MUHAMMAD'S EARLY YEARS
There are two main sources for the life of
Muhammad, both of which are Islamic. As far as is known, no ancient non-Muslim
source on the life of Muhammad exists. To construct a reliable biography of
Muhammad apart from these Islamic sources is impossible.
The Quran does not purport to be a
biography of Muhammad. However, the many biographical references in the Quran
are invaluable because they are contemporary with Muhammad. Their authenticity
appears to be indisputable. It is incumbent upon anyone, Muslim or non-Muslim,
attempting to write about Muhammad to utilize the Quranic evidence as honestly
and judiciously as possible, without distorting its witness.
The ancient biographies of Muhammad based
on the traditions which have been preserved are The Life History of Muhammad,
by Ibn-Ishaq (a.d. 768), edited
by Ibn-Hisham (a.d. 833); and The
Expeditions of Muhammad, by Al-Waqidi (a.d. 822). Both have been combined in an English translation
by A. Guillaume, titled The Life of Muhammad. It was published by
Oxford University Press in London in 1955. A similar book titled Muhammad:
His Life Based on the Earliest Sources, by Martin Lings, was published first
by the Islamic Texts Society in London in 1983.
His Birth at Mecca a.d.
570.
Muhammad, the prophet of Arabia, was born
at Mecca in 570. He sprang from the Quraish, a tribe that ruled over the city
and the surrounding area. His father was 'Abdu'llah, the son of
'Abdu'1-Mut-talib, a leading citizen; his mother's name was 'Amina. 'Abdu'llah
died on a trading trip at Yathrib, and soon after 'Amina gave birth to their
son. When this news was brought to 'Abdu'l-Muttalib, the grandfather, he went to
'Amina's house, and, taking the child in his arms, gave thanks to God and called
the baby Muhammad, "The Praised One."1 ,— Quraish mothers
customarily gave their infants out to a nurse in some Bedouin tribe to gain them
the healthy air of the desert. Muhammad was entrusted to Halima, who nursed the
infant until he was two years old before taking him back to 'Amina. Delighted
with his healthy look, Muhammad's mother said, "Take the child with thee
back again, for much do I fear for him the unwholesome air of Mecca." So
Halima took him back. Two years later she appeared again, but this time she was
troubled. The child had had numerous fits, which made Halima think he was demon
possessed. She was persuaded to carry him back once more, but after subsequent
epileptic fits, she returned him to his mother when he was five. Muhammad
gratefully remembered Halima's care.
The Death of 'Amina
'Amina took the child on a trip to Yathrib.
She died on the way home, leaving Muhammad in the care of his grandfather, who
died two years later at
Uncle Abu Talib Raises Muhammad
The child was then committed to the care of
his paternal uncle, Abu Talib. When Muhammad was twelve years old he was taken
by his uncle on mercantile journeys to Damascus and other cities.
Muhammad's youth passed without any other incidents of interest. He was employed, like other lads, in tending the sheep and goats of Mecca on the neighboring hills and valleys. Many years later, when passing near some shrubs with purple berries, he cried, "Pick me out the blackest ones, for they are sweet. Even such I used to gather, feeding the flocks in the valley of Mecca: and truly no prophet hath been raised up but first he hath done the work of a shepherd."
MUHAMMAD'S FIRST MARRIAGE
Khadija, A Rich Widow of Mecca
When Muhammad reached his twenty-fifth
year, his uncle, Abu Talib, recommended that he enter the service of Khadija, a
rich widow merchant of Mecca. He accompanied her trading caravan as far as
Syria. Khadija was so pleased with him that on his return, she offered to marry
him. Muhammad agreed, although she was forty years of age and had been twice
married before. She bore him two sons and four daughters. Both sons died in
infancy. Muhammad loved her faithfully until her death.
His Personal Appearance
As an adult, Muhammad was somewhat above
middle height, with a lean but commanding figure. His head was massive, with a
broad and noble forehead. He had thick black hair, slightly curling, which hung
over his ears; his eyes were large, black, and piercing; his eyebrows arched and
joined; his nose high and acquiline; and he had a long, bushy beard. When he was
excited, the veins would swell across his forehead. His eyes were often
bloodshot and always restless. Decision marked his every movement. He used to
walk so rapidly that his followers half-ran behind him and could hardly keep up
with him.
