Chapter1 Notes
Spine- (vertebral cavity) and parts of the nerves attaching to these organs.
Ventral Cavity- subdivided (thoracic cavity) (thymus esophagus, trachea bronchi, lungs, heart and great vessels entering and leaving the heart). Lever gallbladder, stomach, pancreas, intestines, spleen, kidneys, ureters
Subdivided Into
A- Plueral cavity- lungs
B- Pericardial cavity- heart
C- Abdominal cavity- liver, stomach, gallbladder, intestines
D- Pelvic cavity- intestines, reproductive organs, excretion
Regions of the Abdomen (page 25-handout) (new A&P book) page 24-handout
Levels of Organizations
Cells-- tissues
1) Epitheleial- cover internal and external body surfaces
2) Connective- connect and support body parts
3) Muscular tissue- can shorten or contract to cause movement
4) Nervous tissue- conduct nerve impulses through the body
Atom...... H, O
Molecule...... water, CO2, glucose
Organelle...... nucleus, mitochondrion
Cell..... muscle, cell-bone, cell-blood cell
Tissue...... nerve tissue, muscle tissue
Organ..... brain, heart, lungs
Organ System..... skeletal, nervous system
Organism..... Human Body
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Chapter 2 Notes
Fundamental building blocks of all matter are known as atoms.
Elements is a substance consisting of only one type of atom, all elements have a symbol, the symbol is derived from its English or Latin name.
Three sub-atomic particles are: Proton- have a positive charge, found in the nucleus of the atom, along with neutrons make up most of the mass of the atom.
Neutron- no charge, found in the nucleus of an atom. Along with proton makes up most of the mass of the atom.
Electron- has a negative charge, are found outside of the nucleus in the orbits or shells surrounding the nucleus
The number of protons is always equal to the number of electrons.
Each shell is designated either by letter or a number
From the nucleus outward can hold: K Shell= 2, L Shell= 8, M Shell= 18 - 8
Atomic Number= Number of protons or electrons
Atomic Mass= Number of protons and neutrons
Isotopes- an element whose atoms contain a different number of neutrons from most atoms of that element
IE: Atoms of a hydrogen isotope called deuterium, contain one neutron in their nucleui whereas most hydrogen atoms contain no neutrons
Elements whose outer shell have 8 electrons are usually stable
Ex. Noble gases are very stable and will not react with other elements
An element with a number of electrons in the outer energy level other than 8 are chemically reactive
For example sodium has 1 electron in its third (m) level and 8 in its second (L) level, chlorine has 7 in its M shell, the two combine
Valence refers to the number of electron that can easily lost of gained to give a stable configuration.
IE: Sodium find it easier to lose one electron , than to gain 7, its valence is plus 1 chlorine is the opposite so it is minus 1
Molecular formula using chemical symbols H2O
Structural formula
Organic (they are living) compounds contain:
Carbon with the exceptions
a) cyanides C=N
b) Carbonates CO3
c) Bicarbonates HCO3
Inorganic- All the rest, primarily mineral origin
Hydrocarbons- Consist of C-H
The four simplest hydrocarbons are:
1. Methane (natural gas)
2. Ethane
3. Propane
4. Butane
Unsaturated compounds have one or more double or triple bounds, if several unsaturated carbons are found it is said to be polyunsaturated
Saturated-(arteriosclerosis) increase blood fat levels vs. Unsaturated- Lower blood fat levels
Balance equations
Carbons 2 hydrogens as 0
C6 H12 O6
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Chapter 3 Notes
Four elements compose over 95% of your body
H-10%
O-65%
C-18%
N-3%
Water- formed by a covalent bond
-Major purpose is
a) medium of heat exchange and transfer
b) participates in chemical reactions
c) lubricant and protective fluid
Organic substances
Proteins-contain C, H, N, S
Amino acids make up proteins
Peptide- Contains fewer amino acids than a protein
A) Oligopeptide- fewer than 10 amino acids
