De Havilland Canada DHC-5 Buffalo 
Tactical STOL Transport Aircraft
Forca Aerea Brasileira

by Eric Mitchell

mitchell@mars.ark.com

12 Nov 1996

BAO's Flight Shop (FSFS) Required

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
I gratefully acknowledge the following individuals for their
participation in this project:

Scott Healey for interviewing the pilots in the 442 Sqn Training 
Section and getting the flight data for the Buffalo.

Former Buffalo pilot Derek Squire for the description of the 
Tactical STOL (Short Take-Off and Landing) procedure.

His brother, Chris Squire for flight testing the aircraft.

Al Pelletier for his constant encouragement, for starting the web
page (and letting me promote my stuff on it).  If you use FS 
freeware add-ons, you have probably benefitted in some way 
or another from Al's efforts. 


INSTALLATION
^^^^^^^^^^^^
Copy the *.air file to your fltsim5\pilots directory.
Copy the *.*af files to your fltsim5\texture directory.

This aircraft is modeled as a jet so that thrust-reverse is
available.  You may wish to download a suitable turboprop sound
for it and copy it into your fltsim5\sound directory as JET1.WAV
(after backing up your original JET1.WAV first of course).  The
sound file that comes with the Lockheed Electra or the widely 
available DASH.WAV is eminently suited to the purpose.


FLIGHT MODEL
^^^^^^^^^^^^
Modelling a turboprop as a jet is a compromise, just as it
would be if modelled as a reciprocating-engine propeller
aircraft.  In real life, the DHC-5 engines normally run at 100%
RPM, and power changes are made by changing the angle of the
variable-pitch propellers.  The flight crew monitors Engine Torque 
much more closely than the RPM.  The response of the turboprop 
to power setting changes is significantly faster than for a turbofan, 
and this cannot be modeled in FS5.  (I found that the reciprocating 
engines actually weren't much better, even set for variable pitch props). 
It is also difficult to correlate the %N1 and %N2 settings with
turboprop performance.  My advice is just to watch your airspeeds
and climb and descent rates.  On approach, stay a little on the
high side of airspeed until you get used to things.  Initially, I
found that it's better to be a little fast (by 10 KIAS or so)
during the initial phase, because the speed bleeds off quite
quickly with landing gear and flaps down, and it's very hard to get
it back again - partly because this is really a turbofan engine and
the response is slower than a turboprop.  When you get used to it
you can cut it a little closer.  The main advantage in using the
turbofan is that you get thrust reverse on landing which is 'de
rigueur' for this aircraft.

It should also be noted that while FS5 provides for four flap settings
(including 0), the real Buffalo has six, so some compromises have to 
be made regarding the intermediate settings.


SPECIFICATIONS
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Wingspan: 96 feet
Length: 79 feet
Height (at tail): 28 feet, 8 inches

Maximum take-off weight: 41,000 lb (STOL)  49,200 lb (normal) 
Maximum landing weight: 46,900 lb
Zero fuel weight: 25,160 lb
Maximum payload: 11,840 lb (STOL)  18,000 lb (normal)

Payloads can be delivered on the ground, by parachute, or by Low-
Altitude Parachute Extraction System (LAPES).

Ceiling 27,000'.  Note: the aircraft is unpressurized, so you'll need 
to go on oxygen above 10,000'.

Crew: Basic - two pilots, one flight engineer
      Optional - one navigator, one loadmaster

Accomodations:  41 combat troops, or
		35 paratroops, or
		24 stretchers


SUMMARY OF FLIGHT CHARACTERISTICS
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Here are some round numbers and general procedures to get you
started.

Takeoff   1st flap: 100K   2nd flap: 75K
Climb     130K

Approach  120K to 130K
Landing (Threshold Speed)
           0 flap: 120K | 1st flap: 100K | 2nd flap: 85K | Full flap: 75K

First flap below 120K
Second flap below 100K
Third flap below 80K  (for STOL landings)

Ceiling 27,000'  (NOTE: This aircraft is unpressurized, so it is 
uncommon to operate above 10,000' - you'll need to go on oxygen!)

