Courtesans and Devadasis in Hindu civilization.
This page has nothing to do with Kamasutra. It simply gives a view of the condition of prostitutes in Classical India and the role of the Devadasis [Female servants of God]
Prostitution.
Since prostitution is considered to be the oldest profession in the world, naturally enough we find it in Hindu society from the beginning. In the Vedas one verse apparently speaks of brotherless girls earning their livelihood in this manner and another verse speaks of mahanagni, which means 'the great naked one', but which could mean something else altogether in Vedic Sanskrit. At any rate, the myths are full of such women which surely reflect reality. According to mythology, there are several demi-goddesses called apsaras who act as heavenly courtesans. If an ascetic seems to be gaining too much mystic powers, then the gods would send down these apsaras to tempt them. Inevitably, all of the ascetics succumbed. Their other love affairs also form the staple of many myths. The most noticable thing about these goddesses is their freedom: they consorted with gods and men when they felt like it, boldly made advances, and went away when they no longer wished to remain. Similarly, King Dasaratha sent beautiful human courtesans to the ascetic Rishyasringa to bring him to the royal court.
In the sacred lawbooks we find references to prostitutes, but we do not learn much about them. Kamasutra tells us about the various grades of courtesans but nothing about their social status. By 3rd century A.D prostitution seems to have become insitutionalised. It was a legal profession and subject to tax. It also seems to have been a family business, since daughters or kinswomen of the courtesans became courtesans themselves when the elder women retired. There were independant courtesans who paid 1/6th of their earnings to the royal treasury. But the State itself ran brothels and had a superintendant to serve the king. Consequently the laws regarding them were quiet complicated.
Each establishment was run by a madam, who was a retired courtesan. When a courtesan was no longer beautiful she was appointed as the caretaker of next generation of courtesans, frequently their female relatives. Lower grade prostotutes were appointed as ordinary servants. Their sons acted as minstrels to the court unless they could ransom themselves by money or by working for 8 years. The courtesans hired for the palace itself were of different types. Some were hired only for their beauty while others were also hired for accomplishments like singing and dancing , knowledge of literature, fine arts, philosophy, sciences and skill in debating. The maids who served the courtesans were also considered as prostitutes but of lower grade. The courtesans were hired at a high annual salary , the same amount that was paid to the court-physician. Depending on their skill and other accomplishments their salary was double or treble of the mininmum amount. However entering into royal service was in the nature of a contract and the conditions were severe. A courtesan was supposed to give her ornaments to her mother to keep them safe; to give it to someone else invited fines. The courtesan cannot refuse to go to anyone whom the king appointed; not to do so invited a high fine or a beating. She could not speak harshly to her clients. They were obliged to serve as spies and to sow dissenssion among the king's enemies, if commanded. If a courtesan wished no longer to serve the king then she has to pay to the king 24 times the minimum annual salary. She could collect this money by two ways: a very rich man might pay it to keep her as his own concubine, or she could pay it herself from her earnings. The sources of a courtesan's income are many --- the money the clients paid her, the salary paid by the king, the money inherited from her mother, and whatever extra sources of income she might have.
There were certain laws applicable to all kinds of courtesans, whether independant or not. If the courtesan accepts her fee from a man (in this context it seems only for singing and dancing or talking) but then refuses to entertain him, then she was fined twice the fee taken. If she took the money for sex but then refuses, then she was fined eight times the fee.
On the other hand she had certain legal protection. If after taking a fee from a client it was found that the man suffered from an infectious disease or was incapable in any way, then she could refuse to entertain him without being guilty. . If any client disfigured her beauty then a heavy fine must be paid; depending on where the wounding had occurred, the fine kept on doubling. Any man who kidnapped an unwilling prostitute or robbed or cheated her was fined heavily. The rape of a courtesan's daughter carried a fine to the State and payment of the amount of money 16 times the fee for a visit, to the mother. Similarly, the rape of a prostitute carried a heavy monetary fine and if it was gang-rape then the fines increased. Though the rape of a highcaste housewife could carry stiffer penalties upto death, monetary fines should not be considered as light punishment since they were heavy enough to bankrupt most people, and nearly all crimes had fines as their punishments. The courtesan was seen as an useful citizeness of the State and so was protected.
