The Industrial Revolution Begins
A Turning Point in History
o In 1750, most people worked on the land, using simple handmade tools.
o Industrial-age travelers moved rapidly by train or steamship.
o c. Cars and televisions, air travel and antibiotics, and a mass of other goods and services made their appearance.
A New Agricultural Revolution
o The Dutch led the way in the new agricultural revolution.
o Some farmers mixed different kinds of soils to get higher crop yields.
o Enclosure: the process of taking over and fencing off land formerly shared by peasant farmers.
The Population Explosion
o The agricultural revolution contributed to a rapid growth of population.
o The population boom was due more to declining death rates than to rising birthrates.
o The agricultural revolution reduced the risk of famine.
An Energy Revolution
o Water mills and windmills reduced the need of human labor, and made mass production possible.
o The energy added to the rate of production of supplies but it decreased the number of jobs available.
o The most important new supply of energy was processed from coal, which was used to develop the steam engine.
Why Britain?
o The Industrial revolution began in Britain because; Britain has good natural resources including coal and iron, they have a large population to mine and process the coal.
o The new technology Britain held to help the industrial revolution was from the scientific revolution which focused its attention on the physical world and developed new devices for managing it.
o Trade from their oversea empire helped British economy prosper, accumulated wealth was invested in enterprises such as; mines, railroads, and factories.
The Age of Iron and Coal
o New technologies in the iron industry were key to the industrial revolution; iron was needed for machines and steam engines.
o The process of making quality iron however needed lots of fuel, and over the centuries Britain had cleared most of its trees, soon the British turned to coal for fuel.
o The Darby family was a leader in developing Britain�s iron industry. And in 1709 Abraham Darby began to use coal instead of wood for smelting iron, or separating it from its ore.
Revolutionary changes in the Textile Industry
o The textile revolution was key to the industrial revolution, the demand for cloth had greatly increased and finally a string of remarkable devices that increased and sped up the manufacturing of cloth were invented.
o The leading inventors during this time were; John Kay, James Hargreaves, and Richard Arkwright; these men created devices that spun the thread and made cloth faster.
o Manufacturers built long sheds to house the new large machines.
Revolution in Transportation
o As factories spread out over Britain, a way to transport the goods quickly was needed.
o Turnpikes were invented which were privately built roads that charged a fee to travelers who used them.
o The greatest revolution in transportation during this time however was the invention of the steam locomotive, this invention made possible the growth of railroads
Looking ahead
o As the supply and demand continued new machined were invented in order to create needed materials faster and more reliably.
o And the supply of goods increased, prices fell, and lower prices made goods more affordable.
o A tidal wave of social and economic change followed the industrial revolution.
The new industrial city
o The industrial revolution brought rapid urbanization.
o Changes in farming, soaring populations, and an ever-increasing demand for workers led masses of people to migrate from farms to cities.
o People that had never lived in groups were now forced in to coal vapor polluted air and dirty towns, with no running water and no sewage created a disgusting living environment for the poor that lived in these cities.
The Factory System
o A new rigid discipline system was enforced in factories; people that were used to varying farm tasks were now changed to the same thing for long hours.
o Working hours were very long varying from 12 to 16 hours, weary workers suffered accidents from machines that had no safety devices.
o Women workers made up much of the new industrial work force; women worked for less and were believed to adapt quickly to the machines.
Patience Kershaw�s life underground
o Conditions were harsh for children, they worked horribly long hours for very little pay and were pushed around.
o Even little girls were forced to work in factories and mines; many children suffered from injuries, and most were never educated properly.
o In 1842 a little girls testament on her treatment in the mines (Patience Kershaw) helped to pass laws to regulate the employment and treatment of children in factories and mines.
The Working class
o People were lost at first in their new surroundings, but they soon adapted and created their own sense of community.
o People that used to do the machine�s work by hand resisted the revolution and started to protest the machines that had taken away their jobs.
o In the mid 1700s John Wesley stressed the need for a personal sense of faith and urged Christians to improve their lot by adopting sober, moral ways.