Normal cruise speed: 200K


NORMAL OPERATING PROCEDURES
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
TAKEOFF
^^^^^^^
Taxi to take-off position, line up on the runway and apply brakes.
Set flaps to first position (F6 key) or second position (F7 key) (used 
for STOL take-off).  Ensure spoilers are retracted.

Smoothly advance the power levers full forward.  When RPM reaches
100%+, release the brakes.  (You can also do a rolling start if
you want).

Rotate gently at 100 KIAS (or 75-80 KIAS with 2nd flap).  The high tail 
clearance should allow you to increase the AOA quickly after lift-off.  
Retract landing gear when a positive rate of climb is established.  Raise 
the flaps after a minimum 120 KIAS, and continue to accelerate to a climb 
speed of 130 KIAS.

Rate of climb at Sea Level is 1780 fpm.

CRUISE
^^^^^^
Normal cruising speed at 10,000' is about 200 KIAS. 
	(Set 65 to 70 %N1)

Maximum cruising speed at 10,000' is about 220 KIAS.  
	(Set 70 to 75 %N1)

Maximum allowable dive speed is about 290 KIAS.

DESCENT, APPROACH AND LANDING
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Initiate descent by reducing power by about 10%. If the 
aircraft is properly trimmed, no down elevator should be
required to bring the nose down.  Avoid lowering the flaps
prematurely (wait until the airspeed approaches the correct
speed - see "FLAPS" section, above) or else the addtional 
lift will cause the aircraft to "balloon" upwards.  I usually 
wait until after the landing gear have been lowered and the 
airspeed is close to approach speed before extending the flaps, 
and then I do it in stages, waiting for the aircraft to stabilize 
at the new airspeed before selecting the next flap setting.  
(Exception: the Tactical STOL Approach - see below)

Begin the approach as directed by ATC and/or IAW published
information.  Reduce power to be at 150 KIAS or less when 10nm 
from landing.  The landing gear can be lowered at this point, and 
power may have to be increased to maintain approach speed.

The final approach speed should be between 120 and 130 KIAS, and
the landing speed is about 80 KIAS (depending on flap setting and 
aircraft weight; STOL can be as low as 61 KIAS).  At touchdown of the 
main wheels, deploy spoilers, maintain runway heading, lower the nose 
wheel gently to the ground, bring power levers back to idle and engage 
thrust reverse (F2 key or numeric pad '3').  A Copilot and Flight
Engineer might come in handy at this point.  (Or maybe one of those
fancy 'HOTAS' throttles with all the buttons on them...)  Raise the 
flaps to increase braking effectiveness (yes, this does seem to have 
an effect in FS5 especially at high-elevation airports).  Otherwise 
you may find the aircraft sliding around on the runway.  The 
effectiveness of propeller braking diminishes with speed reduction, 
while wheel braking effectiveness increases, so save your brakes until 
below 60 KIAS and don't hold them on continuously unless you want to 
disturb the fire fighters.

NOTE:  The landing speeds are given for the fuel load provided. 
Adjust for actual fuel state (lighter -> slower, heavier ->
faster).  You can interpolate from the numbers below (at least in
FS5): 

Approach speed ranges from 110 KIAS at 27,000 lb to 140 KIAS at
45,000 lb.

Landing speed ranges from 61/98 KIAS (full flap/no flap) at
27,000 lb to 80/129 KIAS at 45,000 lb.