'Ayisha's Evaluation of Muhammad
'Ayisha, the youngest of his eleven wives,
said,
He was a man just such as yourselves; he
laughed often and smiled much. At home he would mend his clothes and cobble his
shoes. He used to help me in my household duties; but what he did oftenest was
to sew. He used to eat with his thumb and two fore-fingers; and when he had
done, he would lick them, beginning with the middle finger. He had a special
liking for sweetmeats and honey. He was also fond of cucumbers and undried
dates. When a lamb or a kid was being cooked, Muhammad would go to the pot, take
out the shoulder, and eat it. He never travelled without a toothpick.
'Ayisha used to say that the prophet loved
three things—women, scents, and food.
Muhammad at one time was very poor, but prospered later in life. He had twenty milch camels, yielding two large skinsful of milk every evening. He also had seven goats. He would say, "There is no house possessing a goat but a blessing abideth thereon; and there is no house possessing three goats but the angels pass the night there praying for its inmates until the morning."
PROPHETIC CLAIMS—FLIGHT TO MEDINA
Rebuilding of the Ka 'bah
The Ka'bah, having been damaged by a flood,
had to be rebuilt. The Ka'bah was the cubed stone building which housed the 360
idols of the local Arab tribes. The Ka'bah, from kaab, meaning square,
contained a black stone alleged to have been given to the first man, Adam, and
subsequently found by the patriarch Abraham to identify the place of Allah's
worship.
A quarrel arose among the leading families
as to which of them should deposit the black stone in its rightful place. They
agreed that the first citizen approaching the pagan temple should decide between
them. Muhammad then came in sight. He had been called "the Faithful
One," and all cried, "We are content." Spreading his mantle on
the ground, he bade them to place the stone upon it. "Now," said he,
"let a chief man from each of you seize a corner of this mantle and raise
the stone." When the sacred stone was lifted to the proper height, Muhammad
guided the beams to the proper place. The building was then completed. A black
curtain was later thrown over the edifice and hung like a veil all around.
Literacy, Dreams, and Early
Followers
Around Muhammad's fortieth year, the
idolatry and moral debasement of his people pressed heavily upon him, and his
soul was troubled about what might be the true religion. He often meditated in a
cave on the side of Mount Hira', two or three miles from Mecca. The view from
this place was dreary: only barren black and grey hills and white sandy valleys
met the eye. He would stroll with his faithful wife, Khadija, to Mt. Hira'.
During this period, he probably composed some of the chapters of the Quran which
express the yearning of an inquirer.7 No scribe accompanied Muhammad
at that time.
Many experts on the life of Muhammad
believe he was illiterate. However, such a claim is not true. The myth may be an
attempt to magnify the work of Muhammad in producing the Quran, thus
substantiating the so-called miraculous nature of the book. Here are my reasons
for rejecting this notion.
First, we are told that when the treaty
with the Meccans was to be signed by Muhammad, they refused to acknowledge him
as the Apostle of Allah. Relenting to their demands, he struck out that title
and wrote instead Muhammad, son of 'Abdu'llah, then signed the peace treaty.8
A second incident supporting Muhammad's
literacy occurred on his deathbed. Realizing that he was dying, he motioned to
'Ayisha, his favorite wife, to bring him something on which he could write the
name of his successor, but he was too weak to perform the task.9
Third, he served for many years as a
trading camel-caravan merchant, who would naturally know reading, writing, and
arithmetic as he travelled to Damascus and other cities.
Fourth, while visiting the St. Catherine's
Monastery at Mt. Sinai in 1979, I was shown a personal letter said to be signed
by Muhammad himself, guaranteeing the freedom of the monks and their monastery
and dated in 632. The document was issued because the monks honored Islam by
building a small mosque within their walled fortress. If this document is
verified as coming from Muhammad's hand, it presents strong proof for his
literacy.
Fifth, the most eloquent and articulate in
the Arabic language are the Bedouins. Muhammad lived with them until he was five
years old. He then travelled with them as an adult and learned their classical
language, which to this day is not any different from the Quranic Arabic. In
other words, just as Shakespeare and the King James Bible present us with
beautiful seventeenth-century English, so does the Quran with seventh-century
Arabic.
Finally, in Surat al-'Alaq (The Clot)
96:1-5, Gabriel, the angel of inspiration, commands Muhammad to read and
Muhammad reads! If Muhammad could read, could he not also write? Why would Allah
also refer to Muhammad as the one "who taught by the pen" if the
prophet could not write?
