Researching the U.S. Public (National) Debt

This bibliography consists of both print and online sources. The sources may be divided into instructional and researchable categories. I have included reference books, government documents, magazine articles, and web pages. I have also included the SuDoc number for government documents. I have also included details on how I found a particular source as often as possible. This bibliography is organized according to mode of use (instructional or researchable) and then according to type of resource (print (books and magazines), government document or web page.) Within these subject headings, sources are listed alphabetically by author (or issuing agency) or title. One final special note: in order to find information about the national debt, one must search for information under a variety of subject headings. By utilizing the American Statistics Index 1998 (discussed in the "researchable print” section), I discovered that there is no “national debt” subject listing. One must look for the following subjects, which will be explained later: budget, public debt, balance of payments, government agencies etc.

Bekiares, Susan E. and Mary Mallory. "Part II: Information Sources and Their Use.
'Chapter 21: Government Documents and Statistics Sources.'" In Reference and Information Services: An Introduction,
2d ed, ed. Richard E. Bopp and Linda C. Smith. Library Science Text Series. Englewood, CO.: Libraries Unlimited, Inc., 1995. 556-605.

A useful tool for those new to reference services, this book also donates an entire chapter to government documents. The chapter includes an explanation of the SuDocs system with examples. Readers will also learn how government documents can be utilized-such as for historical information, statistical research, or current information about the United States and/or its citizens. In terms of evaluating government sources, there is not much concern about credibility or authority. However, considerations of content, presentation, usage, and format must be made. The chapter is especially useful because it lists titles of various sources. One can find information about where to look for specific types of government documents. The authors have provided a detailed review of guides to government information, which are available in print or on the Internet. There are also descriptions of government catalogs, bibliographies, periodical indexes, as well as a section on the Government Printing Office and its organization and responsibilities. The authors refine their work into smaller categories, providing information on searching for legislative information and statistics. In many instances, they provide examples of citation entries, including one for the Congressional Information Service’s index, which will be discussed later. In short, the chapter provides basic background information about government documents. Readers will be familiar with various titles that can help them identify various agencies and their duties, with the organizational scheme of government publications, with subject indexes, with abstracts and with search strategy. (In other words, they tell you where you should begin your search and what you need to know to be successful.) I highly recommend reading this chapter, as many of the sources annotated in this bibliography were discovered here.

American Library Association Government Documents Round Table Education
Committee (GODORT). "GODORT Handout Exchange."
http://www.lib.umich.edu/libhome/Documents.center/godort.html. Accessed 14/11/00.

This web page was found by utilizing the aforementioned piece by Susan E. Bekiares and Mary Mallory (Bekiares and Mallory 1995). On the ALA's homepage (http://www.ala.org), one is able to access a menu of current Round Table"units." By selecting GODORT, users will find a detailed list of information. Once you reach the GODORT Education Committee's "Handout Exchange," you will have access to a variety of useful aids. The entire site is filled with free guides to using government documents. It presents the guides under various subject headings, bibliographies, CD-ROMS, collection development, documents guides, economic censuses, electronic products, Internet, legislation, maps, and statistics. This site also has guides for foreign government documents and information about specific subject guides. You can also access tutorials and thereby learn about the SuDocs classification system, finding sources on the Internet, and staff training. (The tutorials are separated by audience, staff, students, and non-documents staff.). The site is maintained by practicing librarians and all information is based on their experience in working with government publications.

Columbia University Libraries. "U.S. Government Documents: The Budget Process."
http://www.columbia.edu/cu/libraries/indiv/dsc/budget.html. Accessed 14/11/00.

This page was found on GODORT’s Handout Exchange server. It provides a more specific guide for researching the U.S. budget. For example, on this page you learn that the Office of the President issues the budget and that it is merely a proposal based on presidential goals and priorities for the next fiscal year. The budget also "includes a description of the economic assumptions on which the budget is based, and detailed agency programs and expenditures." (Columbia University Libraries 2000). Although the site uses budget publications for 2001 as examples, the government is fairly consistent in naming its publications and these titles can be used to find the appropriate fiscal year in most cases. There are several publications for the budget from the Executive Branch, including the actual budget, analytical perspectives (referred to as "special analyses" in previous years), historical tables, a citizen's guide, and an economic report from the President. (Note that the Office of the President can be considered an issuing agency under the SuDocs classification system.)
The site also provides bibliographies for budget background information, executive budget activity, legislative budget activity, and respected news sources. There is also a useful table, which explains the calendar used during the budget process. For example, the fiscal year for the United States government begins annually on October 1. (Columbia University Libraries 2000.) Most resources mentioned on this site have links, making information easier to find.

