Chapter Two Lecture Notes
(Divided by lecture)

Lecture 1
Chapter Two
Ancient Greece to the end of the Peloponnesian Wars
Chapter Two
•	Introduction
•	Geography, the Aegean, and Crete
–	The Society of Minoan Crete (3000-1400 BC)
–	The Mycenean Greeks
–	Early Greek Society
•	The Development of the Polis
–	Life in the Polis: The Early History of Athens
–	The Social and Economic Structures of Athenian Society
–	Sparta: A Conservative Garrison State
•	The Persian War
•	The Peloponnesian Wars
Greece
•	Balkan Peninsula
•	Aegean Sea on the east
•	Ionian Sea on the west
•	Northern boundary 
–	Troy
•	Dardanelles
•	Bosporus
•	Black Sea
•	Southern boundary
–	Crete
•	Eastern Mediterranean Sea
Minoan Crete
•	The first inhabitants of Crete arrived c. 4000 B.C.
•	Land 
–	Mountainous with fertile valleys
•	Well suited for Neolithic agriculture
•	Minoan civilization had developed by 3000 B.C.
–	King Minos
•	Menes – Egypt
•	Mannu – Germans
•	Achaemenes – Persia
•	Manu – India
–	Famous for their manufacture of bronze and enormous palaces, which were built around large rectangular courts used for religious and public ceremonies
•	Knossos
•	Phaistos
Minoan Crete
•	The walls were covered and decorated with naturalistic wall paintings
•	Numerous storerooms and magazines
–	Sign of gathering and distribution of goods
•	Drainage system
–	Removal of waste and rainwater
•	Floor plan so elaborate that the Greeks called it Labyrinth after labrys (the two-headed axe)
–	Labyrinth became common word for maze
Minoan Crete
•	Language
–	Has not been deciphered.
–	First written in hieroglyphic characters
–	Then went to a form of alphabet yet to be translated (Linear A)
–	“Alphabet” evolved into Linear B, which as been translated
•	Dates to the last period of Minoan history.
•	Artifacts show writings are composition of laundry lists
–	Linum  flax or linen
Minoan Crete
•	Three phases of Minoan history
–	Early Minoan (3000-2100 B.C.)
•	Around same time as Mesopotamian and Egyptian
–	Middle Minoan (2100-1500 B.C.)
•	High point of civilization
•	Linear A
–	Late Minoan (1500-1100 B.C.)
•	Fall to Myceneans
•	Linear B
•	Discovered by Sir Arthur Evans in 1899
Minoan Crete
•	Minotaur (part man/part bull)
–	King Minos (son of Zeus and Europa a mortal woman)
–	Minos broke an oath to Poseidon (god of the sea)
•	Poseidon had guaranteed Minos his kingship in Crete in return for sacrificing a snowy-white bull
•	In revenge Poseidon caused Minos’ wife, Pasiphaë, to fall in love with the same bull that was to be sacrificed
•	She ordered Daedalus, the legendary craftsman, to construct a hollow wooden cow wherein she might lie and make love to the bull 
•	She conceived and gave birth to Minotaur
–	Minotaur lived beneath palace of Knossos in the labyrinth
Minoan Crete
•	Minotaur continued
–	Minos and Pasiphaë had other children
•	Androgeos, Ariadne, and Phaedra
–	Androgeos was killed by the Athenians, Minos went to war to avenge his death. 
–	Minos defeated the Athenians and extracted a tribute of seven boys and seven girls who were sent to Knossos every nine years to be fed to the Minotaur.
–	On the third occasion of the sacrifice, Theseus, the son of the Athenian king, offered to go in the place of one of the victims. 
–	When he arrived in Crete, the princess Ariadne instantly fell in love with him and offered to help him slay the monster. 
•	She gave him a sword and a ball of thread which he unrolled as he made his way to the heart of the Labyrinth, killed the beast and, after retracing his steps, freed his comrades and they all sailed back to Athens. 
