Norse myths are the product of the pre-Christian peoples of Northern Europe, principally of those who lived in Iceland. The myths flourished from the period known as the "Dark Ages" (500-800 a.d.) up to and even beyond the time Christianity was formally accepted in Iceland around the year 1000. They reflect the harsh lives of those peoples who struggled to survive the bitterly cold winters of the North. While thoroughly polytheistic and pagan, the myths were of great enough interest to the Christian monks in the Middle Ages to be recorded in writing. Most of this work was done in Iceland in the thirteenth century. The myths were shared, to a large extent, with the Germanic peoples of the time.

Gylfaginning (or "The Deluding of Gylfi") was written in approximately 1220 by Snorri Sturluson to provide an account of the creation, death, and rebirth of the universe according to the Norse legends. Norse beliefs were heroically pessimistic. The Universe formed the cosmic arena for a continuing battle between good and evil, a battle the good were doomed to lose. The Norse believed in a pantheon of gods in some ways similar to those of Babylon, Greece, Egypt, and other polytheistic religions; the most powerful deities being the Norns, or the Fate Maidens. At the end of time, human heroes would join the gods in a final conflict with the forces of evil, only to lose. Bearing oneself with heroic dignity, despite foreknowledge of inevitable defeat, is a principal value affirmed in the Norse myths.

Perhaps the most significant vestige of Norse mythology is present in our names for some of the days of the week. Thus, Wednesday is Woden's day, Thursday is Thor's day, and Friday is Frigga's day. While the Norse gods were numerous, some of the more important ones are:

Odin (or Woden)--the oldest and greatest of the gods, father of the other gods and their king. Odin is associated with the sky and winds. Frigg/Frigga--the wife of Odin, the mother of the gods and the most important goddess. Thor--son of Odin and Frigga and the next greatest god after his father. He is the strongest of all the gods and carries the great hammer Mjollnir which he uses to cause thunder and lightning. Balder--son of Odin

and Frigga and one of the most beloved and most gentle of all the gods. Bragi--son of Odin and Frigga and husband of Idun. He is associated with wisdom and poetry. Njord--god of fertility and ruler of the winds and the sea. Frey--son of Njord, a god of fertility and ruler of the sun and rain. Freya--daughter of Njord, associated with love. Loki--the evil one and son of two of the frost giants. Hel--daughter of Loki and ruler of the dead.

In the days when King Gylfi ruled the land that is now known as Sweden, he transformed himself into an old man called Gangleri and visited the great gods in their hall in Asgard, in order to learn about the nature of the universe. Because Gylfi came in disguise, the gods did not reveal their true selves to him. They called themselves High One, Just-as-High, and Third.

"I am searching for the wisdom of the gods, " Gangleri announced. "Is any one among you knowledgeable?"

"Ask of us whatever you will," High One replied, "and you will leave here wiser than when you arrived."

Gangleri asked, "Tell me, if you can, how did all things begin?"

High One explained, "In the beginning, nothing existed but Ginnungagap, which was an open void. In that ancient time, neither the heaven above nor the earth below, neither sand, nor grass, nor the cool, tossing waves of the sea had been fashioned."

Just-as-High added, "The first world to come into existence was Muspelheim (destroyers' home). It is a hot, bright, flaming world in the southern part of Ginnungagap and it sends forth sparks and glowing embers. It is guarded by the giant Surt, who possesses a flaming sword."

Third said, "The second world to come into existence was Niflheim (fog home), in the northern part of Ginnungagap. In the middle of Niflheim is a spring called Hvergelmir (bubbling cauldron), from which eleven fast and fearsome rivers arose and flowed far from their source. The foamy venom from their waves hardened and turned into ice. As it cooled, a drizzling mist arose from the venom and fell upon the firm ice, forming a second layer of heavy ice over the first. All this ice makes Niflheim cold, foggy, and harsh."

Gangleri asked, "Did anyone exist before human beings? Tell me about the giants and the gods."