The New Middle Class
o The new middle class came from several groups including; merchants who invested in the factories, inventors or skilled artisans, and some rose from �rags to riches.�
o Middle class families lived in solid well furnished homes, they dressed well and ate large meals.
o The opposed any effort to regulate factories or legalize labor unions.
Benefits and Problems
o Later reformers pressed for laws to improve working conditions, unions won the right to bargain with employers for better wages and hours and eventually the working class man gained the right to vote.
o The industrial revolution created new jobs, better and more goods, and were able to travel and visit family.
o During the industrial revolution horizons widened and opportunities increased.
Laissez-faire economics
o Physiocrats argued that natural laws should be allowed to operate without interference.
o They believed that government should not intervene in the free operation of the economy.
o Adam Smith believed that a free market (unregulated exchange of goods and services) would eventually help everyone, not just the rich.
The Utilitarians
o By the 1800s Jeremy Bentham preached utilitarianism or the idea that the goal of society should be the greatest happiness for the greatest number of its citizens.
o He suggested that laws or actions should be judged by their �utility.�
o He strongly supported individual freedom, which he believed ensured happiness, but he also believed that there was a need for a government to intervene under certain circumstances.
Emergence of socialism
o Other thinkers focused on the good of society in general.
o They condemned the evils of industrial capitalism, which they believed had created a gulf between rich and poor.
o To end poverty and injustice they offered a radical solution; socialism; under socialism the people as a whole rather than private individuals would own and operate the farms, factories, railways, and other large businesses that produced and distributed goods.
The �Scientific Socialism� of Karl Marx
o In the 1840s, Karl Marx, a German philosopher, condemned the ideas of the Utopians as unrealistic idealism.
o He put forward a new theory; scientific socialism, which he claimed was based on a scientific study of history.
o Communism is a form of socialism that sees class struggle between employers and employees as inevitable.
Chapter 21 Outline
Revolutions in Europe and Latin America
Preserving the Old order
o The goals of the conservatives were to turn back the clock to the way things were before 1789.
o They believed that talk of natural rights and constitutional government would lead to social upheaval and chaos.
o Conservatives were monarchs, noble landowners, and the members of the clergy.
The liberal challenge
o Liberals were people that supported the Enlightenment ideals of liberty and equality while speaking out against the system of monarchy and aristocracy.
o They wanted a republican government elected by the people and based on a written constitution and the separation of powers.
o They also supported laissez-faire economics over government intervention.
National Stirrings
o Nationalism had its roots in the European tradition of land swapping between royal families as peace treaties or wedding dowries, which caused several large empires with many diverse ethnic groups.
o Nationalism is the belief that each of these Ethnic groups should be independent, but it often bred intolerance toward others as well as a sense of common heritage with their own people.
o The Ottoman Empire began to collapse when the Serfs and Greeks both revolted and gained autonomy.
France after the Restoration
o When Louis XVIII was restored a constitution, but he retained most of the monarchy�s power.
o This attempt to compromise with his people actually angered them; peasants saw little to no change in their wages and the price of bread and middle classmen, nobles, and clergy felt alienated.
o When Louis XVIII died, he was succeeded by his cousin, Charles X, who was a believer in absolutism, he was overthrown and the liberals set up a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe as king.
French Revolution of 1848
o In the 1840�s radicals began forming secret societies to work for a French republic, and even denounced Louis Philippe�s government for corruption.
o When the government tried to silence its critics, it then turned into an open revolt with people chanting revolutionary songs and destroying public property.
o The upper and middle class won control of the government and shut down the national workshops, this putt many lower classmen out of work and caused the proletariat class to rebel.
Europe catches cold
o The French revolution caused other groups in Europe to revolt against their own conservative governments, casing some minor reforms.
o One of the major successes for European revolutionaries was Belgium�s separation form Holland.
o Poland attempted to follow Belgium�s lead, but their revolts were brutally crushed by Russia, who had gained control of Poland under the Congress of Vienna.