La “Parisienne”
Notice lipstick and snake-like object around her neck. Name given because of so-called resemblance to a Parisian woman in the 19th century
Bull Leaping Fresco
Man  Red/Brown	
Women  White
Minoan Crete
•	Religion
–	Polytheistic and matriarchal
•	a goddess religion; the gods were all female
–	Shrines were small and located outdoors on hilltops or inside palaces
–	Religious Images
•	Bulls
•	Double Axe  used to sacrifice
•	Trees  symbol of rebirth
•	Pillars and Poles
•	Snake goddess
–	Fertility and agriculture
Minoan Crete
•	Rituals
–	Ecstatic/orgiastic dances with fermented beverages made from poppy and/or honey 
•	Often done in forest (worship of nature)
–	Wore the pelts of large cats such as cheetahs and leopards
•	Offerings
–	A pot of honey
–	Spices
–	Jugs of oil
–	Other offerings
•	Wool
•	Cheese, barley, and possibly wine
•	Double axes
•	Weapons
•	Pottery

Lecture 2
Mycenean Greeks
•	c.1450 B.C. the Minoans were conquered by a people known as the Myceneans
•	Spoke early form of Greek
•	Ruled over the land of modern Greece
•	Main cities were
–	Athens
–	Thebes
•	Each community was ruled by a king
•	Palaces  similar to Knossos
–	Spacious apartments 
–	Columned porches
–	Storerooms below
•	Heated during the winter
Lion Gate at Palace of Nestor
Mycenean Greeks
•	Tombs  tholos
–	Dead were buried with treasures
•	Skilled metal workers
–	Bronze armor and weapons were among the finest of the ancient world
•	Boar tusks for helmet
•	Ancient Greeks made them heroes
–	Homer’s characters in The Illiad are Mycenean
•	The Mycenean’s were a violent people.
Agamemnon’s Burial Mask
Early Greek Society
•	Greeks believed that the Dorians, a Greek-speaking people from the north, swept into the peninsula and destroyed the Myceneans
•	Athens became the city of refuge of people who were fleeing Dorian invasion
•	By the 900 B.C., Greece had been divided into two major ethnic groups
–	Dorians  dominated most of the area
–	Ionians  dominated Attica and the east.
•	Spoke different dialects but shared a common culture
•	Thought of the Greek-speaking world as Hellas and referred to themselves as Hellenes
Early Greek Society
•	Religion
–	Polytheistic  twelve god extended family who lived at Mt. Olympus
•	Zeus  father of the gods
•	Hera  wife/sister of Zeus and goddess of marriage
•	Poseidon  god of the sea and earthquakes
•	Hestia  goddess of hearths
•	Demeter earth goddess (plants and fruits)
•	Aphrodite  goddess of love
•	Apollo  god of the Sun, music, and poetry
•	Ares  god of war
•	Athena  goddess of wisdom and the fine arts
•	Hephaestus  god of fire and metallurgy
•	Hermes  god of commerce and cleverness/trickery (messenger of gods)
•	Artemis  virgin nature goddess (chastity and prayed to for childbirth)
Early Greek Society
•	Religion
–	Deities were human-like, although immortal with super-human powers.
–	Ethic principles derived from commonsense rather than the gods.
–	Worship done for protection and security of goodwill from the spirits who ruled certain localities
•	Prayer offerings
•	Sacrifices
–	Little to no hope of personal immortality. When you die, you die and that’s it; nothing left afterwards.
–	Places of worship were numerous and open to all Greeks
•	Olympia  Zeus
•	Corinth  Poseidon
–	Both known for the games held in honor of the gods
•	Delphi  Apollo
Early Greek Society
•	Olympic Games
–	Unified a culture that was politically fragmented
•	People came from all over the Greek world to participate in these peaceful and competitive games
–	Only men allowed to participate
–	Winners were praised by poets and showered with gifts
•	All Greek men participated in sports. It was seen as an essential component for a good life.
–	Physical fitness  prepared them for war
–	Competition  allowed concept personal worth
–	Athletic success  made them almost godlike
•	Had to be careful against hubris
–	Hubris  fatal pride which leads men to challenge the gods
Polis
•	When the Dorians settled the Peloponnese and Ionians settled Attica, they fortified on hills and other high ground for defense against their enemies
–	Each community claimed full sovereign rights over their area
–	The land might be claimed by more than one leader, therefore the men would organize themselves into war bands and become allies.
•	These early communities were the forerunners of the polis.
–	Polis  a city-state which formed the social organization in which individual’s full potential could be achieved.
•	Common ancestors and worship of same gods were ties
•	Ruled by aristocrats
–	Had a king, either hereditary or elected, but also a council composed of warriors from the distinguished, aristocratic families.