High One replied, "The Frost Giants lived during the time of endless winters before the earth was formed. Where the soft, warm air from Muspelheim met the ice from Niflheim, the ice thawed. Life first grew from the drops of melted foam venom and developed into the first being, a Frost Giant named Ymir. The venom from which he was created made him wild, fierce, and evil. Then from the thawed ice a cow, Audhumla (nourisher), arose, and Ymir fed upon the four rivers of milk she produced."

Just-as-High added, "While Ymir slept, he sweated. From the moisture in the armpit under his left arm, a man and a woman emerged. Ymir became the father of all the families of Frost Giants. Like their father, they were evil creatures."

Gangleri said, "That is certainly a strange tale! How then did the gods first come to exist?"

High One explained, "Audhumla constantly licked a salty block of ice. By the evening of the first day, a head of hair had appeared. By the second day, the male's entire head had become visible. By the end of the third day, the whole male, called Buri, had emerged from the block of ice. Buri was tall, handsome, and strong, and he became the grandfather of the gods. He had a son called Bor, who married Bestla, the daughter of one of the giants. Bor and Bestla had three sons who became the first Norse gods: Odin, who was the oldest, then Vili, and finally Ve."

"Were the gods and giants friends or enemies? asked Gangleri.

High One replied, "Odin, Vili, and Ve killed Ymir. So much blood poured from his wounds that, except for Bergelmir and his wife, all of the other Frost Giants drowned in the flood of Ymir's blood. Bergelmir escaped with his wife by quickly climbing into a boat he had made from a hollowed-out tree trunk. Thus, they became the parents of the next race of giants, who were also Frost Giants and evil creatures."

Gangleri asked, "How was the earth fashioned?"

High One replied, "The three gods took the corpse of Ymir, carried it into the middle of Ginnungagap, and made the world from it. From his flesh, they molded the earth. From the blood that poured from his wounds, they made the salt sea and laid it around the earth. From his mighty bones they fashioned the mountains, and from his smaller bones, jaws, and teeth they formed rocks and pebbles. From his hair they created the forests."

Just-as-High added, "They gave the lands along the shores of the salt sea, Jotunheim (giants' home), to the giants and their families. However, they wanted to protect the folk who would live in the inland part of the earth, called Midgard (Middle Earth), from the evil giants. So they used Ymir's eyebrows to build a barrier that separated the two groups of beings."

Third said, "From Ymir's skull, they made the sky and set it in the form of an arch over the earth, with a dwarf holding up each of its four corners. Then they tossed Ymir's brains into the air to create storm clouds."

Gangleri said, "I did not know that dwarfs existed before human beings. How did they come to be?"

High One replied, "Originally, the dwarfs came to life as maggots in Ymir's flesh. The gods gave them the appearance of people and also gave them human understanding. The dwarfs still live in dark places in the earth and in rocky caves in the land called Nidavellir."

Just-as-High added, "The gods fashioned the burning embers and the sparks that blew out of Muspelheim into stars and placed them in fixed locations in the midst of Ginnungagap to give light to heaven above and the earth below."

Third said, "They arranged for the sun and the moon to travel through the sky every day in order to create day and night and the seasons. The sun travels quickly because a wolf is chasing her. When this world comes to an end, at the time of Ragnarok (doom of the gods), he will catch her. Another wolf runs in front of the sun, chasing the moon. In the end, at Ragnarok, the moon too will be caught."

Gangleri asked, "How did human beings come to inhabit Midgard?"

High One replied, "When the three gods were walking along the shore of the salt sea, they found two trees, an ash and an elm. They created the first man, Ask, from the ash tree and the first woman, Embla, from the elm tree, and clothed them to give them dignity. Odin gave them blood and the breath of life. Vili gave them understanding and power of movement. Ve gave them shape and the ability to see, hear, and speak. Ask and Embla became the parents of the race of human beings, like yourself, who live in Midgard."

"What can you tell me about Yggdrasill? Is it not some kind of tree?" Gangleri asked.

High One replied, "The branches of this great ash tree spread throughout the whole world and extend over heaven. Three great roots support the World Ash Tree: one among the Aesir (the gods) in Asgard, a second among the Frost Giants, and the third over icy Niflheim."

Just-as-High added, "The root in Asgard is nourished by the sacred spring of Urd. There live the three Fate Maidens, called Norns. Their names are Urd (Past), Verdandi (Present), and Skuld (Future). They establish the laws that determine the lives of all human beings and seal their fate."

Third said, "There are other Norns as well. Some are the daughters of the elves; others are the daughters of the dwarfs. Those who come from good beings shape good lives--long, wealthy, and famous. Evil Norns confer short, poor, unfortunate lives."

High One added, "The root among the Frost Giants is nourished by the spring of Mimir, which is the source of wisdom and understanding. Like Mimir, who owns the spring, anyone who drinks that water will become wise. However, it is not a simple task. Odin, the All-Father, wished to have just a single drink; he had to sacrifice one of his two eyes before he could take it."

Just-as-High said, "The root over Niflheim is nourished by the spring of Hvergelmir, the source of the world's great rivers."

Gangleri then asked, "What did the gods do after they created human beings?"

High One replied, "Odin, Vili, and Ve built a stronghold for themselves in the middle of the world, called Asgard, where they and their families would live. There Odin sits on his high seat and surveys the entire world, seeing what everyone is doing and understanding everything. Two ravens, Hugin (thought) and Munin (memory), sit upon his shoulders. Each day, Odin sends them out at dawn to fly over the world. When they return, they tell him all that they have seen and heard."

"What is the most interesting palace in Asgard?" Gangleri asked.

High One replied, "That is surely Odin's golden-bright Valhalla (hall of the slain). It is roofed with spear shafts and golden shields. Valkyries (choosers of the slain), the valiant daughters of Odin, ride down to Midgard to award victory to certain warriors and to choose those who are destined to die. They bring the dead warriors up to Valhalla to fight on the side of the gods against the giants when Ragnarok arrives."

Just-as-High added, "Every day the dead warriors entertain themselves by fighting one another, eating an endless supply of boar meat, and drinking endless cups of mead."

Third said, "There are 640 doors built into Valhalla, and when Ragnarok arrives 960 warriors will leave to fight the fearsome wolf Fenrir."

Gangleri asked, "How can one travel between Asgard and earth?"

High One replied, "The gods built the Bifrost (quivering roadway) Bridge, which human beings see as the rainbow."

"In your opinion, what gods should human beings believe in?" asked Gangleri.

High One replied, "There are twelve gods and twelve powerful goddesses. Odin is the oldest and greatest of the gods. He is called the All-Father because he is the father of both gods and humans. He is also called many other names such as High One and Father of the Slain, since he is worshipped by many different clans in Midgard and has had many adventures."

Just-as-High added, "Thor is the son of Odin and his wife, the earth goddess Frigg. Thor is the strongest god. He drives a chariot drawn by two goats. He owns three precious possessions: his hammer, Mjollnir; his mighty belt, which doubles his strength; and his iron gloves, which he wears when he wields Mjollnir."

Third added, "Another son of Odin's is Balder. He is as beautiful as he is good, and he is the best loved of the gods. He is the most wise and the most kind. Whatever he says can never be changed."

Gangleri asked, "Which other gods are most important?"

High One replied, Njord is also very important. He was originally from Vanaheim, the home of the Vanir gods, who make the land and sea fertile. He is very important to sailors and fishermen because he controls the wind and the sea. He is wealthy and makes those who worship him prosperous also."

Just-as-High added, "Njord has two important children, Frey (lord) and Freya (lady). Frey is third in importance, after Thor and Odin. Frey decides when the sun will shine and when the rain will pour. Therefore, he is responsible for the fertility of the earth. Human beings pray to him for peace and prosperity, and for their own fertility as well as that of their fields."

Third said, "Freya is as important a goddess as Frigg. People ask her for help in matters of love."

High One added, "Of course, there are many other important gods and goddesses. Idun keeps the golden apples that the gods eat in order to remain young. Bragi, her husband, is known for his wisdom and skill in poetry."

Third said, "Heimdall is the watchman of the gods. He can hear the wool growing on the backs of sheep and the grass growing in Midgard. He can see farther than 300 miles, even at night."

Gangleri asked, "Is Loki a god?"

High One replied, "Loki is the son of a giant, so evil flows in his blood. His is considered a god, but he is a mischief-maker. He is very clever, but he also lies and cheats. Some call him the Father of Lies and the Disgrace of Gods and Men. He often gets the gods into trouble--or out of it. He is the father of three monstrous children: the wolf Fenrir, Hel (goddess of the dead), and the World Serpent. He will be the enemy of the gods when Ragnarok comes upon us."

Just-as-High added, "Hel is a grim creature. Hunger and Famine are her companions. People who die from old age or disease live with her behind high walls in the land of Niflheim."

Gangleri asked, "What can you tell me about Ragnarok? Is there any way to escape it?"

High One replied, "The death of Balder will be the first indication that Ragnarok is approaching. Loki will be instrumental in causing both Balder's death and his confinement with Hel. As punishment, the gods will imprison Loki in a cave until Ragnarok arrives."

Just-as-High added, "Next, for three winters bloody wars will be waged throughout the world. Brother will strike brother with sword and axe, and both will die. Incest and adultery will become common. No mortal will show another mercy. Evil will run wild upon the earth, destroying relationships among family, friends, and clans. Finally the world will lie in ruins."

Third added, "Then three terrible winters, each lasting for an entire year with no summer between them, will bring biting winds, severe frost, and endless snow."

High One continued, "The wolf Hati will finally catch and swallow the sun, and the wolf Skoll will finally catch and swallow the moon. The giant Surt will tear apart the heavens with his scorching flames, causing the blazing stars, bursting with fire, to fall upon the earth. The earth will shake so forcefully that the trees of the forests will become uprooted and the mountains will collapse. This tremendous tumult will release Loki, Fenrir, and the monstrous dragon called the World Serpent, which lies deep in the salt sea that surrounds Midgard. The serpent will thrash about, poisoning the sea and the sky with its spurting venom and causing tidal waves to wash upon Midgard."

Just-as-High added, "Flames will flare forth from Fenrir's eyes and nostrils as he moves toward the plain of Vigrid with his mouth gaping in readiness. There he will meet the gathering of Frost Giants, the World Serpent, and all other creatures of evil. Heimdall will alert to gods to Ragnarok."

Third said, "Odin will fight against Fenrir; Thor will pit himself against the World Serpent; and Frey will battle Surt. The wolf will swallow Odin whole, but Odin's son Vidar, the fiercest of warriors, will tear Fenrir's jaws apart and kill him. Thor will slay the serpent, but its poison will kill him. Heimdall and Loki will kill each other, and Surt will slay Frey. Thus the high ones will be destroyed."

High One concluded, "With the fire from his flaming sword, Surt will set the entire earth ablaze. People will flee their homesteads in fear. With death as their destiny, the doomed and trembling human race will walk the road to join Hel. Finally, the charred and devastated earth will sink into the sea."

Gangleri exclaimed, "How terrible! What will happen after the whole world has been burned, and the gods and human beings are dead?"

High One replied, "The earth will rise out of the sea once again, fresh and green. The eagle will again fly down from mountain crags to capture fish. The daughter of the sun will travel the old paths of her mother and will brighten heaven and earth with her light. Fields will produce grain where seeds were never sown."

Just-as-High added, "After Surt's flames have destroyed the homes of the gods, Odin's sons Vidar and Vali will live where Asgard once was. Odin's grandsons Modi and Magni will join them and will claim Mjollnir, their father's hammer. Finally Balder will return from the land of Hel and join the group. Together the gods will remember the knowledge of the high ones, the World Serpent, Fenrir, and Ragnarok. But evil will have left the world."

Third said, "Meanwhile, when the endless winter kills most human beings, one man, Lif (life), and one woman Lifthrasir (desiring life), will seek safety by hiding among the branches of the great ash tree Yggdrasill. There they will survive by eating and drinking the morning dew. They will escape Surt's flames, and when the earth has revived they will become the parents of the next race of human beings."

High One then announced, "This ends our tale. We have answered all of your questions. Do what you will with all that we have told you."