B) Polypeptide- More than 10 but less than protein
Fibrous Protein- elongated for makes up connective tissue, muscle, hair, nails, outer skin (epidermis)
-insoluble
Globular Proteins- folded, more soluable, important for blood plasma, red cells, cytochromes
Enzymes- Catalyst in the body (alter the rates of chemical reaction in the body)
- Carry -ase as the suffix
Carbohydrates- Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
- Formula CH20
- Hydrogen is always in a 2:1 ratio oxygenn
- Sugar and Starches
Monosacchrides
A) Ribose C5 H10 O5
B) Deoxyribose C5 H10 O4*
Isomers C) Fructose C6 H12 O6
Galactose
*exception to CH2O rule
Disoccharides
1. Maltose- Malt Sugar
2. Lactose- Milk Sugar
3. Sucrose- Cane Sugar
**All are c12 H22 O12 and Isomers**
Polysaccharides- Polymers joined by at least 3 unusually many hundred monosaccharides
Glycogen (animal starch) C6 H12 O6
As a group carbohydrates are quick energy for body cells
Lipids- Fatty substance- CHO not in a 2:1 ration
1. simple
2. compound
3. Derived
**Secondary energy source of the body**
Examples: phospholipids and cholesterol
Fatty acids make up lipids, glycerol; Saturated vs. Unsaturated
Acids- nucleic 2 major Nucleic acids are: RNA and DNA
Cell Structure and Function
Membrane systems- form external surface of the cell
Cytoplasm- includes all substances within the external cell surface
Nucleus- cell's overall activity
Movement of substances through a cell membrane
1. Diffusion (O2 enters the cells)- movement of solute and solvent particles in all directions through solution in both directions through a cell membrane- produces equilibrium.
2. Dialysis- Diffusion that separates cystaloids and colloids
Cell membrane- Semi-permeable, selectively
Cytoplasm- liquid medium for organelles to exist
Endo Ret.- Molecules can be transported from one cell part to another
R Endo Ret.- Protein synthesis, ribosomes
Golgi apparatus- packing plant, pack proteins to be transferred to membrane and out of cell intruded
Mitochondria- Powerhouse ATP
Lysosome- Protective agent
"Phago"- enzymes function to digest material
Centrosome- Cell Reproduction Aid the chromosomes to the correct location in the forming daughter cells
Vessicles- Storage of liquids and wastes
Cilia- Movement
Flagella
Microfilament- rods of protein
Microtubles- rods forming a meshlike net
*Both Provide strength where cilia and flagella are and cause various kinds of cellular movement
Nucleus- cells control center
Nucleolus- RNA synthesis
Chromatin-DNA
Cell Reproduction
Cells will wear out and die, are injured , and must be replaced.
1. Mitosis- body uses this to replace dead, damaged or lost cells. The nucleus will undergo a complicated series of changes to insure that the daughter cell will receive exactly the same complement of DNA as the diploid parent.
2. The cytoplasm and organelles undergo and appox. equal division between the daughter cells.
3. Mitosis is described as going through stages- each stage is chartered by particular events.
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1. Interphase- cell appears typical but are going through changes
a. accumulating substance for their own use
b. synthesizing materials
c. Replication of DNA
2. Prophase- Chromotin materials shortening (containing DNA and Protein)
--these parts are connected together by a portion of the chromosome called the centromere.
--The centrioles move to opposite sides of the cytoplasm. Spindle fibers appear
3. Metaphase- Chromosomes line up in an orderly fashion across the equatorial plate.
-- Soon the centromeres divide and the identical chromosomes parts, which are fastened together become separated individual chromosomes.
4. Anaphase- The separated chromosomes now move in opposite directions, the microtubules shorten and pull their attached chromosomes toward the centrioles at the opposite ends of the cell.
5. Telophase- Final Stage, chromosomes complete their migration nuclei reform within contained membrane.
-- Microtubules disappear and the centrioles become duplicated.
