Environmental jargon explained
A - Z of environmental terminology
ACID RAIN
The precipitation of dilute solutions of strong mineral acids, formed by the mixing in the atmosphere of various industrial pollutants -- primarily sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides -- with naturally occurring oxygen and water vapor.
AEROBIC
Relating to or requiring free oxygen.
A process that depends on microorganisms which requires free oxygen or air for their metabolism.
AEROSOL
A suspension of small liquid or solid particles in gas.
AGENT ORANGE
A herbicide used in Vietnam. Toxic chemical defoliant used by American military to deprive the enemy of food and of hiding places in the jungles, by killing all vegetation. Nicknamed �Agent Orange� because of the identifying orange stripe on its steel drum containers. It was sprayed over large areas by aircraft and over smaller areas by hand. It was supposed to have been diluted 20:1, but it was used full strength. Many Vietnam Veterans and subsequent generations suffer from health problems today caused by exposure to Agent
Orange.
AGGREGATE
Normally loose sand or stone material, often used to make cement or in construction in general (such as road resurfacing). Primary or virgin aggregate is newly extracted material. Secondary aggregate is material that has been used previously and recycled or recovered.
AGROCHEMICAL
Synthetic chemicals (most often pesticides and fertilizers) used in agricultural production.
AIR POLLUTION
Toxic or radioactive gases or particulate matter introduced into the atmosphere, usually as a result of human activity.
ALTERNATIVE ENERGY
Energy that is not popularly used and is usually environmentally sound, such as solar or wind energy (as opposed to fossil fuels).
ALTERNATIVE FIBRES
Fibers produced from non-wood sources for use in paper making.
ALTERNATIVE FUELS
Transportation fuels other than gasoline or diesel. Includes natural gas, methanol, and electricity.
ALTERNATIVE TRANSPORTATION
Modes of travel other than private cars, such as walking, bicycling, rollerblading, carpooling and transit.
AMENDMENT
ANAEROBIC
Living or taking place in the absence of free oxygen.
ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
The biological breakdown of organic material in the absence of oxygen. Anaerobic process/digestion
Living or taking place in the absence of free oxygen.
A change or addition to an existing law or rule.
ANCIENT FOREST
A forest that is typically older than 200 years with large trees, dense canopies and an abundance of diverse wildlife.
ANTARCTICA
An extremely cold continent at the south pole almost entirely below the Antarctic Circle; covered by an ice cap up to 13,000 feet deep. After splitting from Gondwana, Antarctica drifted slowly to its present position over the South Pole. Its climate was much warmer until its arrival around the pole. There may have been significant ice sheets 30 million years ago. It has been covered with ice since approximately the beginning of the Pliocene, about 5 million years ago. Antarctica is the coldest place on earth and is almost entirely covered by ice. Marginal ice shelves around the Antarctic Peninsula have been lost since 1950. Prince Gustav Channel was blocked until 1995 by ice which did not exist from about 6500 years ago to 1900 years ago, including most of the Holocene Climatic Optimum and through part of the following cooler period. The lowest temperature ever recorded on earth was -89.4 �C (-129 �F) recorded in 1983 at Vostok Station. The highest temperature ever recorded in Antarctica was 14.6 C (58.3 F) in Hope Bay. Weather patterns rarely penetrate far into the continent, leaving the center cold and dry. There is little precipitation over the continent, but ice there can last for a long time. Antarctica is not to be confused with the arctic, which is located near the Earth's North Pole. Antarctica was discovered in late January 1820 by European explorers. Several nations, particularly those close to the continent, made territorial claims in the 20th century. These claims have little practical relevance but continue be observed by cartographers. Antarctica is the fifth largest continent in area. However, it is the smallest in population, mostly populated by scientific specialists housed in makeshift conditions. It is usually estimated that at a given time there are at least 1000 people living in Antarctica. This varies strongly with season. Antarctica has no permanent residents, but a number of governments maintain permanent research stations on the continent. Many of the stations are staffed around the year. Most countries that have observation or study facilities in Antarctica have those facilities within their claimed territory. The Antarctic Treaty defers these claims and most other nations do not recognize them. No other nations have made claims themselves, although the United States and Russia assert the right to do so.
ANTARCTIC OZONE HOLE
Due to the continuing human-induced destruction of the ozone layer, the UV radiation on the earth's surface is increasing, and this in the long run may be ruinous for humans and the biosphere as a whole. In 1970, P.J. Crutzen was among the first to reveal that nitrogen oxides emitted into the atmosphere as a result of using agricultural fertilizers, together with nitrogen oxides emitted by sub- and supersonic aircraft, can be ruinous for the ozone layer. In 1974 M. Molina and S. Rowland revealed the ozone-destructive role of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) that are industrial products, used in refrigeration systems, air conditioners, aerosols, and solvents; their conclusions were later confirmed by subsequent studies. In September 1984, S. Chubachi announced that the Antarctic station at Syowa (69�S, 40�E) had recorded a drop in ozone values during many days of the 1982 Antarctic spring and in May 1985, J. Farman et al., reported the severe ozone depletion over Antarctica. In general, the "ozone hole" is defined as the area with a substantial reduction below the naturally occurring concentration of ozone in the overhead column. As a factor involved in the formation of the "ozone hole" at the high latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere, of great importance is the specific dynamics of the Antarctic atmosphere, which is characteristic of the presence of a circumpolar vortex in winter and spring seasons, which "captures" the circumpolar air; the air temperature then drops to -90�C, and this provokes the formation of polar stratospheric clouds (PSC). Heterogeneous chemical reactions on the surfaces of the ice particles of these clouds transform comparatively inert ClONO2 and HCl into active forms of chlorine compounds, catalyzing ozone depletion, and also combining (binding) nitrogen compounds.
The discovery of the essential role of CFCs in the formation of the "ozone hole" in the Antarctic provoked interest towards studying CFCs concentrations in the Antarctic atmosphere. At first (over 20 years ago) at the Amundsen-Scott station at the South Pole, and later at the Palmer station (66.46�S; 64.04�W), regular observations of concentrations of chlorine- containing compounds in the atmosphere were performed. The data of these observations are important for the assessment of the effects of measures intended for CFCs emission reduction, in accordance with the Montreal Protocol (the CFC production was reduced by 10-20% with respect to the maximum level of the 1980s).
The exceptional event over Antarctica in September 2002.
According to the September 30 Press Release from NASA and NOAA (NASA/NOAA 2002), the size of the Antarctic ozone hole was around 15 million km2 during the last two weeks of September 2002, which is well below the more than 24 million km2 seen in this season during the last six years. See chloroflurocarbons.
ANTHRAX
An infectious disease caused by the bacteria Bacillus anthracis. Weaponized anthrax spores are dispersed by aerosol, and are highly lethal to humans. Anthrax has been produced as a biological weapons agent, and is suspected as a potential agent for use by bioterrorists.
AQAUCULTURE
The controlled rearing of fish or shellfish by people or corporations who own the harvestable product, often involving the capture of the eggs or young of a species from wild sources, followed by rearing more intensively than possible in nature.
AQUIFER
Underground source of water.
ARISINGS
Usually referred to as "waste arisings", it means the amount of waste generated, or entering the waste management regime.
ARMS CONTROL
Coordinated action based on agreements to limit, regulate, or reduce weapon systems by the parties involved.
ASBESTOS
(1)A common form of magnesium silicate which was used in various construction products due to it's stability and resistance to fire. Asbestos exposure by inhaling loose asbestos fibers is associated with various forms of lung disease.
(2) The name given to certain inorganic minerals when they occur in fibrous form. Though fire-resistant, its extremely fine fibers are easily inhaled, and exposure to them over a period of years has been linked to cancers of the lung or lung-cavity lining and to asbestosis, a severe lung impairment.
ASH
Incombustible residue left over after incineration or other thermal processes.
ASTHMA
A condition marked by labored breathing, constriction of the chest, coughing and gasping usually brought on by allergies, said to be greatly aggravated by airborne pollutants.
ATMOSPHERE
The 500 km thick layer of air surrounding the earth which supports the existence of all flora and fauna.
ATOMIC ENERGY
Energy released in nuclear reactions. When a neutron splits an atom's nucleus into smaller pieces it is called fission. When two nuclei are joined together under millions of degrees of heat it is called fusion.
AUTOCLAVING
A system of sterilisation using steam under pressure.
BEACH CLOSURE
The closing of a beach to swimming, usually because of pollution.