Congressional Information Service, Inc. American Statistics Index 1998: A comprehensive guide to the statistical publications of the U.S. Government, Index and Abstract. Bethesda, MD.: Congressional Information Service, Inc., 1999.

Also mentioned by Bekiares and Mallory, this is a 2 volume reference source.They provide useful subject and category headings, information descriptions, and catalog numbers (for both SuDoc and the Library of Congress). The government uses many terms other than “National Debt.” This can be somewhat frustrating at the beginning, but once you are aware of the subject headings pertaining to the topic, you are able to move past this. A search for statistical data should begin in the Index. As previously stated, if you look under “National Debt” as a subject, you don’t find much. In fact, this index immediately refers you to other subject headings, such as public debt, foreign debts, and government assets and liabilities. These subject headings, in turn lead to more specific subject headings. For example, if you look under public debt, you will find numerous subjects, such as Budget of the U.S., Fed Gov’t. debt interest payments, and Forecast of public debt burden. The index can also be searched according to category, title, agency report numbers, and SuDocs numbers.

Both the index and abstract volumes of this publication include user guides and tips, illustrated with examples. To return to the example of subject searches, if you look under public debt, you may come across an entry followed by numbers that correspond to an abstract located in the Abstract volume. The abstract provides a brief description of the document and bibliographical information that allows you to retrieve it. Although I used the 1998 edition, this resource can be used for publications dating back to 1960 (in those years’ respective editions). (CIS 1998.) Additionally, the user’s guide can tell you what type of search to utilize based on information you may already have. By using these sources, I was able to find statistical data from several different government agencies about the deficit, the budget, fluctuations over time, expenditures etc. I also discovered that I needed reports from several different agencies simply by taking note of the various subject headings. In order to explain how the National Debt has fluctuated over a decade, you also need to look at what the government spends and owes. In other words, you must look at the U.S. budget and various other “supplemental” documents explaining it.

Office of the Federal Registrar: National Archives and Records Administration.
The United States Government Manual 1997/1998. Washington D.C.:
Office of the Federal Registrar, 1997.
( SuDocs # AE2.108/2.997-98.)

It provides detailed information about each branch, department, agency etc. of the United States Government. By using a straightforward table of contents, the reader can quickly find useful information about various sections of the government. For example, if one looks up the Congressional Budget Office (pages 60-63), one can find brief, easy to understand entries concerning the office’s activities (which includes publications), specific contact information, and organizational structure. This book can assist with “title searching” in the CIS Index, which means quicker, less frustrating retrieval of data.

Executive Office of the President of the United States. Office of Management and
Budget. Budget of the United States Government 1989-2001. Washington
D.C., 1989-2001.

In the interest of saving time and space, I have placed all budgets within one citation heading. Specific data will vary annually, but the information included in the budget has not changed. This publication should be consulted when information about specific proposals and policies is required. Please be aware that these are only recommendations, which can be accepted or rejected by a vote of Congress. Numbers presented in the budget are subject to revision. The Budget is an excellent resource that combines both statistics and expository writing. It provides access to the actual budget proposal, economic factors which influenced the budget, federal receipts, and federal spending. It also places the budget within its larger government perspective. The Budget for the 1996 fiscal year and later fiscal years are available on the web at http://w3.access.gpo.gov/usbudget/index.html. This website provides various other publications of the Office of Management and Budget, in addition to product ordering, bookstore information, and locations of libraries housing government documents. You can also search selected documents online and download files by using the government database WAIS. (Budgets for 2000 and 2001 are now available online.) The Budget is also supplemented by an appendix, an analytical publication, a publication of historical statistics, a citizen’s guide, a guide to budget systems and concepts, and a state guide.