6. Cytoplasmic Division- Not well understood a pinching motion occurs where each new cell is given to each new cell.
7. Meiosis- Occurs only in primitive sex cells during their process of becoming mature sex cells.
--Primitive- Spermatogonia in male (gametes--mature) Sperm
--Oogonia in female (gametes--mature) Ova
Galileo- First microscope
Jenson- First compound microscope
1665 Hooke- Cork Cells- rooms boxes cells
Leewee venhook- 200x Blood Cells
Procaryotes- (bacteria blue green algae) Simple cells No nucleus
Eukaryotes-Have Nucleus (animals and plants)
In human Cells-46 chromosomes
This total of 46 chromosomes per cell is known as the diploid number of chromosomes
Diploid comes from the Greek Diploos meaning two or pair
During meiosis or "reduction division" the diploid chromosome numbers of the primitive spermatogoria or oogonium is reduced to its haploid number of 23 found in mature sex cells or gametes.
Mitosis
-Process by which somatic cells reproduce
Phases- Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase
Function
-Transmits the same diploid number of chromosomes composed of the same genes as present in the parent cell and thereby makes possible inheritance of parent cell traits.
Meiosis
-Process by which primitive sex cells reproduce in the process of becoming mature sex cells (gametes) with haploid number of chromosomes
Function
-Formation
Cancer
Neoplasm- New Growth
2 Types
Benign
-Usually grow slow
-Limited to the surrounding normal tissue by connective tissue capsule
-Easy to be surgically removed
-They are not considered to be grave threats
- Could be dangerous in the brain, may block blood vessels, nerve centers, etc.
Malignant
-Grow Rapidly
- The neoplasm can shed in cells into the lymphatic system and or vascular channels
-Surgeons can also spread this by gloves
Types of Cancer
1. Carcinoma- Develop in the lining and supporting tissue
2. Leukemia's- Blood and Blood forming tissue
3. Sarcomas- Develop in connective or covering tissue of organs
Movements through Cell Membrane
Diffusion- High to lower
Source of energy- Molecular motion ex. O2 --->CO2 exchange in lungs
Facilitated Diffusion- Higher to lower Carrier Molecules
Source of energy- Molecular motion ex. Sugar into a cell
Osmosis- Movement of H2O High-lower
Source of energy- Molecular motion
Filtration- Molecules are forced by pressure through membranes
Source of energy- Hydrostaic Pressure ex. Molecules that move through Capillary walls
Active Transport- Molecules carried through membranes from lower-high cone.
Source of energy- Cell energy ex. Amino acids through membranes
Pinocytosis (cell drinking)- membrane engulfs droplets
Source of energy- Cell energy
Phagocytes- engulfs larger particles
Source of energy- cell energy ex. WBC
Anaerobic ---> Glucose
Glycolysis- two pyrubic acid- 2 ATP plus heat
lactic acid fermentation
alcoholic fermentation
Aerobic Respiration- 2 pyrubic acids plus 6O2---> 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36 ATP and heat
Respiration- cellular process in which energy is released from nutrients
Genetic Control
Both of the nucleic acids (DNA & RNA) contain units called nucleotides.
In DNA, four nitrogenous bases are found:
1. Adenine (A)
2. Guanine (G)
3. Cytosine (C)
4. Thymine (T)
Also a sugar, which is a five carbon unit deoxyribose (C5 H10 O4) and phosphoric acid
In RNA, unracil substitutes (thymine and the sugar ribose is present)
A-T C-G
This is called Base-paring, these are "sequences" of nucleotides are created
A particular sequence may be called a gene *Genes- a unit controlling the expression of body characteristics
Mutations-changes in genes
Hormones (four functions)
1. Hormones influence membranes
2. Hormones directly influence enzyme activity
3. Hormones influence gene activity
4. Hormones control the production and-or release ions or small molecules which, in turn, may exert or influence cell activity
Unit 4 Notes
Char
Epithelial Tissue- They lie or fit very closely together so
1) Bodies are not easily invaded
2) Suffer loss of vital substance from the inside
-Cover all body surfaces, in and out
-Reproduce readily
-Nourished by vessels located in the underrlying connective tissue
-They attach to the underlying connective tissue by a basement membrane, farther from the vessels the less chance of survival.
Types of Epithelium
1) Simple Squamous- consists of a single layer of thin flattened
-Substances pass rather easily
-Diffusion and Filtration occur here
Where-Lines the air sacs of the lungs: Walls of capillaries, lining of blood vessels
2) Simple Cubodial- Single layer of cube shaped cells. These cells usually have centrally located spherical nuclei.