Now Muhammad's writing ability may be
disputed, but his dreams and visions are not. At times we are told that
Muhammad's mind was so troubled that escape by suicide was suggested. Once when
seeking a precipice from which to jump, it is said that he was suddenly arrested
by the angel Gabriel seated on a throne in the sky, who called, "O
Muhammad, thou who art the Prophet of the Lord, I am Gabriel."
At times Muhammad's excitement took the
shape of a trance or vision. At the moment of inspiration, the tradition says,
sweat dropped from his forehead, and
he fell to the ground. Once, as he lay wrapped in his garment and stretched upon
his carpet, Gabriel again addressed him, bidding him, "Arise and
preach!" Muhammad then believed himself to be a commissioned apostle, the
Prophet of Allah sent to reclaim a fallen people.10
The first convert to Islam was Muhammad's
wife, Khadija; the next two were Ali, his cousin, and Zeyd, his adopted son; and
afterwards his friend, Abi Bakr, a prosperous merchant. Others followed till
Muhammad had about forty adherents. When he began to preach publicly, he called
the new way Islam, or "surrender" to the will of God.
Problems with the Meccans
The Meccans at first gave little heed to
the teaching of Muhammad; but no sooner did he condemn their idols than they
became angry and persecuted his new converts. Zeyd was attacked while leading a
party in prayer. He defended himself and struck one of his opponents with a
camel's goad.1' This was the first blood spilled for the cause of
Islam.
As the believers increased in number, so
did the enmity of the persecutors. Muhammad recommended those of his followers
who were without protection to seek asylum in a foreign land. Some went for a
time to Abyssinia (Ethiopia). Muhammad tried to protect his followers by
arranging a compromise with the Meccans, which admitted their gods into his
system as intercessors. He recited the following lines as inspired:
Have ye thought upon Al-Lat and
Al-'Uzza and Manat, the third, the other?
Al-Lat, Al'Uzza, and Manat were the three
protecting Arabic deities of Mecca. "These are exalted goddesses,"
Muhammad instructed his followers, "and verily their intercession is to be
sought." The compromise brought reconciliation and led the Meccans to bow
before the God of Muhammad. But Muhammad soon repented of what he had done.13
He gave the message as now found in the Quran, confessing that the previous
verses were inspired by Satan.
Are yours the males and His the females?
That indeed was an unfair division! They are but names which ye have named, ye
and your fathers, for which Allah hath revealed no warrant.
Salman Rushdie's Satanic Verses caused
a worldwide furor among the Muslims in February 1989.
In the tenth year of his mission and the
fiftieth of his life, Muhammad lost his faithful wife, Khadija, who died at
sixty-five. Abu Talib, his uncle and guardian, died a few weeks afterward.
Khadija was the only wife of Muhammad during her lifetime. His grief over her
death at first was inconsolable; but within two months he married Sauda, a
widow. He also betrothed himself to 'Ayisha, the daughter of his best friend Abu
Bakr, then only seven years of age.15 Muhammad eventually married
fifteen women, eleven of whom are mentioned in this chapter because of their
importance. From several historical accounts, it is clear that he married
someone new every year after Khadija's death.
In the sixtieth year of his life, Muhammad
was joined by two leading citizens of Mecca, his uncle Hamza and 'Umar. Noted
for bravery, Hamza was called the "Lion of God." Umar was a former
persecutor, who confessed to Muhammad, "Verily, I testify that thou art the
prophet of God." Filled with delight, Muhammad cried aloud, "Allahu
Akbar" (Allah is greater).
The Quraish elders of Mecca became alarmed
at the progress of Muhammad's religion and tried for a time to suspend all
dealings with him and his followers; but the interdict had to be cancelled due
to popular pressure.
The Flight to Medina
Soon after the death of Abu Talib, Muhammad
and Zeyd went to Ta'if, a city to the east of Mecca. The people refused to
listen to their message because they had a god of their own. Hooting and
yelling, the citizens drove the two visitors through the streets and pelted them
with stones. Blood flowed from Muhammad, and his companion was wounded in the
head. On their way back to Mecca, Muhammad said that a company of Jinn, or
spirits, pressed around them to hear the preaching of Islam.
Two hundred and seventy miles north of
Mecca is Yathrib. Twelve idolaters from that city accepted Islam during the
annual pilgrimage and pledged their faith to Muhammad. This was called "the
first pledge of Aqaba," named after the location where they met at night.