BENCHMARK
When referring to the context of waste management, it is a baseline level, against which any subsequent results or figures can be compared. Often used as a standard or starting point for legislative targets relating to environmental performance: For example, the European Landfill Directive uses 1995 landfill figures as a baseline.
BHOPAL DISASTER
The Bhopal Disaster of 1984 killed thousands of people in the Indian The Republic of India, located in South Asia and comprising most of the Indian subcontinent is the second most populous country in the world and is the world's largest democracy, with over one billion people speaking more than one hundred distinct languages. The Indian economy is the fourth-largest in the world, in terms of purchasing power parity. India borders Bangladesh, Myanmar, China, Bhutan, Nepal and Pakistan, with Sri Lanka and the Maldives just across the Indian mainland in the Indian Ocean. Its biggest urban agglomerations are Bombay (Mumbai) in the South-West and Calcutta (Kolkata) at the river Ganges.
On December 3, 1984, a Union Carbide plant in Bhopal leaked 40 tons of toxic methyl isocyanate gas, which killed around 2000 people. The accidental released forty tons of methyl isocyanate Methyl isocyanate (also isocyanatomethane, methyl carbonyl amine, MIC. C2H3NO; H3C-N=C=O) is a clear, colourless, sharp smelling liquid. It is highly flammable, boils at 39.1 �C and has a low flash point. It is extremely toxic and can damage by inhalation, ingestion and contact in quantities as low as 0.4 ppm. Damage includes coughing, chest pain, dyspnea, asthma, irritation of the eyes, nose and throat as well as skin damage. Higher levels of exposure, over 21 ppm, can result in pulmonary or lung edema, emphysema and hemorrhages, bronchial pneumonia and death. Detectable odour and threshold levels for humans are triple the permissible exposure. (MIC) from a chemical plant located in the heart of the city. This event was one of the worst industrial disasters in history, with significant injuries to at least 50,000 people.
The accident was caused by the introduction of water into MIC holding tanks. The resulting reaction generated large volumes of toxic gas, forcing the emergency release of pressure. The gas escaped while the chemical 'scrubbers' which should have treated the gas were off-line for repairs. Investigations have revealed that many safety procedures were bypassed and the standard of operations in the Indian plant did not match those at other Union Carbide.
BILL
A proposed law, to be debated and voted on.
BIOACCUMULATION
The uptake and storage of increasing quantities of substances by living tissue.
BIODEGRADEABLE
Waste material composed primarily of naturally-occurring constituent parts, able to be broken down and absorbed into the ecosystem. Wood, for example, is biodegradable, for example, while plastics are not.
BIODIVERSITY
A large number and wide range of species of animals, plants, fungi, and microorganisms. Ecologically, wide biodiversity is conducive to the development of all species.
BIOFILTER
A biological reactor where polluted air can be biologically treated by passing it through a packed bed of compost, wood chips, activated carbon etc, in which micro-organisms can absorb and degrade vapour pollutants.
BIOMASS
(1) the amount of living matter in an area, including plants, large animals and insects.
(2) plant materials and animal waste used as fuel.
BIOSPHERE
(1) the part of the earth and its atmosphere in which living organisms exist or that is capable of supporting life.
(2) the living organisms and their environment composing the biosphere.
BIOSPHERE RESERVE
A part of an international network of preserved areas designated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Biosphere Reserves are vital centers of biodiversity where research and monitoring activities are conducted, with the participation of local communities, to protect and preserve healthy natural systems threatened by development. The global system currently includes 324 reserves in 83 countries.
BIOTIC
of or relating to life.
BIRTH CONTROL
Preventing birth or reducing frequency of birth, primarily by preventing conception.
BIRTH DEFECTS
Unhealthy defects found in newborns, often caused by the mother's exposure to environmental hazards or the intake of drugs or alcohol during pregnancy.See Depleted Uranium with regard to birth abnormalities.
BIRTH RATE
The number of babies born annually per 1,000 women of reproductive age in any given set of people.
BLOC
A group of people with the same interest or goal (usually used to describe a voting bloc, a group of representatives intending to vote the same way).
BLOOD LEAD LEVELS
The amount of lead in the blood. Human exposure to lead in blood can cause brain damage, especially in children.
BOTTLED WATER
purchased water sold in bottles.
BOVINE SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHY (BSE)
Mad Cow Disease. A fatal disease of cattle that affects the central nervous system; causes staggering and agitation.
BROWNFIELDS
Abandoned, idled, or under-used industrial and commercial facilities where expansion or redevelopment is complicated by real or perceived environmental contamination.
BUDGET
A formal projection of spending and income for an upcoming period of time, traditionally submitted by the Chancellor of the Exchequer for consideration and approval.
BYCATCH
Fish and/or other marine life that are incidentally caught with the targeted species. Most of the time bycatch is discarded at sea.
BYCATCH REDUCTION DEVICE (BDR)
A devise used to cut bycatch while fishing. These gear modifications are most commonly used with shrimp trawls. They are also called "finfish excluder devices" (feds) or, when specifically designed to exclude sea turtles, they are called "turtle excluder devices" (teds).
CAIRO PLAN
Recommendations for stabilizing world population agreed upon at the U.N. International Conference on Population and Development, held in Cairo in September 1994. The plan calls for improved health care and family planning services for women, children and families throughout the world, and also emphasizes the importance of education for girls as a factor in the shift to smaller families.
CALENDAR
in the legislative sense, a group of bills or proposals to be discussed or considered in a legislative committee or on the floor of the House or Senate of the USA.
CANCER
Unregulated growth of changed cells; a group of changed, growing cells (tumor).
CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)
A naturally occurring greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, concentrations of which have increased (from 280 parts per million in preindustrial times to over 350 parts per million today) as a result of humans' burning of coal, oil, natural gas and organic matter (e.g., wood and crop wastes).
CARBON TAX
A charge on fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) based on their carbon content. When burned, the carbon in these fuels becomes carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, the chief greenhouse gas.
CARCINOGENS
Substances that cause cancer, such as tar.
CARPOOLING
Sharing a car to a destination to reduce fuel use, pollution and travel costs.
CFC
see chlorofluorocarbons.
CHERNOBYL DISASTER
A city of north-central Ukraine near the border of Belarus was evacuated and remains uninhabited as a result of a major nuclear power plant accident nearby on April 16, 1986. The catastrophe at Chernobyl is widely regarded as the worst accident in the history of nuclear power. The Chernobyl accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant affected much of the Ukraine and spread contamination far beyond. Ukraine, formerly The Ukraine (when as a part of USSR), is a country in eastern Europe which borders the Black Sea to the south, the Russian Federation to the east, Belarus to the north and Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania and Moldova to the west. The Chernobyl station is situated at the settlement of Pripyat. It is an abandoned city located in the north of Ukraine, near the Belarus border. Contamination resulted in the evacuation and resettlement of roughly 200,000 people. The accident raised concerns about the safety of the Soviet nuclear power industry, slowing its expansion for a number of years, while forcing the Soviet government to become less secretive. The now independent countries of Ukraine and Belarus have been burdened with continuing and substantial costs for decontamination and health care because of the Chernobyl accident. See nuclear reactor.
CHLORINATION BYPRODUCTS
Cancer-causing chemicals created when chlorine used for water disinfection combines with dirt and organic matter in water.
CHLORINE
A highly reactive halogen element, used most often in the form of a pungent gas to disinfect drinking water.
CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS (CFCs)
Stable, artificially-created chemical compounds containing carbon, chlorine, fluorine and sometimes hydrogen. Chlorofluorocarbons, used primarily to facilitate cooling in refrigerators and air conditioners, have been found to damage the stratospheric ozone layer which protects the earth and its inhabitants from excessive ultraviolet radiation.
CLAYOQUOT SOUND
One of the last remaining unlogged watersheds on the west coast of Canada's Vancouver Island.
CLEAN FUEL
Fuels which have lower emissions than conventional gasoline and diesel. Refers to alternative fuels as well as to reformulated gasoline and diesel.
CLEANUP
Treatment, remediation, or destruction of contaminated material.
CLEARCUTTING
A logging technique in which all trees are removed from an area, typically 20 acres or larger, with little regard for long-term forest health.
CLIMATE CHANGE
A regional change in temperature and weather patterns. Current science indicates a discernible link between climate change over the last century and human activity, specifically the burning of fossil fuels.
COASTAL PELAGIC
Fish that live in the open ocean at or near the water's surface but remain relatively close to the coast. Mackerel, anchovies, and sardines are examples of coastal pelagic fish.