Function-Secretion, absorption
Where-Surface of ovaries, lining of kidney tubules, linings of various glands.
3) Simple Columnar- Elongated, long as they are wide
-Single layer of cells
Function- protection, secretion, absorption
Where-Linings of uterus and tubes of the digestive tract
Microvilli - Increase the surface of the cell membrane so more absorption can take place.
Goblet cells - secrete t thick protective mucus onto the surface
4) Psuedostratified Epithliam - All cells reach the basement membrane, but not all reach the surface; Can change to stratified smokers
Function - protection, secretion, movement of mucus and sex cells
Where - Linings of respiratory passages and various tubes of reproductive systems
Cigarrette - Cilia - Dust, sex cells, goblet cells
5) Stratified Squamous - Thick, many layers of cells
*This tissue forms the outer layer of skin (Epidermis)
*As skin cells age they accumulate a protein called Keratin, become hardened and die. This makes the skin tough and prevents the escape of water from underlying tissue.
*Also found in the mouth, throat, vagina, and anal canal, in those parts it is not keratinized
Function - Protection
Where - Outer layer of skin (Keratin) mouth, throat, vagina, and anal canal
6) Transitional Epithliam - To pass from state to another; round = flat
Function - Protection, Distensibility
Where - Inner lining or urinary blasser and passage ways of urinary tract
*Syncytial - no membrane
Function - responsible for production of sperm
Where - lines the tubules of the testes and covers the ovaries
7) Neuroepithlium - Specialized epithelium in nose, ear, eye, and tongue; Nerve cells specialized for reception of stimuli
8) Stratified Columnar - Several layers of cells; Top layer columnar; cilia
Function - Transition form between
9) Stratified and Psuedostratified
Where - Carynx, Upper Pharynx
10) Connective tissues- Most widely distributed of all tissues
11) Loose "Ordinary" Areolar - Loose because it is stretchable
Function - Connection
Where - Between other tissues and organs
12) Adipose - Fat, made of fat cells (Drawing, Handout)
Function - Protection, insulation (conserve body heat), support, reserve food, pads the kidneys
Where - (almost) anywhere under skin
13) Dense Fibrous C. T. - bundles of collagenous tissue, arranged in parallel rows
Function - Flexible, but strong connective tissue
Where - Tendons, ligaments, aponeuroses dermis, scars
14) Cartilage
a) Hyaline - Translucent mass forming embryonic skeleton
Function - Firm but flexible support
Where - Embryonic skeleton connects ribs to skeleton
b) Fibrous
Function - Support, flex
Where - Disks between vertebrac
c) Elastic
Function - Firm but flexible, support
Where - External ear
*Muscle Tissue - specialized tissue for the production of movement
15) Integument - skin and its derivatives; largest system of the body; 1/3 of blood is pumped by left ventricle
Function -
1) To protect underlying tissue from injury
2) To prevent excess loss of water or drying of tissues
3) To act as a temp. regulator preventing loss of heat in cold, and allowing for heat to escape when hot
4) Reservoir of food and water
5) To assist in the process of excretion (sweating)
6) To serve as a sense organ
7) To prevent the entrance of foreign substance
8) VIT. D produced
16) Intequments comprises
a) Epidermis - 30 to 50 layers of cells; 1/50 to 1/8 inch
*Dermis - Tough flexible layer, 2-4mm thick, thickest layer is soles of feet, palms of hands, Thinnest layer is eyelids, penis, and scotrum
Layers of Dermis -
1. Papillary layer - allows for radiation of heat and nourishes lower layers. Many nerve endings and capillaries are present.