The twelve (on their return to Medina) became zealous missionaries of Islam and
spread the faith from house to house. They wrote to Muhammad for a teacher able
to instruct inquirers.16 The Prophet Muhammad's hopes were now fixed
on Yathrib, which was renamed Medina after he took up residence there.
Another year passed for Muhammad without
any progress at Mecca, then tidings came to him of the growth of Islam at
Yathrib. Arriving at Mecca for the pilgrimage, the enthusiastic band of
disciples from Yathrib surrounded him and placed their life and property at his
service.
After two months nearly all of the Islamic
believers had left for Yathrib with their households except for Muhammad and Abu
Bakr. The Quraish became determined to slay Muhammad, but being warned of their
design, he fled with Abu Bakr to a cave near Mecca, where they hid for three
days. Miracles were reported to have happened there. Allegedly, a spider wove
her web across the mouth of the cave and branches sprouted over it on which wild
pigeons settled as camouflage. On the evening of the fourth day, Muhammad and
Abu Bakr set out for Yathrib. The date was June 25, 622. Muhammad was
fifty-three years of age. Muslims observe this as "The Hijra," or
Flight, which marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar.17
MUHAMMAD THE CONQUEROR
Medina's Chief and Muhammad's Marriage to
'Ayisha
The first year of Muhammad's residence at
Yathrib, now renamed Medina, was chiefly occupied in building the great Mosque
and in providing houses for himself and his followers. Shortly afterward he
celebrated his marriage with 'Ayisha, then a ten-year-old girl.
The Battle of Badr
Muhammad heard that a rich caravan of the
Quraish was on its way from Syria to Mecca, so he took 305 men out to plunder
it. The Quraish of the caravan, with others who joined them from Mecca, numbered
about a thousand. In the battle which took place at Badr, about fifty of the
Quraish were slain and about as many taken prisoners, while Muhammad lost only
fourteen. Among those killed was the leader of the caravan, Abu Jahl, who had
greatly opposed Muhammad at Mecca. When his head was cast at Muhammad's feet, it
is said that the prophet exclaimed, "It is more acceptable to me than the
choicest camel of Arabia." After the battle was over, two of the prisoners
were executed. Those who declared themselves believers in the one God Allah were
set free. The rest were kept for ransom.
There was a sharp contention about the
division of the spoil. Muhammad, in the name of Allah, took one-fifth of the
plunder and divided the remainder among his warriors. It was Allah who had given
the victory and to Allah the spoil belonged, Muhammad said. Afterward he
proclaimed an ordinance which is recognized to this day by the Muslims:
"Know that whatsoever thing ye plunder, verily one-fifth thereof is for God
and for the Prophet."
The battle of Badr is memorable as the
occasion on which Muhammad first drew the sword in assertion of his claim as the
commissioned apostle of the Most High Allah. The ensuing victory was alleged to
be a sign of this truth. Hence Muhammad was received in triumph on his return to
Medina.18
The first blood shed at Medina under
devotion to Muhammad was a woman's. Asma, daughter of Mer-wan, belonged to a
family which still clung to the ancestral faith. She made no secret that she
disliked Islam, and she composed verses on the folly of putting faith in a
stranger who had slain so many of his own people in battle.
These verses quickly spread from mouth to
mouth. The Muslims were offended, and 'Umair, a blind man of Asma's tribe, vowed
that he would kill her. In the dead of night, he crept to the apartment where
Asma lay asleep with her children. Stealthily, he removed her suckling baby and
plunged his sword into her breast, pinning her to the couch. The next morning,
in the mosque at prayer, 'Umair acquainted Muhammad (who was aware of the
scheme) with what he had done. Muhammad turned to the bystanders and said,
"Behold a man that hath assisted the Lord and His prophet. Call him not
blind, call him rather ' 'Umair,' the seeing."19 On his way home
'Umair encountered members of Asma's family who criticized him for the murder.
He defended it openly and threatened the whole clan with the same fate. They
were so alarmed that they pledged loyalty to the Muslim party to avoid a
blood-feud.
The Battle Against the Jewish Tribes
Medina was founded by refugee Jews from
Syria, and many still remained in the city. At first Muhammad tried to win them
over by representing himself as only a teacher of the creed of Abraham, but they
refused to acknowledge him as a prophet. Muhammad now felt himself strong enough
to use force.
