Music Basic Guide Notes

Mrs. Willis

Section I: Acoustic Properties of Music

-Music: organized sound through continuum of time; is carried to ears through air in form of a wave.

-The vibration of an instrument pushes the air surrounding it rapidly 1 way and then the other. This creates waves of high and low pressure.

-Compression: area of increased pressure

-Rarefaction: area of decreased pressure

-Sequence of 1 compression and 1 rarefaction makes up 1 cycle of a sound wave.

Frequency: measure the rate of sound wave vibrations, and is the # of complete vibrations…measured in hertz, after German physicist Heinrich Hertz.

-A frequency of 1 Hz is equal to one cycle or oscillation per sec.

-Pitch: highness or lowness of the sound. The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch.

-Pythagoras, Greek math guy, was the 1^st person to discover that musical pitches can be determined by using ratios. 2:1 ration, b/t tones that are an octave part.

Octave: the interval from one tone to another tone that is eight full tones above or below the original tone.

-Western music, instruments are tuned so that pitch of A vibrates at a freq of 440 Hz.

Chromatic scale: set of 12 pitches contained within he octave

Equal Temperament Tuning: tuning equally spaced frequencies.

Volume pg 5

-How loud or quiet the sound is, which controls the intensity/amplitude of sound waves coming to ears.

Amplitude: distance a sound wave moves from equilibrium: measured by finding the ratio that indicates the difference in the intensities of the 2 sounds…in decibel (db)

Intensity: measure of the power of a sound wave as it travels through space.

-Both are perceived as loudness in our ears.

-A change in the amp changes the amount of pressure created by each compression

-Dynamics of a piece indicate volume: used Italian terminology.

Piano	Quiet
Forte	Loud
Pianissimo	Very quiet
Fortissimo	Very loud
Mezzo piano	Medium quiet
Mezzo forte	Medium loud
Crescendo	Growing
Decrescendo	Diminishing

Duration pg 6

- how long a sound goes for. Each sound has a lifespan called the sound envelope.

-3 stages of duration:

attack: sound of initial transient events
sustain: the sound that is created by the instrument
decay: the amplitude decrease

Acoustic Timbre

-each instrument and voice can be identified by his or her own timbre, tone color.

-The timbre for instruments is created by a combo of sound waves.

Harmonics: overtones. 1^st overtone is an octave above the fundamental pitch.

-Pure tones with no overtones are represented with sine waves. When they are heard, they are represented with a saw tooth wave form.

-When 2 or more sound waves overlap, interference occurs.

Constructive interference: when overlapping waves are in phase: crests and troughs match.
Destructive interference: when the waves are out of phase, crests and troughs are opposite 1 another. Cancel each other out, created dissonance.

-Listener will perceive increase/decrease in the amplitude as a pulse, or beat. Can be determined by finding the difference b/t 2 frequencies. Musicians want to eliminate beats when playing together as an orchestra.

-Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894): calculated the degree of roughness and smoothness of sounds based on the perceived beats of diff. Freq’s within an octave.

-Smooth sounds: ratios of 1:1, 1:2, 2:5

-Rough sounds: 15:16, long time to repeat pattern.

Dissonance: results when audible beating effects clashes b/t the harmonics of the pitches being played

Consonance: vibrations in overtones complement 1 another, any beating occurring is too rapid to be heard.

Instrument Construction pg 9

-Materials of instrument affect its timbre.

-resonance: response of material being forced into motion at 1 end making natural occurring frequencies.

Section II: Formal Properties of Music

-Rhythm: refers to temporal organization of sounds and silences. A reg. Pattern formed by series of notes of differing duration and stress.

-A beat is the most basic unit of rhythm.

Tempo: speed of song

Meter: groups of beats: specific rhythm that is determined by the # of beats and the pattern of recurring stresses on certain beats. Duple meter: 2 beats, Triple meter: 3 beats, Quadruple meter: 4 beats

Measure: Unit used to group beats into sets in accordance with meter. Also called a bar

Staff: set of 5 horizontal lines and 4 intermediate spaces where notes are written on.

Bar lines: separate one measure from the next.

-1^st beat of a measure is called the downbeat.

-Syncopation is created when accents occur at unexpected times.

Rhythmic Notation pg 11

Notation must provide:

the pitch of the tones included in the piece (placing notes)
their duration

-Clef sign: indicates the pitch represented by one line of a staff.

-rests: silences in music

-Time signature: follows the clef sign at beginning which indicates how many beats are in each measure (top number) and what note value receives one beat (bottom number). In 4/4 meter, 4 beats per measure, and quarter notes and rests receive 2 beats each.

Tempo pg 13

-refers to speed at which beats occur. Measured in beats per minute.

-Metronome: an instrument that measures tempo.