TACTICAL STOL LANDING
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
This special technique was devised to allow the Buffalo to use
small landing strips in or near combat zones and it takes full
advantage of the impressive STOL capabilties of the Buffalo.  It
allows the aircraft to remain above the range of small arms fire 
until directly over the landing area.  The procedure was described 
to me by former CF Buffalo pilot Derek Squire, as follows:

Arrive over the button of the runway at approach speed on runway 
heading at 4500 ft AGL (add 4500' to the runway elevation), 
continue straight and level for 1000 ft down the runway, then select 
the gear down, pull power back to idle, and set full flaps.  Execute 
one 360 degree descending turn, and you should be back over the button 
to flare at around 30 feet. I have found that in FS5, one may have to 
initiate the flare at up to 300'. (Practice is the key here). Derek 
recalls that this manoeuvre produced rates of descent of around 6000 
fpm.  The aircraft assumes a definite nose-down attitude (looks like 
20 to 30 degrees) during this approach and the last-minute flare 
makes it appear to on-lookers as if a crash is imminent.

The speed at touchdown is 5 KIAS lower than the speed during descent, 
with the rate of descent being broken to 800 fpm by the lift on the 
wings at flare. Prop reverse is POSSIBLE in the air in the real Buffalo 
(but not in FS5), and, in Derek's words, "It took a fine hand (and a 
lot of guts) to know when you were only 6" off the ground, because it 
fell like a rock at that point. With a 20 kt headwind and a light 
load, you could stop in 150 feet!!"

Having sat in the Navigator's seat during a few of these I can testify 
that it is definitely a thrilling experience!  Luckily, this is only a 
simulation, so you can practice the approach (...and fail) as much as 
necessary.  Things can go wrong in real life, though, such as the 
unfortunate crash of a company DHC-5D at the 1984 Paris Air Show 
while demonstrating this procedure.


FUEL
^^^^

     The fuel capacity was set to give a take-off weight of about 
41,000 lbs. which corresponds closely with the maximum landing 
weight. This will allow you to take off and commence flying circuits 
immediately.  With a full fuel load and payload (design gross 
take-off 49,000 lb) you would have to fly around for a few hours 
to get down to maximum landing weight.  So by limiting the fuel, 
I have spared you this monotony, and/or the increased difficulty 
in routinely having to perform overweight landings.  This is because 
in FS5 the aircraft always starts out full and you would have to go 
into the Sim menu and manually change the fuel load every time you 
just wanted to go for a short hop.  Now, 6,200 lb should be enough 
fuel to get you a few hundred miles, but if you insist on increasing 
the fuel capacity to the real-life maximum, here's what to do:

1    Start up FS5 and select this aircraft.

2    Go into the Options menu (Alt-o) and select Design Aircraft.

3    Go into the Weight and Balance section and change the Main
     Fuel Tank capacity to 2075.  This should give you a total AUW 
     of about 48,000 lb. (If you want to switch it back later, the 
     original number was 941).


VISUAL MODEL
^^^^^^^^^^^^
Brazil was the first country after Canada to purchase the Buffalo, 
buying 24 in 1968. The visual model depicts C-115 Buffalo number 
2350 of 1/1 TTG Squadron, based in Afonsos, Brazil. This is the 
original delivery camouflage scheme which is similar to that of 
the Canadian version.  Since then, the 1/1 TTG has converted to 
the C-130E Hercules, but C-115's are still flown by 2/1 GTT 
'Cascavel' out of Afonsos.  These aircraft have a new camouflage 
pattern also.  If I can get some more pictures of it, I'd like to 
make that one as well.  Buffalos are also flown by 1/9 GAv 'Arara' 
at Manaus.


HISTORY
^^^^^^^
IN THE BEGINNING
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

The De Havilland Canada DHC-5 Buffalo was developed from the very 
successful DHC-4 Caribou STOL transport.  The impetus for the 
creation of the Buffalo was a US Army Request For Proposals for a 
new STOL tactical transport in May 1962.  The main differences
between the Caribou and the Buffalo were the replacement of the 
Pratt & Whitney R-2000 radial engines with GE T64 turboprops, re-
arrangement of the tail surfaces, and enlargement of the fuselage to
accommodate a load comparable to that of the CH-47 Chinook 
helicopter. 