•	Warfare  seizing or destroying a neighbor’s crop
–	Individual champions fighting against one another with a sword, lance, and shield. No tactics known.
Polis
•	Hoplite Phalanx
–	Hoplite  able-bodied individual wealthy enough to leave home, buy armor and weapons, and strong enough to fight.
•	Those too poor to equip themselves would serve as troops and/or row oars in the galleys
–	Phalanx  A formation of trained spearmen who fought shoulder to shoulder in a rectangle. (normally 8 ranks deep)
–	Hause p. 29, Illustration 2.3, vase painting
•	As long as the ranks were unbroken, the phalanx was invincible against frontal attacks by horse or foot.
•	Only another phalanx could stand against it.
•	This gave birth to the classical form of the polis
–	These hoplite men couldn’t be denied a say in governance if they fought for it. Although, wealth and heredity still counted. This new form of warfare just increased the number of people who participated in government
•	Slaves, women, and foreigners (those from another polis) were not allowed to participate. Only free men were allowed.
Polis
•	Towns built around an acropolis  the high point selected by original founders. Temples built in honor of city’s god(s).
•	Overpopulation began a process of colonization c.750 B.C. with a trade community in the Bay of Naples
–	Eastern Sicily  Syracuse became wealthy due to agriculture
–	Modern Marseilles, France
–	Southern Ukraine and Crimean peninsula area of Black Sea
•	Most Greeks were poor, small farmers
–	Grew the Mediterranean triad crops
•	Wheat
•	Wine
•	Olives
Athenian Society
•	c.510 B.C. Cleisthenes laid foundations of democratic system which would last throughout the classical age
–	Demes, or wards, served as primary units of local government
•	Athenian’s lived a simple life
–	Near vegetarian diet. Meat was expensive and if consumed done in small quantities.
•	Slaves
–	Most slaves were barbarians (non-Greeks) purchased from traders
–	Only the richest owned slaves, and a few at that.
–	Killing a slave was a crime
–	Guaranteed freedom if they could raise their price of purchase
•	Women
–	No political rights
–	Judicial rights had to be exercised by men (father, husband, or guardian)
•	Considered permanent legal minors
Athenian Society
•	Women continued (Hause, p. 34, Document 2.4)
–	Controlled the household and avoided public life
–	Sexes were segregated among the respectable.
•	Stayed at home except for occasional festivals, sacrifices, or visits to the theater. Even then had to be accompanied by a male
•	Lived in separate quarters of the house. Not allowed in andron, room where men received their male guests.
–	Thought to not be able to control their sexuality
–	Married early (ages 14-15) to men chosen by their families.
•	Men usually much older
–	Almost never received an education
–	Spent time spinning thread and sewing clothes
•	Hetairai  female prostitution escorts men would take to banquets or other social occasions where women were excluded
Athenian Society
•	Homosexuality (Hause, p. 35, Document 2.5)
–	Regarded as normal and in some cases praiseworthy
•	Soldiers thought to fight more bravely when male lovers were with them
–	Many relationships formed in the gymnasia  place where men trained for war or athletics
–	Youth sometimes became sexually involved with a mentor for intellectual purposes
–	Women not viewed as homosexual in Athens. If they were it wasn’t a big deal because it did not raise an issue of inheritance.
•	Lesbian comes from Lesbos
–	Island in Aegean Sea
–	Home of Sapho, female poet who wrote erotic poems
•	Self-control was an essence of the ideal citizen and sexual restraint was admired along with physical fitness and moderation of food and drink.

Lecture 3
Spartan Society
•	Sparta appears to be the alternate society in Ancient Greece.
•	Had an unwalled capital
•	No commerce
•	No coinage
–	Used iron bars as currency
•	Wrote little, therefore, known through the writings of “foreigners”
•	Poor
•	Rigidly conservative
•	Known for its army and disciplined citizens
Spartan Society
•	Sparta was an aristocratic garrison state
•	The first Spartans were probably Dorian invaders who established their polis on the ruins of an earlier society. (Possibly the Myceneans)
•	These original inhabitants became helots  serfs
•	Sparta would attack neighboring lands, take their land and force the people to become helots
•	The helots outnumbered the Spartans 10:1
Spartan Society
•	Government
–	A dual monarchy with two hereditary kings, which had equal powers in war and religious matters
–	Limited by a Council of Elders (28 men over the age of 60), which advised them and served as a kind of check on the kings.