The springtime of the Peoples
o In the Spring of 1848, revolution spread across Europe.
o The new wave of revolutionary spirit came from many different sources, the middle class wanted greater representation in the government, the workers wanted relief from the horrible conditions created by the industrial revolution, and the nationalists wanted to gain independence for their respective states.
o Metternich fell when the students of Vienna took to the streets in protest and were supported by the workers.
Looking Ahead
o By 1850 the revolutionary spirit had died pit in Europe.
o The revolutions failed because many citizens refused to take part.
o A growing rift between nationalists and workers seeking economic change caused the rebels to lack the unity needed to pull off a successful revolution.
Climate of Discontent
o The Latin American unrest was rooted in the fact that only the Spanish-born peninsulares could hold jobs in government and the church.
o Enlightenment ideals reached the educated creoles as well as stories of the American Revolution and even translations of the Declaration of Independence.
o When Napoleon conquered Spain in 1808, the South American colonies saw Spain�s weakness as an opportunity.
Haiti�s Struggle
o In the 1700�s, Haiti was France�s most valuable colony because of its crop of sugar cane.
o Sugar cane plantations were worked by enslaved Africans and mulattoes.
o In 1791 a slave revolt erupted, ending with Haiti overthrowing foreign rule.
Toussaint L�Ouveture
o L�Ouveture was born a slave in Haiti, but a kind master taught him how to read and allowed him to read works by European Enlightenment thinkers.
o When the slave revolt broke out, he was fifty and soon became the leader.
o By 1798 he had led the slaves to freedom.
A Call to Freedom in Mexico
o Father Hidalgo was a priest who implored his parishioners to join the rebellion.
o The poor rallied to Father Hidalgo and formed an army that marched to the outskirts of Mexico City itself.
o The creoles supported the idea of independence, but did not approve of Hidalgo�s message of freedom and equality.
New Republics in Central America
o When other Spanish provinces gained their independence, Iturbide tried to add them to his Mexican Empire.
o After he was overthrown, local leaders formed the United Provinces of Central America.
o The union soon fell apart, creating the countries of Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.
Revolutions in South America
o The strongest rebellion was lead by Tupac Amaru, who was descended from an Incan royal family.
o In 1810, Bolivar led a revolt that established Venezuela as an independent nation.
o In order to end the civil wars, he gathered an army and marched across to Bogot�, freeing the city from the Spanish.
Independence for Brazil
o When Napoleon conquered Portugal, the royal family fled to Brazil.
o The king instituted many liberal reforms before leaving his son to rule Brazil with the orders to grant the province independence if the people demanded it.
o In 1822, Brazil gained their independence without firing a single shot.
Chapter 22
New Industrial Powers
o Britain stood alone as the world�s industrial giant in the early years of the Industrial Revolution.
o Other countries caught up with Britain.
o Nations such as Germany, France, and the United States had more abundant supplies of coal, iron, and other resources that Britain had.
New Methods of Production
o The basic characteristics of the factory system remained the same.
o To improve the efficiency of the system, manufacturers designed products with interchangeable parts.
o Later, the assembly lines were introduced.
Technology and Industry
o By the late 1800�s many companies were hiring professional chemists, botanists, biologists and engineers to develop new products and technologies.
o Henry Bessemer developed a process to purify iron ore and produce a new substance, steel.
o Chemists created hundreds of new products such as medicines like aspirin, to perfumes and soaps.
The Shrinking World
o Transportation and communication were much affected in the second Industrial Revolution.
o In the US, a transcontinental railroad provided train service from the Atlantic to the Pacific Oceans.
o A gasoline powered internal combustion engine was invented by Nikolaus Otto
New Directions for Business
o Since technologies required much investment, entrepreneurs developed new ways of organizing business.
o Because some had a very large capital, corporations could expand into many areas.
o Powerful business leaders created monopolies and trusts, huge corporate structures that controlled entire industries or areas of the economy.
