Impact of World War I on the Artistic Philosophy of Otto Dix

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Otto Dix followed artistic leaders of the twentieth-century in creating a social criticism through art.  Through a review of Dix’s works, complimented by a review of books, articles, and other scholarly research, Dix’s work is largely seen as a progression of understanding his experiences of war and death. Through observation, personal experience and reflection, he portrayed the shattered aftermath of the human spirit from the casualty of war.  The majority of written works regarding Dix support his shift toward social commentary and criticism of war. Many of the books, articles and scholarly research emphasize the darkness of Dix’ works which provided the basis for understanding the darkness of war from a period where a world-wide conflict came into existence with the start of World War I to a period where German totalitarianism rejected Dix’s dark and biting commentary for a new view of “Deutschland Erwache! (Germany Awakes!)[i]”.

 

Otto Dix was born toward the end of the nineteenth century during a time when the complex artistic forces of Symbolism and Realism fought a tension against Dadaism and Cubism.   Otto Dix had only started his training as an artist, usually accepting commissions to paint portraits, but his style of expressionistic realism and symbolism followed him.    As early as 1911, writers attributed Dix’s art attracted a connection between the artist and his creations.  Dix “produced a tinted plaster bust of Nietzsche, whose philosophy had exercised a decisive influence upon him since 1911 and was to continue to do so in some form until the mid-1930s[ii] (illustration 7). During his study in Dresden, “this period of high attainment was not merely interrupted by the war—it was, so far as its characteristic achievements are concerned, ended: in the case of no other German city did the First World War mean so complete a breach in its artistic development as it did for Dresden”[iii]. Dix’s artistic view embraced all of surroundings.  He became aware of people, places, and simple objects.  Dix found “There was a colossal number of different types. I was always after types. The streets, the cafés—there you could find everything, I felt close to everything there. The sad, the everyday enticed and inspired me."”[iv].  Prior to entry in World War I, realism and cynicism in art was manufactured to reflect a darkness of inner and environmental turmoil.  In Germany, the Kaiser sought to control art in 1914 through censorship[v] and remove the reflection of darkness reflected in art.

At the age of 23, Dix volunteered for active service in the German Army in World War I.  Like many other young men, war was originally seen as a revitalized chivalry campaign, reminiscent of the Middle Ages and knighthood.  Dix was spurred into active duty based on an eagerness to contribute to national identity and to secure a place for himself as a hero of his people.

 

World War I was one of the century’s turning points – not only in political chaos and upheaval, but also within spiritual, socio-psychological interpretations and a change in humanities especially in literature and art.   In his review of twentieth-century artists, Richard Lofthouse argued that “this study reminds us that the world of science and philosophy in 1900 reflected anything by a triumph of positivist science and secularism[vi]. As the war progressed, increasing efforts by nations to strengthen their nationalist intentions required entering into a new national propaganda and misinformation aimed at heightening the glory of war, enhancing the tragic hero in the eyes of the citizenry.  However, the thousands of men on all sides and as the view of man’s inhumanity to man became prevalent, authors, theorists, philosophers and painters viewed the coarseness of war, the futility of fighting, and embraced the inner rage at incompetent military and government leaders who sent millions to die without a truly noble cause.  In fact, “German soldiers were equally skeptical of their own government's propaganda. To be sure, many educated soldiers (like the artist Otto Dix) carried Nietzsche's works in their packs”[vii]. This ideology indicated soldiers shifted their view from glory and honor to death and disillusionment.