Largo	Very Slow	40-70 MM
Larghetto	Slightly faster	70-100 MM
Adagio	Slow	100-128 MM
Andante	Moderate	128-156 MM
Allegro	Fast	156-184
Presto	Very fast	184-208

Also mood-Vivace (lively), Grazioso (gracefully), Maestoso (majestically)

Melody pg 13

Treble Clef
Bass Clef

-sequence of musical tones or pitches…tune…

Treble clef (G clef): 2^nd line from the bottom of the staff is note G

Bass clef (F clef): 2^nd line from top of staff is F.

-Combined they are called a grand staff.

Scales and Intervals pg 14

Scale: sequence of rising or falling pitches. Sound depends upon size and sequence of intervals b/t successive pitches of the scale.

Chromatic scale: set of 12 equally spaced pitches. Distance b/t each note on this scale is called a half step or semitone.

-Pitches that are a semitone above an alpha pitch (A, B, C etc) have a sharp sign #.

- Pitches that are a semitone below an alpha pitch (A, B, C etc) have a flat sign b.

-Diatonic scale: scale of 7 tones per octave, eighth tone is repeat of 1^st tone but an octave higher.

Major scale: prominent, a diatonic scale that has ½ steps b/t 3^rd and 4^th tones and b/t the 7^th and 8^th tones. Beginning of the pitch determines the scale name. Ex: C scale. 5^th note is called the dominant. 7^th note is called the leading tone.

Tonality: the organization of music around a particular tone

Circle of Fifths: Begins with C major, uses nor sharps or flats, and ascends by fifths (7 ½ steps).

Minor scales: distance b/t 1^st and 3^rd notes are three semitones.

Describing Melody pg 16

-Melody can ascend, descend, and have wide/limited ranges.

-Melodies that use large leaps b/t notes use disjunct melodic motion.

Harmony pg 17

-When a musician sounds more than one pitch at any given moment.

-Three note chord, called a triad. 3 or more tones played simultaneously. Combines beginning note, third note, and 5^th note.

-Intervals are building blocks of harmony.

Cadence: progression of notes or chords that gives us closure to a passage of music. If it ends on a dominant, we will not feel closure (half cadence).

Texture pg 19

-the way the musical sounds are melodically, harmonically, and rhythmically layered.

Monophonic: simplest form, does not use harmony…one sound performed without accompaniment.

Polyphonic; has 2 or more independent melodies.

Homophony: created when a primary melo0dy is supported by other notes from a selected scale….today’s music

Heterphony: single melody is played or sung by 2 or more different instruments simultaneously

Homorhythmic: when the melody and supporting parts perform similar rhythms. Vocals, trios, and quarters…Backstreet Boys

Polyrhythmic: When one layer of music of being performed in 1 meter and another layer is being performed in another rhythmic texture.

Form pg 19

-the ways in which musical elements are structured using repetition, variation, and contrast. Provides a road map for musicians.

-Composer can develop form through melody by repeating or recombining melodic motives and fragments.

Fugue: form that uses polyphonic texture and patterns of melodic repetition.

Binary Form: form comprised of 2 sections 1^st section: tonic to dominant, 2^nd section: dominant back to tonic. Represented with AB Ex: America the Beautiful

Rounded Binary: extension of binary form where 1^st sec. is repeated in the end…ABA. Ex: Jingle Bells.

Rondo: form with a repeating A section that alternated w/ 2 or more contrasting sections.

Verse/chorus or Verse/refrain: Binary form popular in American music. Verse comes 1^st, then is repeated later, but lyrics are different. Ex: Yankee Doodle

Bridge: Section that could be added to verse/chorus; contrasting section that comes before the final chorus.

Through-composed: Songs that have several diff. phrases b/c a poem was put to music. Ex: Let Freedom Ring

Theme & variation: Music form begins w/ a basic melody that is repeated multiple times, each time featuring a variation of one or more elements.

Sonata: complex form featuring 3 main sections: exposition, development, and recapitulation. Usually end with a Coda.

Coda: passage at the end of a composition that brings it to a formal close.

12 bar blues: American form created by slaves. Jazz, rock, blues. 1^st phrase is repeated and then is resolved by a 3^rd phrase. AAB

Timbre pg 22

-already defined.

-Voices have a timbre, just like instruments: divided into sections, female or male.

Female: Male:

Soprano-highest female part Tenor: highest male

Mezzo-Soprano: middle range Baritone: middle

Alto: low range Bass: lowest

Section III: Orchestral Instruments and Voices

-4 families of instruments: idiophones, membranophones, aerophones, and chordophones. Also, electrophones (recent).

1) Idiophones: instruments that are stuck, scraped, rubbed or bowed w.out stretching the material of the instrument. Ex: cymbals, xylophone, etc.