The members of one of the Jewish tribes
were goldsmiths and lived in a fort outside the city. Muhammad summoned them to
acknowledge him as the apostle of God, lest they should suffer the fate of the
Quraish. The Jews refused, and an insult hurled at a Muslim maiden gave Muhammad
the pretext to attack them. Placing his great white banner, fresh from the field
of Badr, in the hands of Hamza, he marched against the Jewish tribes and
besieged their fort.
After some time they surrendered. One by
one, as they came out of their fortress, they were pinioned for execution.
'Abdu'llah ibn 'Ubai could not bear the sight, and begged for mercy; but
Muhammad turned away from him. Then seizing Muhammad by the arm, 'Abdu'llah
repeated his request.
"Let me alone," retorted
Muhammad. But 'Abdu'llah did not relax his grasp. "Wretch, let me go,"
cried the prophet.
"Nay," answered 'Abdu'llah,
"I will not let thee go until thou showest mercy on my friends who stood by
me on the day of battle."
"Then let them go," said Muhammad
sullenly. "The Lord curse them and him too!"
They were freed but banished, and all their
houses and goods were distributed among Muhammad and his followers.20
The Battle of Uhud
At Mecca there was a burning desire to
avenge the defeat at Badr. Twelve months later, three thousand Quraish marched
north and camped at Uhud, a mountain three miles northeast of Medina. Muhammad,
clad in armor, led out his army of one thousand men, halted for the night, and
at early dawn advanced on Uhud. He was soon abandoned by 'Abdu'llah and three
hundred men. In the battle that ensued, the Muslims were defeated. Khalid,
commanding the right wing of the Quraish, raised the cry, "Muhammad is
slain!" The confusion of the Faithful was great and defied all Muhammad's
attempts to rally them. During this turmoil, Muhammad was wounded in the face.
The retreat, however, was still ably conducted, and the Quraish did not attempt
a pursuit thinking that he was dead. Seventy Muslims were slain, and Muhammad
comforted their friends by declaring the dead as martyrs in Allah's cause and
now alive with Allah in Paradise.21
MORE WIVES FOR MUHAMMAD
The Fourth Wife—Hafsa, Daughter of
'Umar
About this time Muhammad took a fourth
wife, Hafsa, the daughter of 'Umar. There was much rivalry between Hafsa and
'Ayisha, but the latter succeeded in maintaining her supremacy.
None of Muhammad's marriages at Medina
produced a male heir. It was only later, through his youngest daughter Fatima,
that his line was perpetuated. When she was seventeen, she was given in marriage
to 'Ali, Muhammad's childhood friend and cousin, then twenty-five. Within twelve
months she gave birth to Hasan, and the year after to Husain.22
The Fifth Wife—Zainab, His Adopted
Son's Ex-wife
One day Muhammad went to visit the house of
his adopted son Zeyd, but Zeyd was not there. Muhammad accidentally saw Zeyd's
wife, Zainab, unveiled. Smitten by her beauty, Muhammad exclaimed, "Praise
belongeth unto God who turneth the hearts of men even as He will." These
words were overheard by Zainab, who, proud of her conquest, told her husband of
it. Zeyd went at once to Muhammad and offered to divorce his wife for him. At
first Muhammad refused, for it was a thing unheard of to marry the divorced wife
of an adopted son; but Zeyd carried out his proposal. Muhammad at last resolved
to have Zainab. Sitting by 'Ayisha, he professed to have a revelation
from Allah, and said, "Who will run and tell Zainab that the Lord hath
joined her to me in marriage?" Zainab was overjoyed and gave the messenger
all the jewels she had on her person. This event demonstrates that the
traditional view that Muhammad's numerous marriages were for political reasons
or to care for some widows is not true.23
The marriage caused great scandal. To save
his reputation, Muhammad sought to justify his conduct by affirming that it was
done by Allah's command:
So when Zeyd had performed the necessary
formality (of divorce) from her, We gave her unto thee in marriage, so that
(henceforth) there may be no sin for believers in respect of wives of their
adopted sons, when the latter have performed the necessary
formality (of release) from them. The commandment of Allah must be
fulfilled.
Afterward, Zainab vaunted herself as the only wife of
Muhammad who had been given in marriage by Allah Himself.
The same Surat, at 33:50, allows Muhammad
more than four wives:
O Prophet! Lo! We have made lawful unto
thee thy wives unto whom thou hast paid their dowries, and those whom thy right
hand possesseth of those whom Allah hath given thee as spoils of war, and a
believing woman if she give herself unto the Prophet and the Prophet desire to
ask her in marriage — a privilege for thee only, not for the (rest of)
believers.
In verse 59 of the same Surat, rules are
laid down for the seclusion of women, especially in the case of Muhammad's
wives. The latter were not to be spoken to unless they were behind a curtain. It
was also said that Allah had forbidden them from ever marrying after Muhammad's
death. They were virtually "captives" in the prophet's houses.
The Sixth Wife—Juwariyah
During his residence at Medina, Muhammad
gratified the ruling passion of the Arabs and gained many adherents by
his numerous expeditions for plunder. In one case, 1,000 camels, 5,000 sheep,
and a great many women and children became the spoil of the Muslims. Among the
captives was Juwariyah, the wife of one of the chiefs, distinguished for her
beauty. Muhammad ransomed her, took her to be his wife, and built a special room
for her reception.25
The Seventh Wife—Raihana, A Jewess
At the conclusion of the battle against the
Quraiza Jews, Raihana was kept by Muhammad as his seventh wife. Her husband and
male relatives had all perished in the massacre. Muhammad offered her marriage,
but she preferred to remain his bondslave. She declined Islam, but she had no
escape from the embrace of her conqueror.26
The Eighth Wife—Maryam
An Egyptian Christian Slave Girl
A year after the battle with the Quraiza
Jews, Muhammad sent letters to various foreign sovereigns inviting them to
embrace Islam. The message was unheeded except by Al-Moqawqas, the governor of
Egypt. He sent Muhammad two Christian slave girls, Maryam and her sister Sirin,
and a white mule. Muhammad chose Mary, or Maryam, the fairer slave, for himself.
The fondness of Muhammad for Mary was resented by his numerous wives. To show
his displeasure for their attitude, he lived for a month with Mary alone, even
though he had instructed Muslims to marry as many as four wives provided they
were treated equally. Furthermore, he warned the other wives by revelation,
It may happen that his Lord, if he divorce
you, will give him in your stead wives better than you, submissive (to Allah),
believing, pious, penitent, inclined to fasting, widows and maids.27
The Ninth Wife—Safiyya from the
Khaibar Jews
In the seventh year of the Hijra, Muhammad
attacked Khaibar, a Jewish settlement on the way to Syria. The Jews surrendered
the citadel on condition that the people be free to leave the country, giving up
all their wealth to the conquerors. The chief, Kinana, was accused of keeping
back part of his treasure, upon which he was tortured to death.
Among the female captives was Safiyya, the
widow of Kinana and just fifteen years of age. One of Muhammad's followers
begged to have her for himself, but the prophet, struck with her beauty, threw
his mantle over her, and took her to his harem. The wedding was celebrated by a
feast. This is further evidence that Muhammad's marriages were neither for
political nor humanitarian purposes but purely for passion.28
The Tenth Wife—Urn Habeeba
On his return to Medina in 628, Muhammad
married his tenth wife—Um Habeeba, the widowed daughter of Abu Sufyan. She had
emigrated with her husband and other Muslims in 615 to Abyssinia to escape
persecution. But her husband had renounced Islam, become a Christian, and died.
Muhammad sent for her with a marriage proposal. The marriage was consumated in
628.29
The Eleventh Wife—Maimuna of Mecca
During a short stay at Mecca in 629, for
the Lesser Pilgrimage, Muhammad also arranged to marry Maimuna, his eleventh
wife. This marriage gained for him two of his most important converts: Khalid,
Ibn al Waleed, called the "Sword of God," and 'Amr, a leading chief of
Mecca.30
ISLAMIC BATTLES
The Siege of Medina
The Quraish and Bedouins made another
attempt to capture Medina with an army of ten thousand men. Following the advice
of a Persian, Muhammad had a trench dug around Medina, a technique unknown until
then in Arabia. Muhammad encouraged the citizens in their work by bearing
baskets of the excavated earth and by joining them in their songs. The Quraish
were unable to cross the trench, supplies ran short, camels died, and drenching
rain fell. The camp eventually disbanded, and the attackers returned home.
Muhammad attributed their "retreat" to the intervention of Allah.
During the sixth year of the Hijra, there
were as many as seventeen expeditions, which generally ended in the capture of
flocks and herds or other booty. These served to spread the terror of Muhammad's
name.