 

Otto Dix was wounded several times during the course of his war career.  His active status throughout the campaigns in France won him distinction with medals and acknowledgement.  Dix did not embrace the same fortitude and accolades for valor.  Instead, Dix focused on the suffering of the individual in war. Following his release from service in 1918, Dix followed many other socio-politically motivated individuals to reflect on reality of war, mixing new elementary artistic styles of Expressionism with Realism and Symbolism to confuse, yet expound on the devastation which broke into every aspect of human life following the war.  Dix tried to “reform a corrupt and materialistic society – but in oils and on a large scale”[viii] through his work.  Like his pre-war use of observation and reflection, scholars and art historians believed that his post-war work grappled with his vivid experiences of war and his observation of the disenfranchised veterans and civilians within a crushed and defeated Germany.  Dix “made a series of brutal pictures depicting life in the trenches and mutilated ex-servicemen[ix]”.  His work claimed the title of New Objectivism (Neue Sachlichkeit), and promoted “a feeling of tension and suspense is created by the use of vibrant colors”[x].

 

His early post-war works reflected his socio-political commentary on war veterans and their re-entry into a post-war society, racked by pain and following a societal movement to reject the period known as the Great War in favor of a more pleasant view of life.  Denial by society and an active desire for national leaders to surrender their participation in war reinforced Dix’s need to show post-war life below the curtain of falsehood and denial being forced by every aspect of society.  In this post-war atmosphere, Dix was one of “the political-minded, the social clinicians and critics who function on their highest level in the last years of World War I and the early postwar period. This uncompromising effort to get close to the objective facts, this cynical and brutal art with its masochistic overtones, shows one aspect of the reaction to the age of political confusion and defeat”[xi].

 

Dix’ main contribution to anti-war sentiment came in 1924 after creating a traveling exhibit of “Der Krieg”.  Illustrations showed twisted lives, confused and tormented scenes – extended and exaggerated.  Dix hoped to solace future conflict by reinforcing the horrific outcome of war on society, from a veteran’s perspective.  During this same period, Dix began to use photography as a medium to capture reality of the broken and forgotten soldier.

 

Like the defeatist attitude that engulfed Germany following the Great War, Dix embraced the need to work with other artists to show the symbolism of war, death and destruction and forced his own society to look upon the war as a means to and end rather than creating a new stability of hope and progress.  Many of the attitudes of Dix’s work during the 1920s reinforced the will of future totalitarian leaders, especially Adolf Hitler; to reject the realism of war associated with post-World War I art and literature in favor of once again seeing war as a national duty, pride, and honor that would capture German ideology for the next ten years. From the German viewpoint, “Expressionists were interested in nature from a cosmic point of view; the New Realists extol the strengthening and health-giving possibilities of the simple life as a means of creating the ideal human community”[xii].

 

When studying specific illustrations of Dix’ work, we can interpret the vast diversity of symbolism and find it necessary to review his work several times to capture a true depiction of his intention.

 

Early Representation:

To envision the impact of war on the artistic style of Otto Dix, a review of the artists work provided a solid base for comparison.  Prior to the start of war, Dix was immersed in the aftermath of the industrial revolution.  The darkness of social commentary against organized industrialization was marked by his personal viewpoint of his father’s work in a foundry.  His pre-war images and portraits reflected the social expressionism of late nineteenth-century art. In his work “Fabrikviertel in Gera – Factory quarter in Gera” (illustration 5); Dix portrays an industrial area with features that appear to close in around the viewer. His vision is landscape, reflecting his personal observations of industrialization and links his father’s work in the foundry as part of his personal experience with heavy labor. 

Art historians also noted Dix’s early works with landscapes and portraits.  In early paintings, these subjects receive attention for clarity and vivid impact.  Similar to his work on “Brick auf Untermhaus” (A Look at Untermhaus) (illustration 3) and Schwester “Tonia am Fenster” (Sister Toni at the Window) (illustration 4), early works showed that “Light colors predominate, with yellow and green preferred”[xiii]. These early subjects were brought to halt during war and Dix’s view of his surroundings.