–	Ephors, a committee of five, ran the government
•	Conducted foreign policy
•	Watched over the helots
–	Both the Council of Elders and the ephors were elected by an assembly of all Spartan males over the age of 30.
•	Ephors  one-year terms
•	Council of Elders  life-time terms
Spartan Society
•	Childhood (Hause, p. 36, Document 2.6)
–	Lycurgus (leader of Sparta)
•	Gave the duty of controlling boys to a “Warden”
•	Took away their shoes
–	“Enable them to climb hills more easily and descend steep slopes with less danger”
•	Introduced the custom of wearing one set of clothes the whole year
–	Better prepare them to face changes of heat and cold
•	Feed them moderate amounts of food
–	Just enough to satisfy their hunger and train them to work on empty stomachs if necessary.
–	All this done to better make the boys resourceful in getting supplies and being better fighters
Spartan Society
•	Men
–	Everything in Spartan life was subordinate to the security of the polis.
–	Infants who appeared physically unfit were killed.
–	At age seven, males were taken from their mothers
•	Trained to fight
•	Endure pain
•	Survive without supplies in a hostile countryside
–	At age twenty, they entered a phiditia (type of barracks) where they would live for most of their lives
•	Military obligation did not end until age sixty
–	Allowed to marry, but the younger could only visit their wives in secret
–	Family life was discouraged
–	Foreigners were expelled
–	Trade and agricultural work forbidden
–	Prized goals
•	Fitness, discipline, and courage
Spartan Society
•	Women
–	Known for their independence and assertiveness
–	Received physical training
•	Theory that a strong mother produces strong children
–	Dressed simple and wore no jewelry
–	Could not hold land in own right
–	Capable of dealing with hostile and rebellious helots
–	Known for their courage, just like Spartan men.
Spartan Society
•	Although fierce militarily they did not become active in foreign affairs until late in their history.
•	Why? Because of the helots. Remember they were outnumbered 10:1 and had to constantly keep insurrection to nil.
•	But, eventually they would be drawn into a rivalry with the Athenians, whose army was inferior but whose navy and wealth were far superior.
Persian War
•	Persians attacked Greeks
•	Greeks defeated Persians at Marathon
–	Modern Olympic event called marathon commemorates the achievement of a courier who brought the news of victory to Athens 22 miles away
•	c.480 B.C. Xerxes, Persian emperor, attacked Greece by land and sea
•	Themistocles, Greek leader at Athens, built a fleet of 200 triremes
–	Triremes  large, complex warships powered by oarsmen and had a metal prow for ramming.
–	Naval was the main defense of Greece
•	Xerxes defeated by Greek triremes at battle of Salamis
Peloponnesian Wars
•	Themistocles began rebuilding Athens
–	Fortified the port at Piraeus 
–	Constructed the Long Walls that protected the road connecting the city to the port
•	c.478-477 B.C. Athens formed the Delian League
–	Association dedicated to protecting the Aegean from Persians and pirates
•	Sparta did not join because of the helot problem and in return formed the Peloponnesian League
•	These two associations divided Greece into two very competitive alliance systems
Peloponnesian Wars
•	Athens being dominant in the Delian League used the alliance to further their own purposes.
•	When the island of Thasos tried to withdraw in 465 B.C., Athens treated it as a rebellion and laid siege on them for two years
•	After this, both Delians and Peloponnesians feared that Athens was seeking to rule over all the Greek world.
Peloponnesian Wars
•	First Peloponnesian War (460-445 B.C.)
–	Delian defeated both the Peloponnesians and the Persians
–	Delian leader, Pericles, agreed to a thirty-year peace
–	It lasted for only fourteen years
•	Second Peloponnesian War
–	Began with war between Corinth (Peloponnesian) and Corcyra (Delian)
–	Everyone got involved and the Peloponnesians with help from the Persians again defeated the Delians
•	Neither Athens nor Sparta ever created a Greek society because of their polis.
–	Unity and peace were impossible because of the independence each polis had and the competitiveness mindset of each polis
•	The Macedonians come and conquer Greece and created a successful alliance.
–	One reason is they did not share in the culture of the polis