It is difficult to know about the exact status of courtesans in ordinary life. Unfortunately literature speaks mostly of highest levels of courtesans who were famous for their accomplishments and enjoyed a high status in society. The ordinary prostitutes were outside the normal circle of family and so surely did not have a respectable status. If she grew old, then those working at State-run establishments were given other work and thus had a measure of security. But there are few facts known about the lives of independant prostitutes --- from the few references it seem that if she had not accumulated enough money, she could then take up the work of teaching younger girls, act as a maid for various types of entertainers or even cheat people by various tricks. If she was lucky she might have become a secondary wife to a well-to-do man. If she was unlucky she might end up as a beggar. But how people treated her --- whether with contempt and hatred, or simply as another low class necessary in society (say, like the barbers) --- is impossible to say. However it should be noted that the British in 18th century Punjab complained that in Punjab the prostitutes were not shunned and respectable women were not banned from contact with them as is normal in Britain; on the contrary they were treated civilly and it was considered the height of impoliteness for anyone, including housewives, not to greet them or refuse to engage in conversation if the prostitute said something to them. Again in the same century in Bengal we find the Vaishnavis (women who belong to a sect of Vishnu worshippers). According to contemporary English and Bengali accounts, they often took up prostitution, but were allowed free access to the women in high ranking households and even taught the daughters of the house. In fact the making of images of Durga, the Mother-Goddess, was not ritually complete until mud from prostitutes' houses was mixed in it, a custom that continues even today. The British Victorian education and insistence of cleaning up morality did not prevent prostitution, but it robbed the prostitutes of whatever social sanction they enjoyed thus making their condition even more wretched.
On the other end of the scale were the most accomplished courtesans and they were a different matter altogether. They were admired and sought after and men came from far and near merely to witness their non-sexual performances. They were in fact in a peculiar position. A courtesan was a 'public-wife' (barbadhu) and so not entitled to the honours and protection that a 'honest' wife would get. If she fell in love there were great many obstacles before her, not least that her mother might complain in court that she had failed in her duty towards her natal family. Yet they enjoyed many advantages that an ordinary housewife did not. Courtesans of the highest grade could fix their own worth and use the money themselves. They were economically independent and far richer than the majority of society. They donated a lot to the temples and thus gained more respectability. Though they had male members in their households they were not under the authority of any man. They could move around freely in day or night, and entertain themselves howsoever they pleased. They had extensive education in every sphere. Their children belonged to them. (The theme of the film 'Pretty Woman' is found in literature as well, with the courtesan with a heart of gold marrying the hero. But as soon as she became a bride she went into the house, no longer looked directly at a strange man, and lost her independence). Above all, they seemed to have a genuinely high position in society if literary evidence reflects social reality. Young girls in literature are urged to be as skilful in and learned as a courtesan. Even the seer Kanva blesses Shakuntala as she sets out for her royal husband's palace in Kalidasa's drama thus: "May you be as accomplished as a courtesan". Here a courtesan's sexual talents are not referred to. The 18th century Tamil text Radhika Santwanam was written by a courtesan. She was an well-regarded poetess in the court and other poets dedicated their works to her as their mentor. Her work shows a high level of confidence and pride in herself and in her ancestresses who had followed the same profession. It is difficult to think of such women as being miserable or yearning to exchange their lifestyle for domesticity.
Prostitution as a business seems to be somewhat different in India than in the West. For one thing the prostitutes were not always individuals who just wandered in the profession. Instead it was a family business and almost caste like which meant that they could rely on a network. There are indeed whole castes which rely on prostitution for main income. Of course this also meant it was even more difficult to refuse to take up their hereditary work. It is a matter of interest that in such families a daughter is welcomed and prayed for and not a son. Indeed even in modern days a daughter's birth is celebrated while a son's casts a pall of mourning. It is even found that if pre-natal tests proved the embryo to be male it is destroyed, thus fascinatingly reversing the usual practice of female foeticide. This proves that economics is the main factor which decides the value of girls. However many women also came into the trade after being widowed or being poverty stricken. Another unique feature in such a system was the custom of marriage --- the prostitutes would be married to a tree (in case of Hindus; low class muslim prostitutes would get married to a sword) or to the image of a god. They would wear the signs a married woman normally wears.
Devadasi.