Executive Office of the President of the United States. Office of Management and
Budget. A Citizen’s Guide to the Federal Budget. Washington D.C., 1999.
PR EX 2.8/999/CITIZE

It is useful to match up the guides to their respective fiscal years because each edition uses information specific to that year. However, there is a consistency in information presented. This publication provides easy to understand explanations of the budget process and a glossary. The publication uses easy examples and pictures (graphs and pie charts) to demonstrate where the tax dollar goes. It explains who creates, monitors and revises the budget. It is influenced by the opinions of the current administration, restating the President’s budget proposals and economic policy and presenting it as a strong foundation for future fiscal security, as well as selling previous successes.

Executive Office of the President of the United States. Office of Management and
Budget. Analytical Perspectives, Budget of the United States Government
1995-1999. Washington D.C., 1995-1999.

In 1990, it was called Special Analyses and can be found by using the same SuDocs number as Analytical Perspectives, PR EX 2.8/5(fiscal year). At any rate, the change in title may reflect the more comprehensive scope of the title after 1994. This publication provides statistical data and information about the budget and various uses of funds. It focuses on various financial issues, financial receipts and collections, and federal borrowing and debt. By the fiscal year 2000, the publication had grown to include a detailed explanation of federal programs, drug control funding, and charts and tables. It also includes a description of the budget system (which can be found in a separate publication called Budget System and Concepts) and a glossary. This is an excellent source for describing how the government spends its money, including where, how much, and why. There are also budget projections.

Office of the President of the United States. Office of Management and Budget.
Historic Tables, Budget of the United States Government 1989-1999.
Washington D.C., 1989-1999.
SuDocs # PR EX 2.8/4: (fiscal year).

This source has been published annually since 1986. This is a quick guide to a wealth of economic information. If you want to quickly know what the deficit has been for any year 1789-2004 look on pages 19 and 20 of the 2000 edition. It is all right there, neatly summarized in a table. This is the quickest way to obtain numbers for various years. The Historic Tables provide tables about expenditures by agency, federal receipts, spending on education, and federal debt at the end of each fiscal year 1940-2004 (this table is located on pages 110 and 111 of the 2000 edition.) If you are not interested in fully explaining the debt and its fluctuations, you can quickly show how the debt and the deficit have fluctuated by using these tables. This publication also includes an introduction explaining the structure, scope and content of the Historical Tables, as well as a brief overview of historic economic trends.

U.S. Congress. Congressional Budget Office. The Economic and Budget Outlook:
Fiscal Years 1995-1999. Washington D.C., January 1994.

This report was delivered to the Senate and House Committees on the Budget. In addition to describing economic indicators, this source donates an entire section to issues related to the deficit. In addition to providing a useful table called “Revenues, Outlays, Deficits and Debt Held by the Public, Fiscal Years 1962-1993 (In billions of dollars),” it also analyses the spending and revenue options of the government during the fiscal years 1995-1999. A useful appendix illustrates how the economy affects the budget and this information can be applied to a discussion of the national debt and deficit. Since the report is intended for an audience quite familiar with government economic terms and issues, it might be useful to have a glossary from one of the aforementioned documents handy.

U.S. Congress. Congressional Budget Office. Reducing the Deficit: Spending and
Revenue Options. Washington D.C., March 1997.

According to The United States Government Manual 1997/1998, the Congressional Budget Office assesses the economic impact of the Federal budget and may be asked to issue reports about various economic issues to Congress. (Office of the Federal Registrar, 1997.) In this particular report, the Office is trying to present options to reduce the gap between outlays and earnings. This particular report contains 200 specific policy options, including over 150 options for reducing government spending. (Congressional Budget Office, 1997.) It is important to note that the Office does not endorse or oppose any particular policy; its only job is to make recommendations. In doing so, the pros and cons of each option are presented. This report presented options that may lead to a balanced budget by 2002. The report includes plans for reducing spending in all sections of the government, including the Department of Defense, NASA, environmental agencies and projects, credit and commerce (loans), and Social Services. In a time that has seen much controversy over campaign finance, it is interesting to note that this report included a plan to raise the limit on individual contributions to presidential campaigns. A special section of the report is devoted to Medicare and Medicaid.

