included in the Great Basin chapter with a paragraph about her translating abilities and her autobiography, saying it is an indictment of white brutality. Statements like these give us a quick glimpse beyond the Happy Thanksgiving image of Indians and white men sitting happily together. The massacre at Wounded Knee is more than a glimpse, here we see a photo of the bodies of Sioux dumped into a mass grave, with a caption explaining that 200 Sioux including women and children were killed by 64 soldiers. Perhaps Murdoch went to far with this graphic photo but it is evidence reinforcing the historical fact.
Children and families were depicted throughout, though less often than men or women. In the chapter on the Great Plains we see an old photo of two women and a child with a horse pulling a travois. The paragraph below the photo explains the use of a travois.
The final chapter of North American Indian is what sets this book apart from all of the others I have read. The opening paragraph of this last chapter touches on many issues ranging from the so-called "vanishing Indian" who now number 2.5 million to the militant protests of the 1970's. In this final chapter we are painted a picture of resistance to invasion and the destruction of traditional life ways.
A beautifully painted hard hat, is described as a modern Mohawk headdress. It consumes most of page 62 accompanied by a photo of a high steel worker. The text tells us of the original 12 Mohawk who were hired as steel workers in 1886 and went on to train friends and family to do the dangerous work, "traditions of bravery and kinship thus operate in a modern industry." (Murdoch 1995:62). A photo of a Native American black jack dealer introduces us to the casino industry, health care, schools and housing. As well as the internal tribal debates over the "bad social effects" of gambling (Murdoch 1995:63).
Women are again present in this final chapter. A photo of 4 Ojibwa girls at a powwow and a brief description of tribal schools. A photo of a Navajo woman baking bread in a traditional oven introduces us to the Navajo debate of acceptance of "white American ways" (Murdoch 1995:63).
Although we were left with no clear picture of current Native American affairs, we are introduced to the fact that there are affairs. A photo of a Northwest territories tribal meeting and a short paragraph outlining somewhat recent land claims prove that native Americans did not vanish.
Review
I found no professional book reviews on North American Indian by Murdoch. I believe this is a well conceived and executed book that could easily be given to a child much younger than the target age group of "grade 5 and up", and enjoyed (Books in print 1997:[email protected]). A first or second grade child with a limited reading ability would enjoy looking at most of the pictures, these alone could hold a child’s interest. As an adult reader I found the artifacts amazing, in many cases I had never seen some of these items in the museums I have explored.
Conclusion
I’ve read several children’s books for comparative purposes. The more current books I read included; Brown Paper School USKids History: Book of the American Indians, by Marlene Smith-Baranzini and Howard Egger-Bovet (1994) and The Earliest Americans by Helen Roney Sattler and Jean Day Zallinger (1993). I found both to be excellent books. The facts I checked were accurate. Women’s roles were well described as was religion and ceremony. The older children’s books that I made comparisons with were; Dakotas by Marion Isreal (1959) and Apaches also by Marion Isreal (1959). I purchased both Apaches and Dakotas from the Groton Elementary school library as discards. In both of these books I found the women’s roles to be much more accurately portrayed than in Indians. Women are depicted in a more true to life manner. In Apaches a drawing of a woman erecting a tipi and, a mother teaching a daughter to scrape a skin are shown. The language that is assigned to the people portrayed in these books is choppy or halted "I do not bring buckskin for your shirt, my Father" or "Many Buffalo! A big herd! There will be a big hunt!" (Israel 1959:21-22). Stereotypes are present even when gender roles are portrayed accurately.
By far my favorite childrens nonfiction book on Native Americans to date is North American Indian by David Murdoch. Well thought out and executed it brings Native Americans to life, past and present. This book could best be described as a fact book and not a story book. I compared many facts with more scholarly texts for accuracy. Comparisons were made with older as well as newer texts. I found very few discrepancies between the more scholarly sources I used, with no major changes through time in the report of women’s roles or religion. One of my favorite sources became Edwin Embrees’ Indians of the Americans originally written in 1939. The sentences flowed and were enjoyable to read. The information that I cross checked with other sources was always very similar. Embrees information was often more detailed in some regard than theother sources.
While I’ve found that publication date for children’s books can be a red flag to alert you to possible problems, it is not necessarily a reason to discard every old book in a library collection. With a careful eye on collection development a library can add new volumes that enhance their current nonfiction childrens collection of books on North American Indians. The newer childrens books that I have seen are written without the stereotypes of the past. I believe, with a mix of old and new books to choose from, and the watchful eye of an adult, my neighbor boy will be able to find accurate information for his paper and overcome any stereotypes he may come incontact with.
Bibliography
____, (1980) Book Review Digest New York: H.W. Wilson Co.
____, Books in Print (R.R. Bowker, Reed Elsevier Inc., 1997) On line version available through FirstSearch (1992-1997) [email protected].
Bird, S. Elizabeth ed. (1996) Dressing in feathers Boulder: Westview press, Inc.
Driver, Harold Edson (1969) Indians of North America Illinois: University of Chicago Press.
Embree, Edwin Rogers (1970) Indians of the Americas New York: Collier books.
Israel, Marion (1959) Dakotas Chicago: Melmont publishers, Inc.
Israel, Marion (1959) Apaches Chicago: Melmont publishers, Inc.
Josephy, Alvin M. Jr. (1994) 500 Nations New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Murdoch, David H. (1995) North American Indian New York: Alphred A. Knopf .
Oswalt, Wendall H. and Neely, Sharlotte (1996) This Land was theirs CA: Mayfield publishing.
Report of the New York state social studies review and development committee, (June 1991) One Nation Many Peoples: A declaration of interdependence Presented to the commissioner of the education and President of the university of the state of New York.
Ritchie, William A. (1980) The Archeology of New York State New York: Harbor Hill Books.
Sattler, Helen Roney, and Jean Day Zallinger Illustrator (1993) The Earliest Americans New York: Clarion.
Smith-Baranzini, Marlene, and Howard Egger-Bovet, T.Taylor Bruce Illustrator (1994) Brown Paper School USKids History: Book of the American Indians, New York: Little Brown and Company.
Tunis, Edwin (1979) Indians New York: Thomas Y. Crowell.