The custom of Devadasis or sacred courtesans is an ancient one in Hindu culture. It is found in other ancient civilizations as well. In India they are also known by various other names depending on the region as Jogins, Basavis, Kalawants, Paravatis or Mathammas. It is to be noted that all Devadasis were not prostitutes because many performed simple rituals, songs, dances and menial tasks at the temple. Devadasi is a Sanskrit word literally meaning serving woman of God. However in general Devadasis are associated with prostitution. The connection is with fertility. It was believed that a specially consecrated woman who has ritual sex is actually consorting with god or spirits and thus will ensure a good harvest. In Hinduism this finally developed into a full-fledged system. (According to some neo-Buddhists, these Devadasis were degraded Buddhist nuns, but since there is no evidence and it appears to be more of a political ploy against Hinduism, the theory can be disregarded.) We do not know how exactly the system developed. It is possible that at the beginning women were given to the god as his wives but no ritual sex took place; on the other hand it is more probable that the practice developed from the custom of ritual sex with carefully selected men at certain times. Whatever the origin, soon having intimate relationships with kings, powerful nobles and priests came to be part of a Devadasi's duty (indeed ritual sex with the priest or king as representative of God is only natural). Finally it degenerated into exploitation. But for the less cynical people, it was a genuinely religious institution. According to many temples --- like Jagganath's temple at Puri --- their Devadasis were only employed to perform simple duties for the worship of God and nothing else. While this may be true, more Devadasis were certainly prostitutes rather than Vestal Virgins. We do not know much about what the Devadasis of classical and medieval India thought about their condition. It is only in the 19th and 20th century that we find such writings by them. Apparently while many Devadasis sought to escape this system, many also were happy in their exalted status as the consort of God and being the line of communication between men and god.
However there is no mention in the shastras or sacred lawbooks about this practice which makes it difficult to date the practice and speculate accurately about their social status. Neither does Kamasutra (c 250 A.D) nor Sanskrit literature mention Devadasis. Perhaps originally girls were not dedicated by parents to be prostitutes but as simple maid servants. However in Puranas (anthologies of myths and rituals) we do find references to dancing girls and singers in service of the temple. Obviously these are the female servants of God/ess and probably many took lovers for extra income. At any rate by 10th century the richer a temple was the more Devadasis it had. The number of such women it maintained was a status marker of the temple. Naturally the temple profited enormously from their presence. Their skills and beauty attracted wealthy patrons who donated money and land to the temple for their upkeep and patronage. Nor is it recorded how the system was influenced by Islamic invasion. Muslim victors habitually destroyed temples and looted them. The loss of royal and noble patrons also adversely affected the status and wealth of the temples. This naturally meant destitution and misery for the Devadasis. It had been suggested that this was what drove maximum number of Devadasis to prostitution. However their story is unmentioned and lost.
Devadasis came from many sources. Poor people might sell their daughters to the temple. Parents might voluntarily give up their daughters to this service. Because it was seen as a holy post, many noble families sent their own daughters --- in this case, there was no stigma of having a daughter as a prostitute. On the contrary, families gained status by having a daughter selected as a Devadasi. Sometimes a daughter might be given in fulfillment of a vow. Often the daughter of Devadasis would also enter the service as a matter of hereditary right. The chosen young girl was married to the god or dedicated formally to the service of the goddess following formal marriage rites. Her 'marriage' was publicly proclaimed so as to advertise her availability for sexual liaison when she reached the proper age. On attaining puberty another ceremony with symbolic consummation was performed which confirmed her status as God's wife. After that came the deflowering ceremony with a human male. She chose her own patron(s) and lovers. But sometimes her temple dedication ceremony would be paid for by a particular patron in advance after arrangements with her mother so that she would have to take him. Usually she would have one rich lover who functioned as a kind of honorary husband, though she was free to enjoy other men if she wanted. To have a Devadasi as a concubine granted social prestige on the patron. This was a major reason for their being in so much demand. However powerful nobles and priests of the temple were also among her clients and most probably she was given no chance to reject them. The preferred partners were wealthy Brahmins, nobles and merchants. Her other tasks included dancing before the god and conducting rites. In most major temples, the practice degenerated into nothing other than pandering to the lust of the priests and the powerful. By 19th century their condition was very bad indeed and the women though still honoured were also regarded as impure. That in the modern age they had ceased being purely religious servants is evident in that even Muslim and Christians are their patrons. Today the bulk of the Devadasis come from the poorer castes, most noticeably the untouchables. Nor is this surprising: the untouchables are at the bottom of the economic ladder and if a daughter becomes a devadasi the family received money and the daughter gained security of livelihood.