Final Note on Government Sources
Due to the large number of government publications potentially useful to this topic, annotations have been kept brief. Additionally, many possible sources have been left out. For more information, contact the Government Printing Office at http://www.gpo.gov. Additional reports from the Executive Office can be found at http://w3.access.gpo.gov/eop/index.html. (In most cases, government publications from 1996 and later are available online. You may need Adobe Acrobat Reader to successfully read files delivered in PDF format. If you do not have Adobe Acrobat Reader, it is available free of charge at http://www.adobe.com.)
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Web Resources

http://www.fedstats.gov/

This is the official government site for federal statistics. There are several ways to find information at this site. The Site map provides quick links to a list of agencies, programs, and fast facts. You can also search an alphabetical list or perform a keyword search (search tips are provided). An interesting search feature allows you to enter your state and county to receive a specific local profile called “Mapstats.” This site comprehensively provides links to all government agencies that produce statistical data. By accessing the pages for various agencies, one can get a nice, simple list of all available reports, tables, and publications available online. The site is very easy to navigate and information can be obtained without any hassle. (In fact, it is much easier to find information here than it is by using print sources. Unfortunately, you will not be able to find older data.)

This is an exceptionally researched site, with equally exceptional presentation. First, this site was done by one individual-a grandfather concerned about the legacy of the national debt. By speaking with educators and students, he was able to utilize government documents and the work of Dr. Milton Friedman, a Nobel Prize winner in the field of economics, to produce a series of reports that are informative, clear, and well illustrated. The creator, Michael Hodges, has provided a resource that pays attention to detail and statistics, with a special eye for “must know” information and charts that explain topics, rather than charts that require explanations. Reports about government spending and expansion trends, deficit information, and a national debt report are available at this site. There are also reports about social security, productivity, and inflation. The site covers various subject areas (international, taxation, education etc.) and provides an interactive site where users can find the email addresses of their congressmen based on their local zip code.

Both of these web pages provide an interesting approach to the national debt, namely the debt clock. I recommend the first site because it provides a detailed list of government generated information, as well as a detailed description of how this debt clock works. The creator, Ed Hall, has produced a clock that updates itself every few minutes. (The clock has been programmed to do this by projecting an increase based on comparisons between the most recent debt figures provided by the U.S. Department of the Treasury, which issues this information daily, and last year’s total for the same day.) Users will see the current date, the current time (PST), the outstanding public debt, and how it breaks down into family cost and individual cost. This page also provides charts, definitions, and easy to understand explanations of the debt. The second debt clock refreshes itself every second, but no information can be found with regards to its criteria or program.

Church, George J. “Rolling in Dough.” Time, 29 November 1999. Also Available online at
http://www.time.com/time/magazine/articles/0,3266,34797,00.html>.

According to this article, if current government spending is maintained, the government will eventually pull in more money (through the Social Security trust fund and taxation) than it spends. This will leave us with a surplus large enough to wipe out the National Debt within 15 years. (Church 1999.) However, there are several different opinions regarding what we should do with that money. If the surplus is being generated by Social Security, should we use the money to increase benefits? Also, due to the fluctuations of the stock market, can we actually expect that this money will be there? In other words, should we plan before we know for certain? Additionally, the article brings up concerns similar to those mentioned in the previous entry. If the government buys back Treasury Bonds, what will replace them as a trading security? Bonds are appealing because they are safe and guaranteed investments. What happens if they become less available or unavailable? Will we lose foreign investors?

Dentzer, Susan. “Delusions about deficits-and debt.” U.S. News and World Report, 4 November 1996.
Also available online at http://www.usnews.com/usnews/issue/4eo.htm. Accessed 25/03/00.

At the time of this article, only 17% of Americans surveyed correctly knew that the deficit had fallen to its lowest level in 22 years by 1996. (Dentzer 1996.) In fact, many Americans confuse debt with deficit. These terms are not synonymous. The deficit is the difference between what we make and what we spend. The debt is “the sum of what America has borrowed over the years to finance deficit.” We also forget that America earns an annual income greater than the national debt, which means our economy can support it. (As Dentzler points out, if we had a friend with a $1 million mortgage and an annual income of $2 million, we would not worry about their debt. If this is the case, why do we worry about the $5.2 trillion debt, when the U.S. Gross Domestic Product is $7.6 trillion?) This article is an interesting attempt to keep concerns about debt and deficit rational. If not for this article, I never would have known the difference between debt and deficit.

Jennie Milojevic, 2000.

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