The Buffalo was selected by the US Army after a competition, the 
fourth De Havilland Canada aircraft in a row to have done so, and 
four prototypes were delivered for evaluation beginning in April, 
1965.  The Buffalo was designated as the C-7A and later the C-8 in 
US service.  In November of 1965, two C-8's were assigned to the 
92nd Aviation Company at Nha Trang, Vietnam for a three month trial.
This involved all aspects of tactical airlift, including delivery of 
supplies and ammunition to remote jungle air-strips, deployment of 
paratroops and even LAPES drops of cargo into confined areas.  The 
aircraft operated on the front lines alongside their sibling, the 
C-7 Caribou which was already in service with the US Army.

However, at about this time the US Army's fixed wing aircraft and roles
were transferred to the US Air Force and no more Buffalos were acquired.
This followed a protracted controversy between the Army and Air Force 
over ownership of the Caribou and its mission.  After the Vietnam war, 
the Air Force considered buying additional Caribous or Buffalos, and 
other schemes involving modifying C-123 Providers with turbo-prop 
engines were considered, but none were adopted.  During the 1970s the 
four orphaned Buffalos were dispersed to other US government agencies, 
such as NASA and NOAA.

A demonstration of STOL aircraft was organised in the New York City
area by Oscar Bakke, then Eastern Regional Director of the FAA.  The 
event, called Metro 66, occurred on September 5 and 6, 1966 and was 
originally meant to demonstrate the capability of STOL and VTOL aircraft 
in disaster relief stituations.  A secondary feature of the demonstration
was to show how small "commuter" aircraft could serve urban areas to 
connect passengers with bigger carriers at the larger airports, a practise 
which is common-place today.  The De Havilland Canada Company fielded the 
largest team, bringing the Turbo Beaver, the Twin Otter and the Buffalo.

The Buffalo was the largest aircraft involved and provided the most
spectacular demonstration.  The landing field that was chosen was
a 1900 foot space in which four baseball diamonds were arranged in 
a line on Governor's Island in the East River.  The site was lined 
by tall trees and there was a large bridge on the departure end.  
Pilots Dave Fairbanks and Norm Patterson brought in an 80-piece 
field hospital which was transferred to a Sikorsky Skycrane for 
delivery to the Belleview Hospital in Manhattan.  On landing, the 
Buffalo stopped at about the second base on the third baseball 
diamond.  People in nearby buildings called authorities to
report an airplane crash after seeing such a large aircraft disappear
in a cloud of dust (caused by the application of prop reverse) on the 
baseball diamonds!  After discharging its cargo, the aircraft managed 
to take off again using only half the "runway" that was available.    


CANADIAN BUFFALOS
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
While the US Army/Air Force were wrangling about fixed-wing aviation, 
the Buffalo fared somewhat better in domestic Canadian service and in 
sales to smaller countries world-wide.  The aircraft was now designated 
the DHC-5A after the incorporation of improvements following the US Army 
tests in Vietnam.  The 15 Canadian Forces Buffalos were put to work 
initially as Tactical Transports.  Most of the Buffalos went to 429, 
(aptly dubbed the Bison Squadron) which was reactivated at St. Hubert, 
near Montreal, Quebec.  During this period, Buffalos were flown all over 
the world as part of a De Havilland marketing effort.  The longest leg 
flown was 2,430 nm from Hawaii to Samoa, which was accomplished using a 
special long-range fuel kit.  Buffalos also figured prominently in Caper 
Nimrod, a Canadian Army exercise in Jamaica.  The Buffalos were used to 
ferry personnel and cargo from Kingston to the exercise area on the north 
shore of the island. 