The devadasi was a normal part of the establishment of a temple. Her power lay in her ritual status as God's wife. She was given money and ornaments so that she had economic independence. She was forever free from stigma of widowhood. Indeed she was called 'nityasumangalini' (eternally fortunate / ever auspicious) and during marriage a bead from her necklace would be given to the bride to make the marriage happy and lasting. Her children remained her own. She inherited from her parents. She was allowed to adopt daughters who became female heirs who inherited. As heirs the daughters performed funeral rites. The system was matriarchal and matrilineal. The children from her affairs were given jobs in the temple. On the flip side her children did not have any claims on their father. As the divine consort she could attain a great deal of power. Even if she did not, she was revered and her very presence made the region blessed. The contradictions of her position is brought out in her relation with her patron. She did not have the status of wife and was only a sexual commodity, yet in the patron' s house she was asked to preside over rituals like marriage and worship in the belief her blessing would bring good fortune. In any rich man's wife she was a representative of good fortune and divine blessing. To touch her or speak to her without proper safeguards was desecration, except when having sex with her! When she died a magnificent funeral was given and the temple was closed for a day, a honour not even given to the king. In honour of his wife the deity observed mourning, signified by having no worship performed that day. Devadasi was thus simultaneously sacred and profane, because in Hinduism the dividing line between the two is blurred. Thus the Devadasi had some measure of status and power, though always under male control. This perhaps made it an attractive option for poorer girls in a patriarchal society. Now-a-days however their condition is even worse and poorer since institutional support from the temples have lessened or stopped in many cases.
But it would be a mistake to focus only on the sexual status of the women. Devadasis were also master artists in the true sense of the term. They danced and sang in front of the god/ess and in front of the patrons or the royal assembly. Through the centuries they have formed certain customs and lifestyles of their own. however they do not form a caste, but a profession following a certain way of life. Even among the Devadasis there is a hierarchy. Those who belong to the great temples have more status and respect than those belonging to smaller local temples. Some perform only within the temple. The lower ranked ones perform at local festivals or funeral processions or harvest. Since childhood the Devadasi was trained rigorously in dancing and singing so that she achieved a high level of excellence. There is no doubt that the patronage of the secular elite was responsible for the flourishing of such arts in the temples. Not surprisingly prominent modern day Indian performers like MS Subbulakshmi, Lata Mangeshkar and Asha Bhosle come from Devadasi families which had maintained the ancient traditions.
Debate over the status of Devadasis started with the implementation of British rule. The reformers wanted to abolish it altogether considering every female attendant of the deities to be prostitutes and the system as a social evil with no sanction in religion. Many dasis demanded the same citing their desire to lead another kind of life. However many other Devadasis rejected attempts at reform on the following grounds: they were ever married and never know the curse of widowhood, they earned money for themselves, connection with temples gave them protection and social status; their contention was they were better off than ordinary women. As there was no mass movements against it, the practice was not eradicated by the British. But local governments banned the practice in many ways though Devadasis vigorously protested. In India it was banned after independence and rehabilitation projects were set up for the women. The disappreance of royal patronage have also made it decay. However the practice still continues. Many poor families give their daughters to the temple for economic reasons; but still more give from religious motivations and some also come from respectable families. Many also became Devadasis because their mothers and grandmothers were of the same profession. This is because the root cause of the phenomenon was never addressed; instead it was seen as a question of 'decency' and earning the praise of Victorian British.
The reformers couched their arguments in moral terms and wanted to present a more respectable image to the British. To them the Devadasi was a degraded creature and the thought of having dancing girls at festivals filled them with horror. The reformers demanded that all such public dancing be eradicated because of their impropriety. A most vigorous campaign was launched and gradually the devadais system lost whatever remained of its prestige. though some of the leaders like Periyar were sincere in stopping exploitation of women, the ideology behind such reform zeal is open to question. fFr the reformers it was a question of 'civilization'. They wanted the Devadasis to become good housewives and lead a 'normal ' life --- this necessarily involved the Devadasis giving up whatever sexual and financial autonomy they enjoyed, to retire within the confines of home and become submissive wives. Though the Devadasi had a patron and was obliged to sexually service him and the priests, (though perhaps this was not true of all temples) she did not keep house or cook for him, and could change patrons when she liked. The Devadasis thus led a different life than an ordinary woman in patriarchal society. When we look at the consequences of the reform movements, there is every reason to suspect that what really irked most of the reformers was not the plight of these women but their relative independence from male control.