COMMERCIAL EXTINCTION
The depletion of a population to the point where fisherman cannot catch enough to be economically worthwhile.
COMMUNITY RIGHT-TO-KNOW
Public accessibility to information about toxic pollution.
COMPACT FLUORESCENTS
Florescent light bulbs small enough to fit into standard light sockets, which are much more energy-efficient than standard incandescent bulbs.
COMPOST
Process whereby organic wastes, including food wastes, paper, and yard wastes, decompose naturally, resulting in a product rich in minerals and ideal for gardening and farming as a soil conditioners, mulch, resurfacing material, or landfill cover.
CONTAMINATION
see Pollution.
CONTRACEPTIVE
Preventing conception and pregnancy.
CREEK
A watercourse smaller than, and often tributary to, a river.
CREUTZFELDT-JAKOB DISEASE (CJD)
A degenerative, invariably fatal brain disorder also known as "classic CJD." CJD affects about one person in every 1 million people per year worldwide. In the United States, there are about 200 cases per year. CJD usually appears in later life and runs a rapid course. Typically, onset of symptoms occurs about age 60, and about 90 percent of patients die within a year. In the early stages of the disease, patients may have failing memory, behavioral changes, lack of coordination and visual disturbances. As the illness progresses, mental deterioration becomes pronounced and involuntary movements, blindness, weakness of extremities and coma may occur. There is no cure for the disease.
CRITICAL MASS
The minimum mass of fissionable material that will support a sustaining chain reaction.
CROP DUSTING
The application of pesticides to plants by a low-flying plane.
CRYPTOSPORIDIUM
A protozoan (single-celled organism) that can infect humans, usually as a result of exposure to contaminated drinking water.
DEMAND SIDE MANAGEMENT (DSM)
An attempt by utilities to reduce customers' demand for electricity or energy by encouraging efficiency.
DEMERSAL
Fish that live on or near the ocean bottom. They are often called benthic fish, groundfish, or bottom fish.
DEPLETED URANIUM
A by-product of uranium enrichment, the most common chemical form of which is depleted uranium hexafluoride (DUF6). Natural uranium is composed of three isotopes: uranium-238 (99.284 percent); uranium-235 (0.711 percent); and uranium-234 (0.005 percent), all of which are radioactive. The purpose of uranium enrichment is to concentrate uranium-235, the fissile isotope, in one stream. The other stream which is low in uranium-235, is called "depleted uranium," which contains about 0.2 to 0.3 percent uranium-235. This radioactive substance is used for coating artillery shells by the military which can assist in piercing tank armour. The shells shatter on impact and this is alleged to cause radioactive contamination,endangering the health of combatants and any civilians exposed to the particles of uranium dust. Studies have shown links between DU and clusters of rare kinds of foetal abnormalities, especially in the area of Iraq where it has been used in action.
DEVELOPMENT
(1) a developed tract of land (with houses or structures)
(2) the act, process or result of developing.
DIESEL
A petroleum-based fuel which is burned in engines ignited by compression rather than spark; commonly used for heavy duty engines including buses and trucks.
DIESEL ENGINE
An internal combustion engine that uses diesel as fuel, producing harmful fumes.
DIOXIN
A human-made chemical by-product formed during the manufacturing of other chemicals and during incineration. Studies show that dioxin is the most potent animal carcinogen ever tested, as well as the cause of severe weight loss, liver problems, kidney problems, birth defects, and death.
DOUBLE HULLED TANKERS
Large transport ships with two hulls with space between them, protecting the cargo (in most cases, oil) from spilling in case of a collision.
DREDGE
A fishing method that utilizes a bag dragged behind a vessel that scrapes the ocean bottom, usually to catch shellfish. Dredges are often equiped with metal spikes in order to dig up the catch.
DRIFTNET
A huge net stretching across many miles that drifts in the water; used primarily for large-scale commercial fishing.
DUMP SITES
Waste disposal grounds.
EASTERN EUROPE
Eastern Europe is defined geographically as the part of Europe that covers the eastern part of the continent. Generally this means that it lies between the western border of Russia and the Ural and Caucasus mountains, or alternatively that it also includes several other countries that are adjacent to Russia's western border. See Chernobyl Disaster.
ECOLOGIST
A scientist concerned with the interrelationship of organisms and their environment.
ECOLOGY
A branch of science concerned with the interrelationship of organisms and their environment.
ECOSYSTEM
An interconnected and symbiotic grouping of animals, plants, fungi, and microorganisms.
ECO-WARRIOR
A person who argues against and tries to stop activities which damage the environment.
EDGE CITIES
Cities bounded by water, usually with eroding or polluted waterfront areas.
EFFICIENCY
see energy efficiency.
EL NI�IO
Unseasonable weather variations and the human made folly ... The
dictionary definition describes 'a quantity having direction and magnitude ...literal translation - "The Boy", or "Christchild", due to the link with the Christmas period.
The term the Boy (El Ni�io) originally was applied to the appearance of a warm water obstacle that invades to the South coast of equator and the north of Peru, around Christmas, with duration of between some weeks to few months, bringing associated changes in the regional ecology. The cause of this regional heating was discovered analyzing the behavior of the system of atmospheric pressures and the speed and wind direction throughout the equatorial Pacific. In this region normally a high atmospheric pressure close to the South American coasts is had and low pressure in the western end is to say in the zone of Australia and Indonesia. This system of pressures does that the winds on the oceanic surface of the equatorial Pacific blow of This a the West which brings like consequence that the superficial waters warmed up by the radiation of the sun are dragged towards the west doing of that normally warm and rainy zone of waters. One more a present definition, is than the Boy is a weakening or investment of superficial winds throughout the equatorial Pacific caused by the change in the atmospheric pressures which tend to blow in sense of the west to this causing that the hot waters of the surface are accumulated in the side the this of the Pacific reaching
South American coasts doing of this humid and rainy region. This alteration in the equatorial Pacific Ocean produces climatic alterations in the continental regions near Equatorial Pacific. The North coast of Peru that normally is barren, becomes rainy whereas the Australian zone debate in drought. Also climatic alterations in diverse parts of the world with very serious consequences appear for the productive activities specially in agricultural the fishing sector and with respect to the definitions of this phenomenon, they have been formulated multiple of these, that are not quantitative.
There is also an inverse phase, the Girl "El Ni�ia".
ELECTRIC VEHICLES
Vehicles which use electricity (usually derived from batteries recharged from electrical outlets) as their power source.
EMISSIONS CAP
A limit on the amount of greenhouse gases that a company or country can legally emit.
ENDANGERED SPECIES
Species in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant part of its range.
ENDOCRINE DISRUPTORS
Substances that stop the production or block the transmission of hormones in the body.
ENERGY CONSERVATION
Using energy efficiently or prudently; saving energy.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Technologies and measures that reduce the amount of electricity and/or fuel required to do the same work, such as powering homes, offices and industries.
EQUITY
In the environmental sense, the planned dispersement of toxic or waste facilities in regions throughout the socioeconomic strata.
ESTUARY
A bay or inlet, often at the mouth of a river, in which large quantities of freshwater and seawater mix together. These unique habitats are necessary nursery grounds for many marine fishes and shellfishes.
EUGENICS
The study of hereditary improvement of the human race by controlled selective breeding.
EVERGLADES
Large and biologically diverse wetland ecosystem in South Florida.
EXOSPHERE
The outermost atmospheric layer.
EXTINCTION
No longer in existence; "the extinction of a species".
In biology and ecology, extinction is the disappearance of a species or group of species. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of that species.
In species which reproduce sexually, extinction of a species is generally inevitable when there is only one individual of that species left, or only individuals of a single sex.
Extinction is not an unusual event in geological time -- species are created by speciation, and disappear through extinction.
EXTINCTION EVENT
An extinction event (also extinction-level event, ELE) is a period in time when a large number of species died out. The normal background rate of extinctions is about two to five families of marine invertebrates and vertebrates every million years. Since life began on Earth, this background extinction rate has been punctuated by six major extinction events.
1) 500 million years ago a series of mass extinctions at the Cambrian-Ordovician boundary (the Cambrian-Ordovician extinction events) eliminated many brachiopods and conodonts and severely reduced the number of trilobite species.
2) 440 million years ago at the Ordovician-Silurian transition two Ordovician-Silurian extinction events occurred, probably as the result of a period of glaciation. Marine habitats changed drastically as sea levels decreased, causing the first die-off, then another occurred between 500 thousand and a million years later when sea levels rose rapidly.