2. Reticular Layer - conserves body heat.
a. Pacinian Corpusles - receptors of pain
b. Sweat glands - tube or passageway (duct)
c. sabacious glands - helps water proof skin; Leather = Cowis Dermis
*Subcutaneous layer of OB hypedermis
*Mostly comprised of adipose tissue
*Protects against deep heat loss
*Protects muscle and nerves
17) Epidermis - outer most layer of skin composed of stratified squamous consisting of five layers
1. Stratum Corneum - shed continuously by process called Desquamation; cells contain keratin
2. Stratum Lucidum - clear translucent layer; no nuclei, no membranes
3. Stratum Granulosum - thin layer, 2-4 cells thick, keratization begins here
4. Stratum Spinosum - contain fonofibrils which connect cells to one another (spine like projections)
5. Stratum Basale - Deepest in the epidermis; cells are formed here by mitosis; 40 to 50 lbs. shed in lifetime
*Cells are produced in the stratum germinafium and move outward
*As they move outward they go through a process called Keratinization
*Where cells change from physiologically active cells containing much water to dry, though resistant layer composed
*Keratin is a protein, composed hair, nails, claws, beaks and horns
*Thick layers of keratin are present in the soles of the feet or palms of hands, to protect these exposed areas
18) Skin color
Skin color depends upon three factors
1. Basic color yellow is due to the presence of carotene
2. Blood vessels in the dermis which give it red or blue color
3. Various shades of brown are caused by Melanin (4-6 genes control number of melanocytes)
A. Carotene is more present in the skin of certain Asian races of yellow pigment
B. Blood Flow increases (vasodialation) the skin assumes a pink color
-Vasoconstriction -skin turns pale
-Degree of redness is called Erythema
>-Degree of blueness is called cyanosis
-Cyanosis indicates a lack of oxygenated bblood
19) Jaundice
1. Red blood cell destruction
2. Liver malfunction
-Bile duct obstruction appears in the bloood
*Melanin- pigment of skin in blacks or whites following excessive exposure to sun light
-Found only in the lower layers of skin inn whites but in all layers of blacks
-As many as 8 genes make up the skin deterrmination of color
*Albinos - genes mutates and melanin cannot be sythesized because of a missing enzyme
1. White skin
2. White Hair
3. No pigment in the iris of their eyes
-Very sensitive because the lack the iris pigment allows much light to enter
*Derivatives of the Skin -
1. Sweat Glands - entire body surface except (glands, penis) and margin of the lips
-Sweat Glands vary from 60-80cm2 on the baack to 400cm2 on the palms of the hands
-Total number of sweat gland 2-5 million <
-Sweat consists of water salts (NaCl) and urea
-The amount secreted in a 24 hour period iis 500-1000ml
-During strenous exercise up to 1000ml mayy be lost in one hour
-Moderate temperatures, sweat is produced -evaporates as quick as it is formed. Insensible persipiration
-Most sweat occurs when vessels vasodialatte, cold sweat = Vasconstruction
*Ecerine Gland - Elevated body temperature
*Apocrine Glands- emotional stress (Aempils, Groin, Hair follcules)
2. Sebaceous Glands (Drawing)- waxes fatty acids, cholestrol, and debris of dead cells
-Secrete sebum
-Oily product acts as a water
-Testosterone - kills some types of bacterria
-More in men than women
-Keeps hair glossy, skin plable
-Contains precursor to Vitamin D - ultraviiolent rays
3. Tarsal Glands
-Sebaceous glands in the upper and lower eeyelids
-Seals the margin of the lids when closed
4. Ceruminous Glands
-Modified sweat
-Sweat glands in the external auditory meaatus
-Produces sebum plus desquamated epitheliaal cells form cerumen ear wax
Hair-
-Hair grows at an average rate of 1.5-3.0 mm/wk
-Hair in each part of the body have differrent periods of growth in some animals shed and replace
Acne-(history) Roman Emperor, Theodosius, wiped the skin with a cloth when a shooting star crosses the sky
-18th century some physicians advised marrriage as a cure for acne
Testosterone - triggers acne- cellluar debris forms a plug or comedo
Bacteria - Living in the follicle produce an enzyme that breaks sebum into free fatty acids, irritates the follicle lining causing follicle to burst, releases sebum into the dermis an inflames the skin.
Treatments For Acne:
-Antibiotics: destroy bacteria (Tetracycliine & Erythromyacin)
-Hormone: estrogen reduces testosterone
-Vitamin A (Benzoyl Peroxide): simulates mmitosis in epidermal cells
-Retonoic Acid: Reduces sebum
-Dermabrasion: Diamond spinning wheel to ssmooth tissue, Anesthsia and frozen at 30 degrees C.
Lanugo: