2. The relationship between cognition and language differs in various cultures. The linguistic relativity hypothesis, by Sapir and Whorf, explores the probability that people who speak different languages think about and experience the world differently and also, if these differences in thinking are due to the structural and lexical (language and vocabulary) differences in the languages spoken. However, research results on this hypothesis are not that clear cut (p. 105). Researchers now believe that thinking is not entirely determined by the language we speak but rather how we talk about people, objects, or events that make us pay more or less attention to certain aspects of these people, events, or objects.
3. Vygotsky claimed that cultural influence, mental processes, and language are dynamic processes that occur simultaneously. He also believed that the continuous interaction between language and thought, results in dialogue between individuals, especially a mother and her child. Vygotsky emphasized the importance of the method known as scaffolding, which helps children achieve specific cognitive skills at the same time they are becoming enculturated into a way of life. The term scaffold refers to the temporary support or guidance provided to a child by parents, older siblings, peers, or other adults, in the process of solving a problem (p.106).
4. Adaptive logic involves balancing critical analyses of objective observations with one's subjective reactions to these observations. An example of this concept was studied with the cognitive abilities of middle-aged adults compared to the cognitive abilities of young adults. Experience and expertise can be two confounding concepts when looking at the research results. Dialectical thinking suggests that for every viewpoint there is an opposing viewpoint and that these two can be considered simultaneously. It is the highest level of post formal cognition that represents a new level of cognitive flexibility and deepening of thought which facilitates developmental growth (p. 118).
5. Fluid intelligence involves the ability to form concepts, reason abstractly and apply material to new situations. It is thought to be biological or intuitive and to be uninfluenced by culture. Fluid intelligence is reflected in an individual's ability to make inferences, draw analogies, solve problems, and understand relationships among new concepts. This type of intelligence stays the same or declines somewhat throughout adulthood. In Western societies, displays of fluid intelligence are often synonymous with quick mindedness and preferred over crystallized intelligence
Crystallized intelligence refers to an individual's accumulated knowledge and experience in a particular culture that may improve with age. The ability to react to social situations or respond to classroom tests are examples of crystallized intelligence
Wisdom is associated with accumulated experience over time. Wisdom takes many forms and varies according to each culture's orientation. According to Baltes and his colleagues (1993), some characteristics associated with wisdom include: the ability to focus on an important issue and to exercise good judgment, the development of a broad base of experiences, and recognition of one's wisdom by others (p. 121).