3) 365 million years ago in the transition from the Devonian period to the Carboniferous period about 70% of all species were eliminated. This was not a sudden event; evidence suggests that the extinctions took place over a period of some three million years.
4) 252 million years ago, in the Permian-Triassic extinction event, about 95% of all marine species went extinct. This catastrophe was Earth's worst mass extinction, killing 53% of marine families, 84% of marine genera, and an estimated 70% of land species (including plants, insects, and vertebrate animals.)
5) 195 million years ago, the Triassic-Jurassic extinction event eliminated about 20% of all marine families as well as most non-dinosaurian archosaurs, most therapsids, and the last of the large amphibians.
6) 65 million years ago, the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event killed about 50% of all species, including the dinosaurs, also known as the K T extinction event, thought to have been triggered by a large rock several kilometres in diameter smashing into an area just off the coast of what is now Costa Rica. An alternative theory is that a tremendous amount of volcanism was primarily responsible.
It has been suggested that there is a cycle of extinctions, with a mass extinction occurring every 26 to 30 million years. It is difficult to date fossils accurately enough to produce a reliable result, but most studies of this hypothetical cycle suggest that another mass extinction would be due in little more than 10 million years. Some have claimed that we are currently living in the middle of a human-made Holocene extinction event.
EXURBIA
(1) the area of suburbs.
(2) the region outside a city and its suburbs where wealthier families live.
FACTORY FARMING
Large-scale, industrialized agriculture.
FACTORY SHIPS
Industrial-style ships used for the large-scale collection and processing of fish.
FAMILY PLANNING
A system of limiting family size and the frequency of childbearing by the appropriate use of contraceptive techniques.
FAUNA
the total animal population that inhabits an area.
FEDERAL LAND
Land owned and administered by the federal government in the USA, including national parks and national forests.
FEEDLOTS
A plot of ground used to feed farm animals.
FERTILITY
The ability to reproduce; in humans, the ability to bear children.
FERTILITY RATES
Average number of live births per woman during her reproductive years, among a given set of people.
FILIBUSTER
A tactic used to delay or stop a vote on a bill by making long floor speeches and debates.
FISCAL YEAR
A financial term referring to any twelve-month period, usually to set a budget. The government's fiscal year begins.
FISHERIES
An established area where fish species are cultivated and caught.
FISSILE MATERIAL
Material fissionable by slow neutrons. The fission process and the fissile isotopes are the source of energy in nuclear weapons and nuclear reactors.
FISSION
The process whereby the nucleus of a particular heavy element splits into (generally) two nuclei of lighter elements, with the release of substantial amounts of energy.
FLORA
The total vegetation assemblage that inhabits an area.
FLUORIDATION
Addition of fluorides to a community water supply, usually 1 ppm, to reduce incidence of dental decay.
FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE
Foot-and-mouth disease is a severe, highly communicable viral disease of cattle and swine. It also affects sheep, goats, deer and other cloven-hooved ruminants. The disease is characterized by fever and blister-like lesions followed by erosions on the tongue and lips, in the mouth, on the teats and between the hooves. Many affected animals recover, but the disease leaves them debilitated. It causes severe losses in the production of meat and milk. The disease is caused by a virus. There are at least seven separate types and many subtypes of the FMD virus. Immunity to one type does not protect an animal against other types. FMD viruses can be spread by humans, but humans are not susceptible to the virus.
FOREST CERTIFICATION
A process of labeling wood that has been harvested from a well-managed forest.
FORESTS
Lands on which trees are the principal plant life, usually conducive to wide biodiversity.
FOSSIL FUEL
A fuel, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, produced by the decomposition of ancient (fossilized) plants and animals; compare to alternative energy.
FRESH KILLS
New York City's only operating landfill, located in Staten Island. Infamous as the largest landfill in the world.
GAS
Natural gas, used as fuel.
GASOLINE
Petroleum fuel, used to power cars, trucks, lawn mowers, etc. The term is primarily used in the USA. In the UK it is best known as petrol.
GENETIC MODIFICATION (GM)
The manipulation of a living organism's genetic make-up by eliminating, modifying or adding copies of specific genes often from other organisms through modern molecular biology techniques. Also called �gene splicing�, �recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology� or �genetic engineering�.
GEOTHERMAL
Literally, heat from the earth; energy obtained from the hot areas under the surface of the earth.
GILLNETS
Walls of netting that are usually staked to the sea floor. Fish become entangled or caught by their gills. (See also driftnets).
GLOBAL WARMING
Increase in the average temperature of the earth's surface, said to be influenced by the rapid increase of industrial emissions, combustion engines and possibly large-scale cattle rearing with regard to methane, said to be a greenhouse gas. [See greenhouse gas and greenhouse effect]
GOLDEN CARROT
An incentive program that is designed to transform the market to produce much greater energy efficiency. The term is a trademark of the Consortium for Energy Efficiency.
GRASSROOTS
Local or person-to-person. A typical grassroots effort might include a door-to-door education and survey campaign.
GRAZING
The use of grasses and other plants to feed wild or domestic herbivores such as deer, sheep and cows.
GREEN DESIGN
A design, usually architectural, conforming to environmentally sound principles of building, material and energy use. A green building, for example, might make use of solar panels, skylights, and recycled building materials.
GREENHOUSE
A building made with translucent (light transparent, usually glass or fiberglass) walls conducive to plant growth.
GREENHOUSE EFFECT
The process that raises the temperature of air in the lower atmosphere due to heat trapped by greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons, and ozone.
GREENHOUSE GAS
A gas involved in the greenhouse effect.
GREENWAY
Undeveloped land usually in cities, set aside or used for recreation or conservation.
GROUNDFISH
A general term referring to fish that live on or near the sea floor. Groundfish are also called bottom fish or demersal fish.
GROUNDWATER
Water below the earth's surface; the source of water for wells and springs.
GROWTH OVERFISHING
The process of catching fish before they are fully grown resulting in a decrease in the average size of the fish population.
GULF STREAM
A North Atlantic Ocean current setting north-eastward off the east coast of the United States. A segment of the Gulf Stream System, the Gulf Stream extends from the region off Cape Hatteras to an area south-east of the Grand Banks at about latitude 40� north, longitude 50� west. It continues the flow of the Florida Current to the North Atlantic Current.
HABITAT
(1) the natural home of an animal or plant; (2) the sum of the environmental conditions that determine the existence of a community in a specific place.
HARPOONING
A surface method of fishing that requires considerable effort in locating and chasing individual fish. Harpoons are hand-held or fired from a harpoon gun and aimed at high-value fish, such as giant tuna and swordfish.
HAZE
An atmospheric condition marked by a slight reduction in atmospheric visibility, resulting from the formation of photochemical smog, radiation of heat from the ground surface on hot days, or the development of a thin mist.
HEATHLAND
A tract of level uncultivated land with sandy soil and scrubby vegetation.
HIGH SEAS
International ocean water under no single country's legal jurisdiction.
HIGHLY MIGRATORY FISH
Fish that travel over great areas.
HOUSEHOLD HAZARDS
Dangerous substances or conditions in human dwellings.
HULL FRIENDS OF THE EARTH
Hull Friends Of The Earth are a local environmental pressure group, that are closely linked to National Friends Of The Earth. They are a leading environmental pressure group, working with all political parties but aligned to none. The organisation has an impressive reputation for giving early warnings of environmental hazards and mobilising pressure for change. They meet on the first Tuesday of every month at 8 p.m. onwards at Relax Coffe Shop, corner of Reynoldson Street, Newland Avenue. Membership of Hull Friends of the Earth is �5 waged, �2 unwaged per year. Participants get a quarterly newsletter keeping them informed about what's going on and how member could help in various environmental campaigns and social activities.
HYDROELECTRIC
Relating to electric energy produced by moving water.
HYDROFLUOROCARBONS
Used as solvents and cleaners in the semiconductor industry, among others; experts say that they possess global warming potentials that are thousands of times greater than CO2.
HYDROPOWER
Energy or power produced by moving water.
HYPOXIA
The depletion of dissolved oxygen in water, a condition resulting from an overabundance of nutrients of human or natural origin that stimulates the growth of algae, which in turn die and require large amounts of oxygen as the algae decompose.
ICBM (INTERCONTINENTAL BALLISTIC MISSILE)
A land-based or mobile rocket-propelled missile capable of delivering a nuclear warhead to a range greater than 5,500 kilometers.
ICPD
International Conference on Population and Development.
INCINERATORS
Disposal systems that burn solid waste or other materials and reduce volume of waste. Air pollution and toxic ash are problems associated with incineration.