2) Membranophones (Percussions): percussive instruments that have a membrane stretched over a frame. Ex: drums. Can be pitched (bells)or unpitched.

a. Metallophones: percussion instruments made of metal. ..metal bars that are struck with the hand of hammers. Ex: tubular bells

b. Membranophones: Drums. Timpani drums: large drumhead. Has a foot pedal to adjust tension of membrane. Orchestral bass drum: 36 in. Snare drum: rock music drums. Small, 12 in.

3) Chordophones: (Strings): instruments whose vibrations are produced by stretched string that is plucked, bowed, or struck. Don’t create much sound (doesn’t move a lot of air). Thick strings produce lower tones. Short strings produce higher tones. Also strings are connected to a tuning peg that can adjust the tension on the string to slightly lengthen or shorten the string for more precise tuning.

a. Violin: highest sounding instrument in the family. 35 cm long, played on neck. Has a bow constructed of wood and horsehair/synthetic material.

b. Viola: larger than the violin, 38-41 cm, 3^rd highest string

c. Cello: next lowest string, 74-76 cm, not played on neck, sit and bow.

d. Double Bass: lowest string instrument. Person must stand on stool to play. 180-200 cm .

e. Harp: 47 strings that is played while sitting.

f. Other: acoustic guitar

4) Aerophones: Wind Instruments: Instruments that create sound via a vibration of a column of air inside the instrument. Shorter the length will prod. A higher range of pitches.

A. Woodwinds: produce sound from air blown across an edge at 1 end of the column. Air bounces back and forth down the column. A reed is a vibrating piece of wood used to create sound. Can be single reed (clarinet) or double reeded (oboe).

a. Flute: high-pitched instrument made of silver, alloy, or gold. Has relatives: piccolo: even higher b/c smaller and the alto flute: lower

b. Clarinet: larger instrument made from African or Brazilian Blackwood, a hard material. Warm, rich timbre with a reed.

c. Saxophone: Metal instrument associated with jazz. Is a single reed instrument.

d. Double Reed Instruments: Oboe: looks like a clarinet, but w/ a flared bell. Bassoon: made of rosewood, larger, has a relative: contrabassoon, which is the lowest piece in an orchestra.

B. Brass: vibration of the player’s lips against the mouthpiece of the instrument. Valves are used to control the airflow into the tubing or to reroute the flow of air back to sections of tubing.

a. Trumpet: smallest member, carries the melody due to its high, clear timbre.

b. French Horn: orig. in Germany though. Warmer timbre. Person can stick side inside bell to change instruments pitch.

c. Trombone: has a long slide that can be adjusted from close to the player’s mouth to an arm length’s away.

d. Tuba: lowest pitch brass instrument.

e. Other: Pipe instruments, recorder, flute pipes.

The Orchestra pg 26

-Modern orchestras have the string, percussion, and brass families. Each sit in a certain area.

-String quartet: only has 2 violins, a viola, and a cello.

-Wind quintet: flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, and horn.

-Jazz band: clarinet, trumpet, trombone, saxophone, and percussion.

Human Voice pg 26

-Phonation: the creation of vocal sound

-Across the top of the windpipe (trachea) are 2 small bundles of muscles called vocal folds or chords. As these muscles pull together, they cover the trachea tube, and the vocal cords meet. As the air passes, it sucks the ligaments together. When the pressure of the air behind the cords builds, it eventually forces the cords open.

Section IV: Overview of Major Historical Periods in Western Music

Melisma: where several notes are sung in 1 syllable.

Motet: a polyphonic choral work, having a Latin text.

-Martin Luther felt that music should be part if worship. Had hymns and chorales in church service.

-Madrigals: secular pieces written for several voice parts, created by Palestrina.

Chansons: French secular songs set to French poetry

Pavane: Dance music in double meter

Galliard: Dance music in triple meter.

Concerto: Pieces with contrasting textures, featuring solo voices contrasting with larger groups.

Word Painting: Texts that were used as a model for the melody for the melody sought to express the meaning of the text musically. Ex: a passage about ascending to heaven would have ascension.

Symphony: developed from the late baroque orchestral overtures that were played at beg. Of operas. Composers of this time gave it 3 self-contained sections or movements.

Movements: Sections of a symphony. 1^st and 3^rd were fast, middle was slow. Mozart and Haydn experimented with 4 movement symphonies.

Program Music: music that describes a nonmusical subject, such as a story, object, etc

Ballet: Music stories performed by dancers

Symphonic poems: Orchestral works that musically expressed ideas taken from paintings, poems, drama, etc.

Leitmotif: A short pattern that is identified with each character, and is seen in operas. Created by Wagner.