World War I Experiences:

The war did not end Dix’s artistic flow.  His use of observation and personal commentary was reflected in his etchings and an almost continual stream of war-time paintings.  His use of charcoal over pastels reflected the severity of war and contributed to his overall view of darkness which engulfed not only his own national identity – but the world-wide sinking of man’s humanity.  Fritz Loffler’s “Otto Dix, Life and Work”, summarized many of Dix’s works of the period stating “with the greatest economy of line, he depicts in harshly contrasting black-and-white abstractions the elemental horror the trenches: taken as a whole, they constitute a unique documentation of the First World War”[xiv]. It was Dix’s personal experiences that allowed him to look beneath the scorched earth of the trenches, almost documenting the war as photography does today.  Two of Dix’s etchings – “The Trench “, 1916 (illustration 10) and “Direct Hit”, 1917 (illustration 11) show twisted images of life at the front.  In “The Trench”, Dix showed the hallow life within the trench.  Twisted lines and hills reflect the German Expressionism of exaggeration. Low rise functionality appears pitted against the landscape of pillars, trenches, and dugouts that fill the landscape.  Interpreting “Direct Hit”, we catch a glimpse of freeze-frame motion; the impact of the artillery strikes from above, splitting the image in two. Exaggerated images geometrically resonate from the center – splitting soldiers and landscape into similar shapes and sizes and showed that the impact of war knows no distinction among features – living or inanimate.

These vivid reflections of war showed that “the landscape of war, the face of war, the spasms of war, the mess of war, is still best described as it has always been described, in epic and lament”[xv].  Like the war correspondent, Dix’s works gained momentum in removing the heroic vision of war for a new found realism that accentuated drama over the sublime and darkness against the light of individual or national pride. After the war, “three years or so passed before he began to address again the horror of the trenches, which he went on to show with an almost brutal directness”[xvi].

At this point, Dix drew the severity of his observations during war.  During the early 1920s, his experiences formed the basis for many of his post-war models.  With his images of war emblazoned deep within his own psyche, he continued to utilize his personal experience and observations of social conditions in the post-war Weimar Republic.  After the war, the vastness of changes gripped Europe and Russia.  Leaders were removed or deposed in Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Russian dynasty of the Romanov’s ended with turmoil.  Within his own sphere, Dix reflected these changes in etchings and paintings.  In 1963, Dix expressed “I had to experience everything very precisely…I am such a realist, you know, that I have to see everything with my eyes”[xvii]. Dix’s early post-war years led to the development of devastating realism in graphic depiction of war art.  In “Gastote – Gas Dead or Gassed” (illustration 18), completed in 1924 – the etching showed a line of dead, decaying bodies blurred from recognition.  Similarly, in “Sturmtruppe geht unter Gas vor” (Storm Troops Advance under Gas Attack) (illustration 19), completed in 1924 contributed to the eerie and realistic depiction of life on the front.  Here, men are cloaked in masks, resembling death itself lunging amongst the other faceless pursuers. Raised hands with weapons cloud the sight.  Again the image is a freeze-frame of action, the enemy moving toward their victim.  The excitement is from the victim’s perspective as contorted soldiers advance against their prey.  Dix’s “Verwundeter” (Wounded Solider) (illustration 22), composed in 1916 is another vivid reflection of war.  This image provided the graphic depiction of the internal struggle of the solider amidst the artillery and gas-attacks associated with trench warfare, a subject all too real to Dix, who was almost killed while campaigning in France.  The solider, clutching at his chest, his face contorted and extended as he reaches for air.  Surrounding the wounded man are fragments of dirt and particles in the air. His body and emotions scream volumes above written words and the interpretation can only be one of torment.

Dix’s experience and personal observations of the devastation and humility of war drew his work into socio-political commentary that supported his projects throughout the 1920s. Post-war European though reflected shattered hopes, defeat, humiliation, and a profound disillusionment with religion and humanity.  Dix’s personal statement fought to extinguish the horror of war.  With growing national crises including inflation, crime, and the growing trend to disavow the defeat of Germany during the war, Dix presented growing discussion of the ills of the nation and the lament of the disenfranchised veterans cast aside after the war. Some of Dix’s critics “regarded his work as merely provocative. The harsher ones accused him of dishonoring the memory of the soldiers who died in the war”[xviii].  Dix was not affected by these comments.  His work reinforced the battle of human life against national needs. 