INDUSTRIALISED COUNTRIES
Nations whose economies are based on industrial production and the conversion of raw materials into products and services, mainly with the use of machinery and artificial energy (fossil fuels and nuclear fission); generally located in the northern and western hemispheres (e.g., U.S., Japan, the countries of Europe).
INSECTICIDES
Substances used to kill insects and prevent infestation.
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT
A conference sponsored by the United Nations to discuss global dimensions of population growth and change in Cairo, Egypt in September 1994. The conference is generally considered to mark the achievement of a new consensus on effective ways to slow population growth and improve quality of life by addressing root causes of unwanted fertility.
INTERNATIONAL PLANNED PARENTHOOD FEDERATION (IPPF)
An international organization made up of national level affiliates representing every region of the world. IPPF receives and distributes funds from international donor nations to its affiliates, who in turn provide services (prenatal care, contraceptive counseling and service provision, and other reproductive health services) within a country. Some national level organizations provide abortion services, others do not. IPPF sets and supports policies encouraging governmental provision of comprehensive reproductive health care.
ISOTOPE
Atoms that have the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons. They are atoms of the same element that have different masses. The isotope number is the number of protons plus the number of neutrons.
JET STREAM
Relatively strong winds concentrated in a narrow stream in the atmosphere, normally referring to horizontal, high-altitude winds. The position and orientation of jet streams vary from day to day. General weather patterns (hot/cold, wet/dry) are related closely to the position, strength and orientation of the jet stream (or jet streams). A jet stream at low levels is known as a low-level jet.
KT EXTINCTION EVENT
The Cretaceous-Tertiary (KT) extinction event, also known as the KT boundary, was an extinction event that occurred about 65 million years ago, at the end of the Cretaceous period. This extinction event is best-known for the extinction of the dinosaurs, but many other forms of life perished as well; approximately 50% of all genera went extinct during this time. Many explanations for this event have been proposed, the most widely-accepted being an impact event. See extinction events.
KYOTO PROTOCOL
An international agreement, reached in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, which extends the commitments of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. In particular, it sets targets for future emissions by each developed country.
LAKES
Substantial inland bodies of standing water.
LANDFILL
Disposal area where garbage is piled up and eventually covered with dirt and topsoil.
LANDINGS
The amount of fish brought back to the docks and marketed. Landings can describe the kept catch of one vessel, of an entire fishery, or of several fisheries combined.
LAND USE
The way in which land is used, especially in farming and city planning.
LAW
An act or bill which has become part of the legal code through passage by the House of Commons and approval by the House of Lords in the UK.
LEAD
A naturally-occurring heavy, soft metallic element; human exposure can cause brain and nervous system damage, especially in children.
LEAD POISONING
Damaging the body (specifically the brain) by absorbing lead through the skin or by swallowing.
LEAST-COST PLANNING
A process for satisfying consumers' demands for energy services at the lowest societal cost.
LEUKAEMIA
A form of bone marrow cancer marked by an increase in white blood cells.
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Methodology developed to assess a product's full environmental costs, from raw material to final disposal.
LIGHT POLLUTION
Environmental pollution consisting of harmful or annoying light.
LITTER
Waste material which is discarded on the ground or otherwise disposed of improperly or thoughtlessly.
LOGGING
Cutting down trees for commodity use.
LONGLINES
Fishing lines stretching for dozens of miles and baited with hundreds of hooks. Longlines are indiscriminate and unintentionally catch and kill immature fish along with a wide variety of other animals in the Atlantic including tunas, sharks, marlins, sailfish, sea turtles and occasionally pilot whales and dolphins.
LOW-EMISSION VEHICLES
Vehicles which emit little air pollution compared to conventional internal combustion engines.
LOW-IMPACT CAMPING
Camping that does not damage or change the land, where campers leave no sign that they were on the land.
LUMBER
Wood or wood products used for construction.
LUNG DISEASES
Any disease or damaging conditions in the lung or bronchia such as cancer or emphysema.
LYMPHOMA
A tumor marked by swelling in the lymph nodes.
MAD COW DISEASE
See bovine spongiform encephalitis.
MALIGNANT MELANOMA
A rare, but sometimes deadly, skin cancer that begins as a mole that turns cancerous. A melanoma limited to the epidermis and composed of nests of atypical melanocytes and scattered single cells extending into the upper epidermis; local excision is curative although the lesion, if untreated, may soon invade the dermis. Malignant lentigo may be considered a slowly progressive type of malignant melanoma in situ. The risk of contracting malignant melanoma has increased due to the deterioration of the Earth�s ozone layer primarily because of pollutants such as CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons). See Antarctic ozone hole.
MALTHUSIAN
Based on the theories of British economist Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834), who argued that population tends to increase faster than food supply, with inevitably disastrous results, unless the increase in population is checked by moral restraints or by war, famine, and disease.
MAMMAL
An animal that feeds its young with milk secreted from mammary glands and has hair on its skin.
MANAGED GROWTH
Growth or expansion that is controlled so as not to be harmful.
MANATEE
A plant-eating aquatic mammal found in the waters of Florida, the Caribbean, and off the coast of West Africa.
MARBLED MURRELET
A rare and imperiled bird that nests in ancient forests on the west coast of the U.S.
MARINE MAMMAL
A mammal that lives in the ocean, such as a whale, porpoise or dolphin.
MARSH
Wetland, swamp, or bog.
MASS EXTINCTION
There have been periodic mass extinctions, in which many species have disappeared in a relatively short period of geological time. The most recent of these, the K-T extinction at the end of the Cretaceous period, is best known for having wiped out the dinosaurs.
Some also believe that we are currently in a period of mass extinction right now, the Holocene extinction event. While there is no room to doubt that human activity Is increasing the rate of species extinction worldwide, , the exact extent of anthropogenic extinction remains open for discussion.
See extinction events and K T extinction event.
MASS TRANSIT
See public transportation.
MEDFLY
The Mediterranean fruit fly, a flying insect.
MEGALOPOLIS
A large city expanding so fast that city government cannot adjust to provide services (such as garbage disposal).
MESOSPHERE
The layer of the atmosphere between the stratosphere and thermosphere.
The region of the atmosphere between about 50 km and 80-85 km, extending from the top of the stratosphere to the upper temperature minimum. It is characterized by a broad temperature maximum (near 0 �C) at its base, from which the temperature decreases to a minimum (about -90 �C) at the mesopause level.
METHYL BROMIDE
The gaseous compound CH3Br used primarily as an insect fumigant; found to be harmful to the stratospheric ozone layer which protects life on earth from excessive ultraviolet radiation.
MINING
The removal of minerals (like coal , gold, or silver) from the ground.
MINUTEMAN
An American-made ICBM; 500 Minuteman III ICBMs are deployed currently in the United States.
MONTREAL PROTOCOL
The crucial first step in limiting further damage to the ozone layer in the stratosphere. The Montreal Protocol was a convention signed in 1987 by many countries to greatly reduce the production and use of CFCs which had been shown to be responsible for damage to the ozone layer. Since 1987, further amendments to the protocol have imposed even greater restrictions of the production and use of potentially damaging compounds. See Antarctic ozone hole and chloroflurocarbons.
MOORLAND
Open land usually with peaty soil covered with heather and bracken and moss.
MULCH
Leaves, straw or compost used to cover growing plants to protect them from the wind or cold.
MUSTARD GAS
a toxic war gas with sulphide based compounds that raises blisters and attacks the eyes and lungs; there is no known antidote.
MUTUALLY ASSURED DESTRUCTION (MAD)
A situation in which two states have enough weapons (typically nuclear) to ensure that should one launch an attack the other would be able to respond in a strong enough way to destroy the attacker. Both would be destroyed. This situation is supposed to prevent either side from launching such an attack. The Cold War between the USA and the USSR in the 20th Century is an example of such a situation. �With our stockpiles of nukes we have mutually assured destruction in the case of a launch�
�The only result of nuclear war, Mr. President, is mutually assured destruction.�
The "lose-lose" scenario in any kind of war, although nuclear war is often associated with this term.
From my reading of various pronoucements made by the Russian High Command over the years, I am convinced that they will never again permit their nation to be threatened... no matter what the cost... that cost itself may actually is Mutually Assured Destruction."
-- Alan Moore, as the voice of Professor Milton Glass, "Dr. Manhattan: Super-Powers and the Superpowers", in Watchmen (DC Comics, 1986).