The Battle with the Quraiza Jews
Not long after the siege was lifted from
Medina, Muhammad marched with three thousand men against the Quraiza Jews. The
besieged Jews, numbering over two thousand souls, surrendered at last. The
Jewish men, with hands tied behind their backs, were kept in one place. The
women and children were placed under the charge of a renegade Jew. The spoil was
put aside for division. A wounded chief named Sa'd was asked to decide the fate
of the captives. His judgment was that the men should be put to death, the women
and children sold into slavery, and the spoil divided among the Islamic army. A
shrill of horror ran through the assembly, but Muhammad stopped all questioning.
"Truly," said he, "the judgment of Sa'd is the judgment of the
Lord, pronounced on high from above the seventh heaven."
During the night trenches were dug across
the" marketplace. In the morning Muhammad commanded the male captives to be
brought out in companies of five or six at a time. As each party came up, they
were made to sit down in a row on the brink of the trench. There they were
beheaded, and their bodies cast into the trench. The butchery lasted all day and
continued by torchlight into the night.31
Zainab, a Jewess, lost her husband, father,
and brother in this bloody battle, and she planned a revenge. She cooked a goat,
steeped it in poison, and placed the dish before Muhammad for his evening
supper. Accepting the gift, he took for himself his favorite piece, the
shoulder, and distributed portions to Abu Bakr and other friends.
"Hold," cried Muhammad, as he spat out the first mouthful, "this
shoulder has been poisoned." One who had swallowed part of the meat soon
died. Muhammad was seized with excruciating pains. Zainab defended herself,
saying,
Thou hast inflicted grievous injuries on my
people, and slain, as thou seest, my husband and my father. Therefore, said I
within myself, If he be a prophet he will reject the gift, knowing that it is
poisoned; but if only a pretender we shall be rid of our troubles.
The Conquest of Mecca
A truce, scheduled to last ten years, had
been established with the Quraish; but within two years Muhammad decided he was
strong enough to conquer Mecca, breaking the truce. A dispute among the tribes
afforded him his pretext. In January 630, he set out for Mecca at the head of
ten thousand men. On the eighth day, he halted on the heights next to the city.
Abu Sufyan, the great opponent of Muhammad, sought a personal interview. When
they met, Muhammad said to him, "Has the time not yet come for thee to
acknowledge that there is but one God and that I am his Apostle?" He
replied that he was still in some doubt. At this 'Abbas, threatening him with
his sword, said, "Believe and testify thy faith at the peril of thy
neck." Abu Sufyan then repeated the formula of belief, and he was sent to
prepare the city for the approach of Muhammad.
The Quraish knew resistance would be
hopeless. Muhammad made his triumphant entry into Mecca, unchallenged, on his
favorite camel. On his way he recited Surat al-Fath (Victory) 48. He then rode
around the Ka'bah seven times, touching the black stone with his stick. He
ordered daily prayers to be said in the direction of the Ka'bah from that time
on. He also ordered the destruction of the 360 idols within the temple, and he
personally destroyed a wooden pigeon suspended from the roof which was regarded
as one of the deities of the Quraish. His uncle 'Abbas was appointed to give
drink to pilgrims out of the well, Zamzam. Alms were accepted by Muhammad's
uncle for this drinking water.
During his stay at Mecca, Muhammad sent out
troops into the district to destroy the temples of 'Uzza, Suwa, and Manat, and
the idols of the neighboring tribes. His high-strung deputy Khalid, ordered a
whole tribe to be slain because they would not acknowledge Muhammad as Allah's
prophet. Muhammad distanced himself, declaring that he was innocent of what
Khalid had done.33
MUHAMMAD'S LAST DAYS
Farewell Pilgrimage
In the tenth year of the Hijra, at age
sixty-three, Muhammad set out with thousands of followers and all his wives for
Mecca. He led a hundred camels, marked by his own hand for sacrifice, in solemn
order. At the Ka'bah he carefully performed all the ceremonies of the Lesser
Pilgrimage, then proceeded to do those of the Greater. On the eighth day of the
holy month, he set out for Mina, a short distance from Mecca, where he spent the
night. The next day he went to 'Arafat, a small conical hill. Ascending the
summit, he declared the valley sacred, saying,
This day have I perfected your religion for you and completed My favour unto
you, and have chosen for you as religion AL-ISLAM. Whoso is forced by hunger,
not by will, to sin: (for him) lo! Allah is Forgiving, Merciful.34
On the tenth day, proceeding to Mina, he
cast the accustomed stones at projecting eminences of the narrow valley to drive
away the devil, slew the victims brought for sacrifice, had his head shaved and
his nails pared, ordered the hair to be burned, and as the ceremonies ended,
laid aside his pilgrim garb. Returning to Mecca, Muhammad once again made the
seven circuits of the Ka'bah and drank from the sacred well, Zamzam. Then he
took off his shoes and went into the Ka'bah to pray. Having rigorously performed
the ceremonies as a model for all time, he returned to Medina.35
Sickness and Death
In the third month of the eleventh year of
the Hijra, Muhammad fell sick. The recent death of his infant son, Ibrahim,
weighed his spirits down, and the poison he had consumed at Khaibar still
bothered him. During a violent attack of fever, he called his wives together and
said: "You see that I am very sick. I am not able to visit you in turn. If
it be pleasing to you, I will remain in the house of 'Ayisha." They agreed.