In 1973 two Buffalos were assigned to 116 Air Transport Unit in Ismailia, 
Egypt.  These aircraft, 115452 and 115461 flew transport missions, moving 
personnel and cargo from place to place in support of UN operations.
On August 9, 1974, Buffalo 461 en route from Beirut to Damascus, was 
just approaching the village of Diemas when several Syrian SAMs were 
launched at it.  At least one hit and the aircraft was destroyed with
the loss of nine Canadians.  The incident was investigated by the CF, UN
and the Syrians, but no satisfactory explanation was offered.  In the 
end, the Syrians claimed that Israeli attack aircraft had been operating 
in the area and that the Buffalo had been mistaken for one of them.
Buffalo 461 was replaced by Buffalo 460 in the Ismailia detachment and 
the Unit remained there through 1978.

In the late 1970's Canadian Buffalos were also employed as Search and 
Rescue aircraft and as utility transports. They were assigned to three 
Squadrons: 413 at Summerside, Prince Edward Island (later moved to 
Greenwood, Nova Scotia); 424 at Trenton, Ontario; and 442 at Comox, 
British Columbia. Meanwhile 429 Squadron had moved to Winnipeg, Manitoba
and was flying the C-130 Hercules in the Navigation training and reserve
transport roles.  

The good slow speed qualities and rough field capability proved useful 
for SAR, and the SAR technicians (SARTECHs) could parachute from the 
Buffalo into crash sites if necessary.  Special bubble windows were 
installed in the aft side cargo area doors. The SAR squadrons were also 
equipped with either CH-113 Labrador or CH-135 Twin Huey helicopters.  
They often worked with the Buffalos as a team, taking advantage of the 
Buffalo to cover a large area and the helicopter to hoist out survivors 
and SARTECHs.  In the utility transport role, the Buffalos flew scheduled 
flights within North America.  They maintained their tactical transport 
role through the 1980's and were used to deploy airborne paratroops as 
well as for carrying cargo into unprepared strips.

In February, 1980, three Buffalos and 68 personnel from 424 Squadron 
based in Trenton, Ontario, were deployed to Zimbabwe-Rhodesia (as it 
was then known).  They were there to help monitor elections in the 
country, carrying ballot boxes, polling booths and observers to remote 
villages and landing on dirt strips.  Just getting there proved to be
an odyssey in itself.  The 10-day trip took the crews through Greenland,
Iceland, and then to Lahr, Germany.  From there they crossed the Alps 
(a difficult feat in an unpressurized aircraft) and crossed the 
Mediterranean, stopping at Cairo before proceeding to Dar es Salaam,
Tanzania.  Finally, they arrived in Zimbabwe, 20 minutes ahead of 
schedule.  Because of the possibility of hostile intervention by 
guerrilas, the tactical STOL approach was used for missions in the 
countryside, alarming both passengers and bystanders who were unfamiliar
with the technique.  Interestingly, 115463, one of the Buffalos that 
participated in this mission, returned to Zimbabwe permanently in September,
1995 as Z-SRA, having been purchased along with five others from Canadian 
surplus stocks.

In the 1990's the Canadian Buffalos began to be phased out.  They were 
replaced by Hercules transports in most squadrons, except 442 Squadron 
which continues to use them.


IN FOREIGN SERVICE
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
The Buffalo was purchased by several countries outside North America.  
Brazil was the first and largest overseas customer, buying 24 aircraft 
in 1968.  Peru bought 16 aircraft in 1971.  An improved DHC-5D with a 
more powerful version of the T64 engine was produced from 1974 on.  
Other operators include Cameroon, Ecuador, Egypt, Kenya, Mauritania, 
Mexico, Oman, Sudan, Tanzania, United Arab Emirates, Zaire and Zambia.
Incidentally, I plan to make as many of these versions (and tell their 
stories) as I can, but I need more information. Please  contact me if 
you can provide photos, drawings, histories, etc, and I'll see what I 
can do about creating them.

Production of the Buffalo ceased in December, 1986 with a total of 126 
aircraft having been delivered to some 20 countries.


ODDITIES AND RECORDS
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
A few Buffalos were used for interesting purposes.