This almost certain scenario that would occur after nuclear war. It says that the opposing forces would be utterly anihilated, leaving the Earth an uninhabitable, radioactive wasteland.
A concept that arose out of the Cold War between the US and USSR. The idea was that both sides had enough fire power and the technology to monitor and deliver it that if either side made a move, the end result would be the destruction of both sides. Sometimes shortened to MAD (which is what it was).
The Cold War strategic doctrine which made all-out nuclear war the only possibility for war between the super-power blocs (US & USSR). Like it or not (and who would?), it worked, at least in preventing the use nuclear weapons in war. However, this was at the grave cost of testing each other�s nerve and military mettle by meddling in the affairs of smaller states such as Vietnam, where, apart from the horrors inflicted on local populations, contaminants such as Agent Orange was used causing long term genetic defects.
NATIONAL PARK
An area or region of outstanding natural beauty and/or where there is a concentrated level of biodiversity. Such areas often cater for visitors engaged in recreational activities and sight-seeing. The effectiveness of planning controls in these tracts of land and controversies relating to activities on such land highlight the special nature of these aeas.
NATIONAL RECREATION AREAS
Areas of federal land in the USA that have been set aside by Congress for recreational use by members of the public.
NITROGEN OXIDES
Harmful gases (which contribute to acid rain and global warming) emitted as a byproduct of fossil fuel combustion.
NOISE POLLUTION
Environmental pollution made up of harmful or annoying noise.
NUCLEAR ENERGY
Energy or power produced by nuclear reactions (fusion or fission).
NUCLEAR POWER
See nuclear energy.
NUCLEAR REACTOR
A nuclear reactor is an apparatus in which nuclear fission chain reactions are initiated, controlled, and sustained at a steady rate. Nuclear reactors provide heat for electricity generation, domestic and industrial heating, desalination, and naval propulsion. An apparatus in which nuclear fission may be initiated, maintained, and controlled to produce energy, conduct research, or produce fissile material for nuclear explosives.Nuclear reactors have many research applications including providing a source of neutrons and creating various radioactive isotopes.
See Chernobyl Disaster.
NUCLEAR TESTS
Government tests carried out to supply information required for the design and improvement of nuclear weapons, and to study the phenomena and effects associated with nuclear explosions.
OCEANOGRAPHY
The study of the ocean and ocean life.
OIL
A black, sticky substance used to produce fuel (petroleum) and materials (plastics).
OIL SPILLS
The harmful release of oil into the environment, usually in the water, sometimes killing area flora and fauna. Oil spills are very difficult to clean up.
OLD GROWTH FORESTS
See ancient forests.
ORGANIC
1) fertiliser derived from animal or vegetable matter, examples of which are bone-meal, fish-meal, guano, manure and neem cake.
2) of or relating to or derived from living organisms; being or relating to or derived from having properties characteristic of living organisms.
ORGANIC AGRICULTURE
"Organic agriculture is an ecological production management system that promotes and enhances biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. It is based on minimal use of off-farm inputs and on management practices that restore, maintain and enhance ecological harmony.�
Organic agriculture practices cannot ensure that products are completely free of residues; however, methods are used to minimise pollution from air, soil and water.�
"Organic food handlers, processors and retailers adhere to standards that maintain the integrity of organic agricultural products. The primary goal of organic agriculture is to optimise the health and productivity of interdependent communities of soil life, plants, animals and people."
This definition of "organic" was passed by the NOSB at its April 1995 meeting in Orlando, FL
ORGANIC GARDENING
The method of gardening utilising only materials derived from living things such as using natural products such as manure, and using predators to remove pests that can ruin crops, for example, attracting hedgehogs for the purpose of controlling slugs.
ORGANOCHLORINE PESTICIDE (OC)
Generic term for pesticides containing chlorine but commonly used to refer to older persistent materials including aldrin, BHC, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, heptachlor, lindane and toxaphene.
ORGANOPHOSPHORUS PESTICIDE. (OP)
Generic term for pesticides containing phosphorus but commonly used to refer to insecticides consisting of cholinesterase inhibiting esters of phosphate or thiophosphate.
OVER-DEVELOPMENT
Expansion or development of land to the point of damage.
OVER-FISHING
Fishing beyond the capacity of a population to replace itself through natural reproduction.
OVER-GRAZING
Grazing livestock to the point of damage to the land.
OZONE
A naturally occurring, highly reactive gas comprising triatomic oxygen formed by recombination of oxygen in the presence of ultraviolet radiation. This naturally occurring gas builds up in the lower atmosphere as smog pollution, while in the upper atmosphere it forms a protective layer which shields the earth and its inhabitants from excessive exposure to damaging ultraviolet radiation.
OZONE DEPLETION
The reduction of the protective layer of ozone in the upper atmosphere by chemical pollution.
OZONE HOLE
A hole or gap in the protective layer of ozone in the upper atmosphere.
PAPER MILLS
Mills (factories) that produce paper from wood pulp.
PAPER PRODUCTS
Materials such as paper and cardboard, produced from trees.
PARTICULATE
of or relating to minute discrete particles; a particulate substance.
PARTICULATE POLLUTION
Pollution made up of small liquid or solid particles suspended in the atmosphere or water supply.
PARTS PER BILLION (PPB)
Ratio of amounts expressed as parts pesticide per 109 sample. Strictly the quantities should be the same i.e. weight to weight (solids) or volume to volume (liquids or gases) e.g. 1ppb = 1� g/kg. A common usage is for weight to volume but to avoid confusion it is recommended that the SI units are used rather than ppb; e.g. � g/L (Mills et al., 1993)
PARTS PER MILLION (PPM)
Ratio of amounts expressed as parts pesticide per 106 sample e.g. 1ppm = 1mg/kg. As with ppb it is recommended that SI units are used rather than ppm, particularly for weights to volume.
PASSIVE SOLAR
Using or capturing solar energy (usually to heat water) without any external power.
PEAT
partially carbonized vegetable matter saturated with water; can be used as a fuel when dried. Peat is also sold in garden centres as a growth medium, sold in bags.
PEATBOG
wet spongy ground of decomposing vegetation; has poorer drainage than a swamp; soil is unfit for cultivation but can be cut and dried and used for fuel. In the 20th and 21st century, peat has been extracted on an industrial scale, bagged up as a soil medium for garden centres. This has not only depleted the peat but has decimated the remaining peatbogs and is regarded by environmentalists as unsustainable.
PELAGIC SPECIES
Fish that live at or near the water's surface. Examples of large pelagic species include swordfish, tuna, and many species of sharks. Small pelagics include anchovies and sardines.
PEST
Organism that attacks food and other materials essential to humankind, or otherwise affect human beings adversely.
PESTICIDES
Chemical agents used to destroy pests.Substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying or controlling any pest, including vectors of human or animal disease, unwanted species of plants or animals causing harm or otherwise interfering with the production, processing, storage, transport, or marketing of food, agricultural commodities, wood, wood products or animal feedstuffs, or which may be administered to animals for the control of insects, mites/spider mites or other pests in or on their bodies. The term includes substances intended for use as a plant growth regulator, defoliant, desiccant, or agent for thinning fruit or preventing the premature fall of fruit, and substances applied to crops either before or after harvest to protect the commodity from deterioration during storage or transport. See also agrochemical, plant protection agent.
PESTICIDE CHEMICAL NAME
Scientific name of a pesticide following the recommendations of IUPAC for naming of chemical compounds or other accepted naming convention (e.g. Chemical Abstracts).
PESTICIDE COMMON NAME
Simple name assigned to a pesticide active ingredient by the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) to be used as a generic or non-proprietary name. (after FAO, 1986)
PESTICIDE RESIDUE
Substance(s) which remains in or on a feed or food commodity, soil, air or water following use of a pesticide. For regulatory purposes it includes the parent compound and any specified derivatives such as degradation and conversion products, metabolites and impurities considered to be of toxicological significance. (FAO, 1986)
PESTICIDE RESIDUE DEFINITION
The pesticide, its metabolites, derivatives and related compounds to which the maximum residue limit (MRL) applies, as specified by Codex or a national regulatory authority.
PESTICIDE RESIDUE ENFORCEMENT
Pesticide residue monitoring program where the intention is regulatory action against non-complying consignments.
PESTICIDE RESIDUE MONITORING
Sampling and analyses of pesticide residues in biological and environmental samples taken according to pre-arranged schedules.
PLANT GROWTH REGULATOR (PGR)
Naturally occurring or synthetic substance which influences plant development or reproduction but has no nutritive value.
PLANT PROTECTION AGENT
Pesticide product intended for use in agriculture to protect crops.