The World of Cities
Medicine and Population
o Scientists had known of microscopic organisms since the 1600�s.
o Robert Koch identified the bacteria that caused tuberculosis in the 1880�s.
o William Morton introduced anesthesia to relieve pain during surgery in 1846, which allowed doctors to experiment with operations that had never been possible.
The Life of the Cities
o New things began being put in the cities, such as paved roads, electric street lights, and a new sewage system that made a much healthier environment.
o Although many things in the city were changed, life for the poor still remained harsh.
o The new cities attracted many new residents, most for the promise of work in the city.
Working-Class Struggles
o Workers began to protest low wages, long hours, unsafe conditions, and the constant threat of unemployment.
o By the late 1800�s, most western countries allowed all men to vote and won the right to organize unions.
o Governments began passing laws regulating conditions in factories and mines because of the push by the people and the unions.
Changing Attitudes and Values
A Shifting Social Order
o Western Europe�s new upper class included very rich industrial and business families as well as the old nobility by the late 1800�s.
o Also, wealthy entrepreneurs married into aristocratic families and were titled as noble status.
o Workers made up more than 30% of the population in 1900, in industrialized Britain.
Middle-Class Values
o Rules dictated how to dress for every occasion, when to write letters, and how long to mourn people who died, under a strict code of etiquette.
o Within the family circle, the division of labor between wife and husband changed.
o Women spent their working hours raising children, directing servants, and perhaps doing religious service.
Rights for Women
o Women�s temperance unions battled to combat the effects of alcoholism on family life.
o Before 1850, some women had even become leaders in the union movement.
o Some married women, by the late 1800�s, had won the right to control their own property in some countries.
The Growth of School�s
o Reformer�s convinced governments to set up public schools and require basic education for all children, by the late 1800�s.
o The quality of elementary education improved by the late 1800�s and more children were in school.
o The university curriculum consisted of ancient history, philosophy, languages, religion, and law.
The Darwin Furor
o Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species in 1859.
o It argued that all forms of life had evolved into their present state over millions of years.
o Other thinkers used Darwin�s theories to support their own beliefs about things, such as society.
Christianity in the Industrial Age
o Although there had been a rapid change in ways of life with new technology and ideas, Christianity continued to be a major force in western society.
o In Europe and the US, Protestant Churches backed the Social Gospel.
o The Social Gospel was a movement that urged Christians to leave social service.
A New Culture
A Revolt against Reason
o Romanticism was a movement from about 1750 to 1850 that shaped western literature and arts.
o Architects, painters and writers were all swept up in the movement.
o Romantic�s painted many subjects from simple peasant life, medieval knights and current events going on.
A Tortured Musical Genius
o Beethoven was a brilliant composer that had recently dedicated a new symphony to Napoleon Bonaparte.
o His life spanned the revolutionary era, from 1770 to 1827.
o His symphonies combined classical forms with the stirring range of sound favored by the romantics.
The Call the Realism
o Realism was an attempt to represent the world as it was, without the sentiment associated with romanticism.
o Victor Hugo wrote Les Miserables and Charles Dickens wrote Oliver Twist, two famous novels influenced by the Realism movement.
o Painters represented the realities of their time and current events in their work.
Women Writers Win Recognition
o A growing number of amounts of women began getting the work into print by the 1800�s.
o Charlotte Bronte wrote Jane Eyre, which was about the sufferings of an orphaned governess and her love for Mr. Rochester.
o Many other women had famous works published, such as Harriet Beecher Stowe in the US and Aurore Dupin Dudevant in France.
New Directions in Visual Arts
o Photography became a big threat to painters, for people began to question the point of realism in a painting, when a picture could capture it better.
o By concentrating on visual impressions, rather than realism, artists achieved a fresh view of familiar subjects.
o Post-impressionists were painters that developed a variety of styles.