In his 1920 production of “War Cripples” (illustration 20), Dix shows the flat procession of veterans, carrying both their wounds and their military decorations including the Iron Cross. The veterans progress with a recollection of heroic deed while begging for basic needs and support.  In fact, “the war had not brought a regeneration in the wake of its sacrifice; revolution had been followed by inflation, war by the “disgraceful” peace of Versailles”[xix].

During 1924, Dix combined his social commentary on war and devastation with his art in a series of 51 prints which he titled “Der Krieg” (The War).  These pictures surrounded the viewer with images. Dix’s etchings of “Storm troopers” and “The Wounded Solider” reflected the immediate period of mourning and remembrance associated with the collapse of Germany and the numbness of the individual spirit after the war.  Dix’s “cycle” of works in “The War” reflected “war, want, brutalization of the feelings, the horror of the trenches, and the misery of impoverished cities”[xx] and his figures showed an “evil vitality, disregarding even death”[xxi]. 

In the early 1920s, a new movement of art reflected a collective outlet for artists, theorists and writers to vent their objections against war and to educate society about the growing cast-off of veterans within the city streets.  This movement, called New Objectivity embraced two separate styles of art – Verism and Magic Realism.  Both styles sought to show the psychological impact of war from first-hand knowledge and Dix created works which are arguably a synthesis of both dramatic styles.  In Verism, Expressionism – exaggerated, contorted, and darkness continued to portray realism from the artists’ viewpoint.  In Magic Realism, a more neo-classicism emerged which found its strength from combining elements of 17^th and 18^th century masters to depict the horrors of war.  Otto Dix “became a leader in a movement called the Neue Sachlichkeit, which was dedicated to realistic painting that aimed to expose the corrupt nature of modern life”[xxii].

A clear example of the New Objectivity style is Dix’s “Trench Warfare” (illustration 1), a vibrant portrayal of devastation and brutality.  Like war, Dix’s work shows chaos, confusion – but in a style reflecting the second group of the New Objectivity movement, created in the early 1920s as a defiance of German Expressionism.  New Objectivity was spawned from the collective artistic response to war and was not merely associated with art but found its ideology in literature, philosophy as well.  The Magic Realism component of the New Objectivity embraced a neo-classicism, a return to the elements and realistic depiction of life and nature while continuing to show the true forms of darkness associated with disillusionment and inhumanity as a social protest and a political statement against national intentions towards war.  Dix, himself, in a December 1964 interview acknowledged his ten year project of “Trench Warfare” caused “fear and panic, but to let people know how dreadful war is and so to stimulate people’s powers of resistance.[xxiii]”

His “Trench Suicide” (illustration 2) returned to Veristic style component of New Objectivity and associated with Dix’s earlier compositions of exaggerated elements and darkness, while still embossing his social criticism on his audience.  “Trench Suicide” is a reminder of the inner, human psychological impact of trench warfare.  In this work, a solider has taken his life – the title reflects his location and death was his escape from the torment of battle.  Dix’s image “depicted the brutalized body to witness combat trauma”[xxiv].  The overwhelming psychological impact of war was felt across national entities.  In fact, “2% of those who saw active service suffered from shell-shock”[xxv].  This key finding reinforced the overwhelming psychological trauma of war – especially within the trenches.  Again, Dix’s creations came directly from his experience and observation of men along side him throughout the conflict.