PLASTICS
Durable and flexible synthetic-based products, some of which are difficult to recycle and pose problems with toxic properties, especially PVC plastic.
PLUTONIUM
A heavy, radioactive, man-made, metallic element (atomic number 94) used in the production of nuclear energy and the explosion of nuclear weapons; its most important isotope is fissile plutonium-239, produced by neutron irradiation of uranium-238. Plutonium is arguably the most poisonous damaging substance in existence.
PM10
Particulate matter less than 10 microns in diameter.
POISON RUNOFF
See polluted runoff.
POISON
A chemical that adversely affects health by causing injury, illness, or death.
POLLUTANT
Undesirable substance introduced into a solid, liquid or gaseous environmental medium totally or partially by human activities. See also contaminant. (after Duffus, 1993)
POLLUTED RUNOFF
Precipitation that captures pollution from agricultural lands, urban streets, parking lots and suburban lawns, and transports it to rivers, lakes or oceans.
POLLUTION PREVENTION
Techniques that eliminate waste prior to treatment, such as by changing ingredients in a chemical reaction.
POPULATION
(1) the whole number of inhabitants in a country, region or area.
(2) a set of individuals having a quality or characteristic in common.
POST CONSUMER WASTE
Waste collected after the consumer has used and disposed of it (e.g., the wrapper from an eaten candy bar).
POST-EMERGENCE
Period after a crop or pest has appeared. Herbicide usage can be referred to as post-emergence (weeds) or post-emergence (crop).
POWER PLANTS
Facilities (plants) that produce energy.
PREDICTED ENVIRONMENTAL CONCENTRATION
The Predicted Environmental Concentration is an indication of the expected concentration of a material in the environment, taking into account the amount initially present (or added to) the environment, its distribution, and the probable methods and rates of environmental degradation and removal, either forced or natural.
PREDICTED NO-EFFECT CONCENTRATION (PNEC)
An estimated no-observable effect concentration for an aquatic species of ecosystem based on extrapolated experimental exposure/response data.
PRE- EMERGENCE
Period before a specified crop or pest has emerged. Generally applied to timing of herbicide applications.
PRE-HARVEST INTERVAL (PHI)
The time interval between the last application of a pesticide to a crop and harvest.
PROCESSED FOOD
Product resulting from the application of physical, chemical or biological processes, or combinations of these (e.g. canning), to a primary food commodity, and intended for sale to the consumer, for use as an ingredient in the manufacture of a food product or for further processing.
PUBLIC ESTATE
Public land. Term used in the USA.
PUBLIC HEALTH
The health or physical well-being of a whole community.
PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION
Various forms of shared-ride services, including buses, vans, trolleys, and subways, which are intended for conveying the public.
PULP
Raw material made from trees used in producing paper products.
QUARRYING
The process of extracting minerals/ores from an area of land, usually resulting in the creation of extensive areas of land where topsoil and vegetation has been removed or destroyed. See Strip Mining.
QUORUM
Minimum number of people who must be present before a specified event such as a group meeting.
RADIOACTIVE
of or characterized by radioactivity.
RADIOACTIVE WASTE
The byproduct of nuclear reactions that gives off (usually harmful) radiation.
RADIOACTIVITY
The spontaneous emission of matter or energy from the nucleus of an unstable atom (the emitted matter or energy is usually in the form of alpha or beta particles, gamma rays, or neutrons).
Radioactivity is the ability of an unstable atomic nucleus to transform into a stable product or another unstable product while emitting radiation. This transformation and emission of energy is called radioactive decay. A transformation from one element to another is known as a transmutation. The radiation can be emitted in several forms, including: a positively charged alpha particle, which is the same as a helium nuclei consisting of two neutrons and two protons.
RADON
A naturally-occurring radioactive gas found in many communities' ground water that is likely to be a cause of cancer if people are exposed to it for any length otf time.
RAINFOREST
A large, dense forest in a hot, humid region (tropical or subtropical). Rainforests have an abundance of diverse plant and animal life, much of which is still uncatalogued by the scientific community.
RECYCLING
System of collecting, sorting, and reprocessing old material into usable raw materials.
REDUCE
Act of purchasing or consuming less to begin with, so as not to have to reuse or recycle later.
REFRIGERANTS
Cooling substances, many of which contain CFCs and are harmful to the earth's ozone layer.
RENEWABLE ENERGY
Resources such as windpower or solar energy that can keep producing indefinitely without being depleted.
RESERVOIR
An artificial lake created and used for the storage of water.
RE-USE
Cleaning and/or refurbishing or repairing an old product to be used again. Re-using something rather than treating it as having no more value.
RIPARIAN
Located alongside a watercourse, typically a river.
RISK ASSESSMENT
Methods used to quantify risks to human health and the environment.
RUN-OFF
Precipitation that the ground does not absorb and that ultimately reaches rivers, lakes or oceans.
SAGEBRUSH REBELLION
A movement started by ranchers and miners during the late 1970s in response to efforts of the Bureau of Land Management (B.L.M.) to improve management of the United States federal lands. While its announced goal was to give the lands "back" to the western states, its real goal -- and the one it achieved -- was to force the B.L.M. to abandon its new approach to public land management.
SALVAGE LOGGING
The logging of dead or diseased trees in order to improve overall forest health; used by timber companies as a rationalization to log otherwise protected areas.
SECOND-GROWTH FORESTS
Forests that have grown back after being logged.
SERP (SUPER EFFICIENT REFRIGERATOR PROGRAM)
An organization of 24 U.S. utilities that developed a $30 million competition to produce a refrigerator at least 25% lower in energy use and 85% lower in ozone depletion than projected 1994 models. The winning product, produced by Whirlpool, cut energy use by 40% in 1995.
SICK BUILDING SYNDROME
A human health condition where infections linger, caused by exposure to contaminants within a building as a result of poor ventilation.
SILOS
Fixed vertical underground structures made of steel and concrete that house an ICBM and its launch support equipment.
SIP (STATE IMPLENTATION PLAN)
Mandate for achieving health-based air quality standards in the USA.
SLBM (SUBMARINE LAUNCHED BALLISTIC MISSILE)
A ballistic missile carried by and launched from a submarine.
SMOG
A dense, discolored radiation fog containing large quanities of soot, ash, and gaseous pollutants such as sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide, responsible for human respiratory ailments. Most industrialized nations have implemented legislation to promote the use of smokeless fuel and reduce emission of toxic gases into the atmosphere.
SOLAR ENERGY
Energy derived from sunlight.
SOLID WASTE
Non-liquid, non gaseous category of waste from non-toxic household and commercial sources.
SOOT
A fine, sticky powder, comprised mostly of carbon, formed by the burning of fossil fuels.
SPRAWL
Area taken up by a large or expanding development or city.
STOCKPILE
Nuclear weapons and components under custody of the U.S. Department of Defense.
STRADDLING STOCKS
Fish populations that straddle a boundary between domestic and international waters.
STRATOSPHERE
The layer of the atmosphere located between the troposphere and the mesosphere, characterized by a slight temperature increase and absence of clouds. It extends between 11 and 31 miles (17 to 50 kilometers) above the earth's surface. It is the location of the earth's ozone layer.
STRIP MINING
Mining technique in which the land and vegetation covering the mineral being sought are stripped away by huge machines, usually damaging the land severely and limiting subsequent uses.
SULPHUR DIOXIDE (SO2)
A heavy, smelly gas which can be condensed into a clear liquid; used to make sulphuric acid, bleaching agents, preservatives and refrigerants; a major source of air pollution in industrial areas.
SURFACE WATER
Water located above ground (e.g., rivers, lakes).
SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES
Communities capable of maintaining their present levels of growth without damaging effects.
TAP WATER
Drinking water monitored (and often filtered) for protection against contamination and available for public consumption from sources within the home.
TAX SHIFT
Replacing one kind of taxes with another, without changing the total amount of money collected. For example, replacing a portion of income taxes with carbon tax or other pollution taxes.
TELECOMMUTING
Working with others via telecommunications technologies (e.g., telephones, modems, faxes) without physically travelling to an office.
THERMONUCLEAR
The application of high heat, obtained via a fission explosion, to bring about fusion of light nuclei.
THERMOSPHERE
the atmospheric layer between the mesosphere and the exosphere.
THREATENED SPECIES
Species of flora or fauna likely to become endangered within the foreseeable future.