After the fever had lasted nearly two
weeks, his illness violently intensified on a Saturday night. Racked and
restless, he tossed on his bed. Replying to one who tried to comfort him,
Muhammad said, "There is not upon earth a believer sore afflicted, but the
Lord causeth his sins to fall off from him even as the leaves from off the trees
in autumn."36
On Sunday he lay through the whole day in
weakness. When he swooned, his wives gave him some medicine. Reviving, he asked
what they had been doing to him. On being told, he said that they had given him
medicine for another complaint, and he ordered them all to partake of the
medicine. So the women arose and poured the medicine in the presence of the
dying prophet into each other's mouths.
Monday morning brought relief with some
return of strength. Muhammad, leaning on an attendant, entered the mosque and
sat on the ground for the service.
After a little conversation, he was helped
back to the chamber of 'Ayisha. Exhausted, he lay down upon the bed. 'Ayisha,
seeing him very low and weak, raised his head from the pillow as she sat by him
on the ground, and placed his head on her bosom. His strength soon rapidly sank.
He called for a pitcher of water and wetting his face from it, prayed, "O
Lord, I beseech Thee, assist me in the agonies of death, come close, O Gabriel,
to me." His last words in a whisper were, "Lord grant me pardon;
Eternity, in Paradise! Pardon. The blessed companionship on high." He
stretched himself gently, and the prophet of Arabia was no more. It was a little
after midday on the eighth of June 632.37
Burial
During the night his faithful followers
laid out and washed his body. In the morning the people came in groups to gaze
at his still form. His grave was dug on the spot where he had breathed his last.
In the evening his red mantle was spread at the bottom of the grave, and his
body was lowered into it. The vault was covered over with bricks, and the grave
was made level with the floor.
The tomb is now close to the great mosque
of Medina, which ranks in holiness next to that of Mecca. The present mosque,
erected by a Mamaluke Sultan of Egypt in the sixteenth century, is the sixth
which has stood on the spot.
The Khalifas
From 632 to 661, four Khalifs ruled from
Medina, elected by the closest followers of the prophet. (Khalif means "a
successor" in Arabic, but it became the title of the person who became the
religious and political leader after Muhammad's death.)
Abu Bakr, the first Khalif, sent Khalid to
subdue the tribes who rebelled immediately after the death of Muhammad. United
by a military force of 18,000, they advanced on Palestine and Syria in 634 and
defeated the Byzantine armies at Yarmouk River on August 26, 636.38
Forty thousand more Muslims marched to conquer North Africa.
At the death of Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al
Khattab was elected the second Khalif. It was Umar who accepted the peaceful
surrender of Jerusalem. Umar was stabbed in the Medina Mosque in 646.
The next Khalif was Uthman ibn Affan, who
spearheaded the revision of the Quran. He too was murdered when 80 years old
while reading the Quran at his palace.
Muawiya became the next Khalif, ruling from
Damascus. His Omayyid dynasty ruled the Muslim world for ninety years. The
grandson of Muhammad, Husain, was brutally killed by the Omayyids in Kerbela in
Iraq on October 10, 680. The feud between the Omayyids and Beni Hashim split the
Muslim world and continues to this day. The Shi'ites are the ones who support
the claims of the elected Khalif Ali because of Ali's blood relationship to the
prophet. The other major sect is called Sunni, which supports the elected Khalif
by majority vote.