Dix’s socio-political commentary through art continued throughout the 1920s and worked along side the New Objectivity, which was prevalent between the end of World War I and the end of the Weimar Republic during the early 1930s, when National Socialism and Hitler raised the hope of millions of Germans and presented a plan to reject the humiliation of the peace treaty at Versailles, reject the devastating inflation, lack of food and work and return a glorification of the inner spirit and heroism of fallen heroes to his cause.  During this period of transition in politics and art, Dix’s use of neo-classicism was viewed in a 1927/28 work “GroSstad” (Metropolis) (illustration 14).  Here, post-war social division of classes turned against the views of war to illustrate the modern society of Germany.  The revelry of the Art Deco period of the late 1920s melds with the neo-classicism of the German New Objectivity and supports Dix’s social commentary that supported the fact that, “Berlin after the war an exceptionally violent city, torn by revolution and beset by crime – a site of cold, hunger, epidemic, disease, demoralization and radical disorder”[xxvi].  Dix’s exaggerated blend of neo-classicism and Expressionism bluntly delved into social commentary.  In the left panel, a crippled war veteran walks along a distorted street, lined with prostitutes.  The center panel shows night life within the big city – musicians play for the elite as well as those of questionable reputation; women are overly painted, dressed in haute couture.  The masks they wear in the right panel are presented as a shield against social conditions – making the statement of happiness amidst a period of social decadence and turmoil. 

In his review of German Expressionist artists, Bernard Myers summarized his attitude of the period of New Objectivity indicating “someone has said that Expressionism was like a medicine that had to be taken in small doses and for a short time only – otherwise it could poison the patient.  After a certain point in chaotic postwar Germany, there had to be a relaxation of tensions, a balance of quiet instead of the earlier flaming excitement”[xxvii].   German’s rebound from the war and the rise of Adolf Hitler changed this viewpoint and ended the New Objectivity style of realism in favor of a brighter vision of power, strength and control.

The New Order: The Impact of National Socialism on Otto Dix

In the early 1930s, the view of social commentary in art was growing undesirable against a new vision of socio-political ideology.  Society grew tired of reflecting on the past and grew impatient to break from the darkness in life – and art – toward more of a positive statement about their hopes, desires, and future of the national identity.    Like the Kaiser in 1914, the new political order of Hitler’s Nazi Germany demanded that the art reflected positivism of his vision for future social order.  Dix’s commentary’s were eventually silenced in Germany when many of his works were seen as “the notorious enterprise of exhibiting avant-garde art as degenerate in 1937 as an effort by Adolf Hitler to reinstate art to its previous, exalted statute”[xxviii].   After being dismissed from his teaching post for “Violation of the sense of morality and undermining the will of the German people to defend itself”[xxix], many of his works were destroyed. The cleansing of the new German Reich against anti-social themes enraged Dix, who continued to respond to social critics against governmental actions.  However, Hitler’s new ideology of portraying the glory and heroism of the German people and their military might drove Dix into exile where he “retired to the country and did his best to be forgotten”[xxx].  His painting returned to his roots – landscapes and portraits – and he embraced a new call for showing symbolism within religious depictions.  His production of the Matthaus Evangelium including his work, “Holy Christopher” (illustration 15) in 1938, continued to support conflict, representing “the artist’s understanding of the Atonement, and the coming of the Messiah was to be a sacrifice for all humanity”[xxxi].  His religious works continued throughout the remainder of his career through the turbulent 1960s when his works were used to support anti-war themes associated with Vietnam.

When considering the elements of style against the socio-political chaos of post-war reality, writers, art historians and scholars agree that Otto Dix was a leading member of a new period of art, exemplified by the New Objectivity.  Dix’s use of personal experience and observations of the world around him began prior to war, but it was the impact of the horrors of trench warfare and the humiliating views of disenfranchised veterans which inspired his prolific artistry of war-related themes.   Holding tight to his social criticism of post-war Germany even a decade after the end of war, it did not resolve his expectations for change within the social order of human conscience.  However, societal ideology toward representing darkness concluded as the new order of the National Socialist party demanded a new vision of brightness, health, and a return to the classical order of heroic depictions of the fallen victim in the name of national pride.