In 1972 a joint Canadian-NASA project involved modifying one of the 
original C-8 Buffalos to research thrust-vectoring and augmented lift 
flaps.  The turboprops were replaced with turbofans and the wings were 
shortened and air ducts were added from the engines to flow over 
modified flaps.  The engines also had movable exhaust nozzles for 
improved take-off performance.

The same year, Buffalo 115451 was modified with an Air-Cushion Landing 
System (like a hovercraft) as part of another Canadian-US research 
project.  The belly of the aircraft was fitted with a large rubberized 
inflatable cushion the length of the fuselage.  Wingtip outriggers were 
fitted for stability on the ground, and large air compressors were 
installed below the wing roots.  These were used to inflate the cushion
for take-off and landing.  The aircraft was temporarily designated the 
XC-8A.  The tests investigated the possibility of expanding the 
available landing surfaces, including water, mud, snow, sand and even
obstacles such as 6-foot diameter craters.  Interestingly, the aircraft 
wore both Canadian Forces roundels and the USAF star-and-bar, reflecting 
the joint sponsorhip of the tests. After the testing was completed the 
modifications were removed and the Buffalo was returned to Canadian Armed 
Forces service in its normal configuration.

On February 23, 1976 a standard production DHC-5D Buffalo set six new 
time-to-height world records.  This was initiated when company pilot 
Tom Appleton, testing the new aircraft's high-altitude handling at
30,000 feet, noticed that it didn't take very long to reach the test
altitude.  Afterwards, a quick check confirmed that the new model of 
the Buffalo should be able to beat the previous record of 10 min, 26 sec
to 9000m (29,500') held by the Lockheed P-3C Orion.  The verification
equipment was installed and an FAI observer was on hand to witness the 
attempt.  The whole flight took only 17 minutes from take-off to landing
and the record was shattered by 2 minutes and 22.5 seconds!  In the 
process, other records were set or broken at intermediate altitudes.

In the early 1980's research on lift-augmenting wings continued and the 
NASA Ames Research Center modified a C-8 with new wings, a complex 
high-lift ducted flap system and four turbofan engines.  This aircraft, 
perhaps the ultimate in STOL technology, was called the QSRA, although 
I can't recall what the letters stand for.


BIBLIOGRAPHY
^^^^^^^^^^^^

I found the following books and periodicals most useful in creating
this model and writing this document:

The De Havilland Canada Story
Holston, Fred W.
CANAV Books, 1983
ISBN 0-9690703-2-2

Sixy Years - The RCAF and CF Air Command 1924 -1984, 
Milberry, Larry (editor)
CANAV Books, 1984
ISBN 0-9690703-4-9

Canada's Air Force Today,
Milberry, Larry,
CANAV Books, 1987
ISBN 0-07-549670-4

C-7 Caribou in action, Aircraft Number 132,
Mutza, Wayne
Squadron/Signal Publications, 1993
ISBN 0-89747-292-6

Air International magazine
Vol 50 No 4 (April, 1996)
Military Transport Aircraft Directory, pp 243-244.

World Air Power Journal
Volume 26, Autumn 1996
Air Power Analysis: Brazil, pp 142-157.

Canadian Forces Sentinel magazine
the following issues were consulted:
February, 1967
February, 1968
June, 1969
September, 1969
June, 1970
November, 1972
1976/5
1976/7
1978/1
1978/5
1980/2

Air Power International magazine
Issue 16, p. 6.

Air Forces Monthly magazine
November, 1989, pp. 54-58


**************************

Thanks for trying my Buffalo for FSFS/FS5.  I hope you enjoy flying it 
and that you found this document interesting.  Please don't sell or 
otherwise make money from this file.  Please distribute the original 
archive intact.

I would like to make other versions of this aircraft, so if you have 
photos, drawings or information, please contact me at:

mitchell@mars.ark.com

http://wings.ark.com/
http://mars.ark.com/~mitchell/
http://www.notions.com/

Eric Mitchell
1761 Dogwood Ave
Comox, BC, Canada
V9M 2W9