While the women's sphere of action was restricted, the men from their community continued to perform the same 'immoral' tasks as public singing and dancing. While the Devadasis were no longer invited to people's homes, the men continued to perform in the private sphere as well. Again the women lost whatever privileges they enjoyed by being connected with the temples, while their men folk did not. The focus of the reformers and the legislations produced by them was always on the dedication of the female servants, never on the men of the community. When dedication of the women was outlawed and the system was sought to be abolished, the Devadasis lost their status as ritual specialists and the economic rights they enjoyed. The reformers however made no provisions for the education of these women so that they could earn their livelihood by other means. The Devadasis lost the right to adopt daughters and pass on their property to daughters. Significantly the Devadasis were independent female religious specialists --- but this place in religion was now taken away from them and replaced by males. The result of reformation of the system thus led to establishment of moral supremacy of domesticity and authority of men over professional women.
Another group of Indians on the other hand wished to preserve classical dances which was performed only by the Devadasis. However they were equally influenced by the new morality. Such was their zeal that they even started to purify the Devadasi dances. The Bharatnatyam, and Odissi dances that are proudly showcased today as authentic Indian culture are really Devadasi dances; the middle class however 'purified' and spiritualized them so that they are not embarrassed. Indian students are never taught of this, but many of India's best dancers and singers today have been trained by Devadasis or they have come from a Devadasi lineage. But once the dances became respectable women of upper classes also began to participate in them. This little bit of history is generally unknown.
In spite of much legislation and social stigma, the Devadasi system continues even today. There are many reasons for this, the most prominent being economic and religion. Girls from poorer families are frequently dedicated to temples where such a custom is prevalent which ensures comfort for both the parents and the girl. However many are given or join because of devotion to the deity and belief this is an auspicious post which would lead to bliss in heaven. Studies devoted to this phenomenon found various reasons for dedication of daughters:
Family tradition.
If a girl was blind, crippled or suffering from a skin aliment then she would be dedicated by her parents (presumably it both relieves them of a burden and there is the hope that this might mitigate her condition);
To fulfill a vow her parents had made
to ensure prosperity and well being of the family
childless couples would vow to give their first daughter to the god/goddess in hopes of having more children later on.
If a girl developed 'jat' or matted hair at young age then it was taken as a summons by the Goddess Yallamma to serve her.
Dedicating a girl meant she would remain unmarried and her children would take her name; thus her earnings would go to her natal family and whatever property she inherited from her father would remain within the family. She would function as a 'son'.
A common reason is that once the girl took up prostitution she would support her family. It is no co-incidence that majority of the Devadasis come from the poorest classes.
However studies also found that many Devadasis do not act as prostitutes in conventional sense of the term. The lower ranking ones are more often to be found now-a-days acting as agricultural labourers because the infrastructure to support them no longer exists; the men with whom they live are poor.
The Devadasi system thus helped the temples to remain the centres of religion, culture and commerce of their localities. In them the religious and the secular came together. Their activates, whether in performing arts or extra-marital alliances, were sanctified by their membership of the temples which made them superior to other performing artists and courtesans. However, whatever their conditions were before, today they are in a pitiable state. In the first place it has become synonymous with priostution and poverty makes parents sell their young daughters. Usually the patrons are middle aged while the girls at the age of deflowering are in their early teens. The relationship between them can only be described as rape. Again since customarily girls are dedicated before they reach puberty it is obvious that they are being forced into prostitution without their consent; once trapped in the trade it is very difficult for them to escape. Of course the situation is different if the women are mature adults: for example in 1999, in Tondihaala, initiated women ranged from 16 to 28 years. But this should not lead anyone to glamourize the profession, though many of the Devadasis and villagers are influenced by the idea of service to the deity. Essentially it operates within a patriarchal framework.
Intersting link: http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/30368992.cms
Main Page: http://www.geocities.com/hinduwoman0
Contact: [email protected]