THREE GORGES
A project along the Yangtze river in China to build the largest hydroelectric dam in the world - a controversial project said to have caused extensive damage to the environment and to have disrupted hundreds of communities. The project has been widely condemned by environmentalists.
TIMBER
Logged wood sold as a commodity.
TNT EQUIVALENT
A measure of the energy released in the detonation of a nuclear weapon, expressed in terms of the quantity of TNT which would release the same amount of energy.
TONGASS
A national forest in southeast Alaska comprising one of the United States' last remaining temperate rainforests.
TOXIC
Anything which is poisonous and harmful; a term primarily used to describe certain substances.
TOXIC EMISSIONS
Poisonous chemicals discharged to air, water, or land.
TOXIC SITES
Land contaminated with toxic pollution, usually unsuitable for human habitation.
TOXIC WASTE
Rubbish or waste that can injure, poison, or harm living things, and is sometimes life-threatening.
TOXIFICATION
Poisoning - contamination.
TRAFFIC CALMING
Designing streets to reduce automobile speed and to enhance walking and bicycling.
TRANSIT
See public transportation.
TRANSPORTATION
Any means of conveying goods and people.
TRANSPORTATION PLANNING
Systems to improve the efficiency of the transportation system in order to enhance human access to goods and services.
TRASH
Waste material that cannot be recycled and reused (synonymous with garbage); a term primarily used in the USA, although increasingly used to mean waste or something with little or no value; also American slang.
TRAWLS
Nets with a wide mouth tapering to a small, pointed end, usually called the "cod end." Trawls are towed behind a vessel at any depth in the water column.
TRIP REDUCTION
Reducing the total numbers of vehicle trips, by sharing rides or consolidating trips with diverse goals into fewer trips.
TROLLING
A method of fishing using several lines, each hooked and baited, which are slowly dragged behind the vessel.
TROPOSPHERE
The lower regions of a planetary atmosphere where convection keeps the gas mixed and maintains a steady increase of temperature with depth. Most clouds are in the troposphere.
TURTLE EXCLUDER DEVICE (TED)
A gear modification used on shrimp trawls that enables incidentally caught sea turtles to escape from the nets.
UNCLASSIFIED CONTROLLED NUCLEAR INFORMATION(UCNI)
UCNI is certain unclassified government information prohibited from unauthorized dissemination under section 148 of the Atomic Energy Act-As Amended. It concerns: 1) atomic energy defense programs which pertain to the design of production facilities or utilization facilities; security measures (including security plans, procedures, and equipment) for the physical protection of production or utilization facilities, nuclear material contained in such facilities or nuclear material in transit.
2) the design, manufacture, or utilization of any nuclear weapon component if the design, manufacture, or utilization of such weapon or component was contained in any information declassified or removed from the restricted date category by the Assistant Secretary for Defense Programs, (or the head of the predecessor agency of the Department of Energy) pursuant to section 142 of the Atomic Energy Act. The unauthorized dissemination, as determined by a controlling official, could reasonably be expected to have a significant adverse effect on the health and safety of the public or the common defense and security by significantly increasing the likelihood of illegal production of nuclear weapons or theft, diversion or sabotage of nuclear materials, equipment or facilities.
UNION CARBIDE
Union Carbide is a chemical manufacturer, now a subsidiary of The Dow Chemical Company. The company is most well-known for the Bhopal Disaster in 1984, in which the leakage of the highly toxic gas methyl isocyanate (MIC) killed thousands.
The chairman Warren Anderson was charged with culpable homicide in India for this tragedy, though he now lives freely in the USA. He is now a declared absconder and a fugitive in Indian courts, against whom India is seeking an extradition ruling from the United States.
It was also alleged that these safety procedures were wilfully toned down as a part of "cost cutting operations" at the Indian plant that Union Carbide was involved in at that time. Recent documents that surfaced during a compensation claims case involving New York Federal District revealed that Union Carbide frequently exported "untested technology" to the Indian plant. See Bhopal disaster.
URANIUM
A heavy, radioactive metal (atomic number 92) used in the explosion of nuclear weapons (especially one isotope, U-235).A naturally occurring radioactive element whose principal isotopes are uranium-238 and uranium-235. Natural uranium is a hard, silvery-white, shiny metallic ore that contains a minute amount of uranium-234. In its various compounds, uranium has many industrial uses, including staining glass, glazing ceramics, photographic processes and aircraft ballast. The primary use for uranium isotopes is as a source of fuel for nuclear power reactors. It is also used in plutonium production and as feed material for gaseous diffusion plants. Uranium presents chemical and radiation hazards and exposure may occur during mining, processing of ore or production of uranium metal. Uranium and its compounds have both toxic chemical and radiation effects, depending on the dose and exposure time, as well as type of exposure, such as inhalation or skin contact. See depleted uranium.
URANIUM-233
A fissile isotope bred by neutron capture in thorium-232. In nuclear weapons use, it is similar to plutonium-239.
URANIUM-235
The only naturally occurring fissile isotope, natural uranium has 0.7 percent of uranium-235. Both in reactors and in weapons use, uranium is enriched in uranium 235 as fuel; however, weapons typically use uranium enriched to 90 percent or greater uranium 235.
URANIUM-238
A fertile isotope from which plutonium-239 can be bred, it comprises 99.3 percent of natural uranium.
URANIUM CONVERSION
The process in which concentrated uranium is converted to a highly purified gas, uranium hexafluoride, for subsequent enrichment.
URANIUM DIOXIDE or BROWN OXIDE
A brown-to-black powder or crystals, the chemical, purified form of uranium dioxide is used as fuel pellets in nuclear reactors.
URANIUM ENRICHMENT
The process of increasing the percentage of U235 isotopes so that the uranium can be used as reactor fuel or in nuclear weapons.
URANIUM HEXAFLUORIDE
A compound of uranium which is a gas above 56oC and is thus a suitable form in which to enrich the uranium.
URANIUM OXIDE
The generic name for a group of uranium compunds that includes uranium dioxide, uranium trioxide, uranium oxide and uranium peroxide.
URBAN PARKS
Parks in cities and areas of high population concentration.
URBAN PLANNING
The science of managing and directing city growth.
URTICANT
Category of blister agents with a disagreeable, penetrating odor, which cause an immediate severe burning sensation, intense pain and a feeling of numbness. Chemically, urticants are halogenated oximes. The primary example is phosgene oxime (CX).
USE CONTROL
Delaying or preventing the unauthorized use of a nuclear weapon or weapon system while allowing timely authorized use.
UTILITIES
Companies (usually power distributors) permitted by a government agency to provide important public services (such as energy or water) to a region; as utilities are provided with a local monopoly, their prices are regulated by the permitting government agency.
VIRGIN FOREST
A forest which has never been logged.
WARHEAD
Part of a missile which contains the nuclear explosive.
WASTE
Rubbish, garbage, trash.
WASTE SITE
Dumping ground.
WASTE STREAM
Overall waste disposal cycle for a given population.
WATERBORNE CONTAMINANTS
Unhealthy chemicals, microorganisms (like bacteria) or radiation, found in tap water.
WATER FILTERS
Substances (such as charcoal) or fine membrane structures used to remove impurities from water.
WATER QUALITY
The level of purity of water; the safety or purity of drinking water.
WATER QUALITY TESTING
Monitoring water for various contaminants to make sure it is safe for fish protection, drinking, and swimming.
WATERSHED
A region or area over which water flows into a particular lake, reservoir, stream, or river.
WELL
A dug or drilled hole used to get water from the earth.
WETLAND
Land (marshes or swamps) saturated with water constantly or recurrently; conducive to wide biodiversity.
WILDERNESS
Land remaining in basically wild (i.e., undisturbed) condition, with few if any traces of human activities.
WILDERNESS AREA
A wild area that Congress has preserved by including it in the National Wilderness Preservation System.
WILDLIFE
Animals living in the wilderness without human intervention.
WILDLIFE REFUGES
Land set aside to protect certain species of fish or wildlife (administered at the federal level in the U.S. by the Fish and Wildlife Service).
WINDPOWER
Power or energy derived from the wind (via windmills, sails, etc.).
WISE USE MOVEMENT
A loosely-affiliated network of people and organizations throughout the U.S. in favor of widespread privatization and opposed to environmental regulation, often funded by corporate dollars.
WOODS HOLE
A town on Cape Cod where several important ocean research institutes are located.
ZERO EMISSION VEHICLES
Vehicles (usually powered by electricity) with no direct emissions from tailpipes or fuel evaporation.
ZONING
The arrangement or partitioning of land areas for various types of usage in cities, boroughs or townships.
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