Suddenly, Gangleri found himself in the midst of a tremendous uproar. When he came to his senses he found that he was alone upon a plain, and Asgard and the hall he had been visiting were nowhere in sight. He assumed his customary shape as King Gylfi and returned to his kingdom. There he told his people what he had learned. And from that day until this, these tales have been passed from one human being to another.

In the period from the second to the first century b.c. the Japanese moved from the area now known as Korea into the islands they now inhabit. Their religion was polytheistic and included such practices as nature worship and ancestor worship. Only in the 700s did the Japanese record their religious beliefs, chiefly in two works, the KOJIKI and the NIHON SHOKI.

The KOJIKI (or Records of Ancient Matters) was compiled in 712 a.d. by Futo no Yasumuro, a court noble. In its entirety, the KOJIKI represents a complex mixture of beliefs drawn from native Shinto nature worship, polytheism, and Chinese thought. The large numbers of gods and the often confusing nature of their relationships are prominent features of the myths recounted in the KOJIKI.

Creation begins as a process of separating out the lighter elements, which rise above and form heaven, and the heavier elements, which fall below and form the earth. Soon after the gods begin to appear, including the two who are the focus of the first part of the KOJIKI myths: Izanagi (literally, the "Man-Who-Invites") and Izanami (the "Female-Who-Invites"). The two would appear to be personifications of the dual Chinese principles of Yin and Yang (see the introduction to Confucius).

In the beginning, heaven and earth were one unformed mass, similar to a shapeless egg. The lighter, clearer part remained above and, in time, became heaven. More slowly, the heavier, denser part sank below and became earth. At first, pieces of land floated about in the void as a fish floats on the surface of the sea. A detached object, shaped like a reed-shoot when it first emerges from the mud, floated in the void between heaven and earth as a cloud floats over the sea.

This became the first god. Other gods followed, the two youngest being Izanagi no Mikoto and Isanami no Mikoto.

Izanagi and Izanami stood side by side upon the floating bridge of heaven, which we call the rainbow, and looked down from the heights. "Can you see anything below us?" Isanagi asked.

"Nothing but water, " Izanami replied. "I wonder if there is any land."

"That is something we can determine!" Izanagi replied. "Let us take the jewel-spear of heaven and thrust it into the depths. If land exists, this spear will surely reveal it."

The two gods moved the jewel-spear around in the depths and then pulled it up to see if any material had collected on its tip. Salty water dripped from the point of their spear and fell as a salty mass into the sea below, forming an island.

"Now we can live on the waters below us!" Izanami exclaimed. "We have land to rest on."

So Izanagi and Izanami left heaven and went to live upon the island they had created in the middle of the sea. They built a large palace there and placed the jewel-spear in its center as a supporting pillar. Then they married. They hoped to have many island-children, who would join together to become a country.

Once they had established their home, Izanagi said to Izanami, "Let us separate and investigate our island. You go in one direction and I will go in the other, and we will meet."

Izanagi turned to the left of the palace, Izanami turned to the right, and they walked around the island. When they came together again, Izanami exclaimed, "How wonderful! I have met a handsome young man!"

In time, Izanami gave birth to their first child. Instead of being an island, it was a disgusting leech-child, who could not stand up even at the age of three years. They had no desire to keep such a child, so they sent it floating upon the sea in a reed boat and let the winds determine its destiny.

The two gods then returned to heaven and asked the older gods, "Why did Izanami give birth to an abnormal child? Is there anything we can do to prevent her from having another one?"

The gods replied, "Izanami gave birth to a useless child because she does not appear to know her proper place. A woman should let the man be the first to speak, for that is his right. When a woman speaks first, she brings bad luck. If you wish to have proper children, then you must begin all over again. Return to your island, walk your separate ways, and try meeting and greeting each other once more."

Izanagi and Izanami obeyed the advice of the gods, and this time when they met, Izanami let Izanagi speak first. "How wonderful!" he exclaimed. "I have met a lovely young woman!"

Izanami smiled and replied, "How wonderful! I have met a handsome young man!"

In the course of time, Izanami gave birth to eight lovely children, each of whom became an island. Together the eight islands formed one country.

Izanagi then said to his wife, "The country we have created is covered with sweet morning mists, but what good are islands if no one can see them? I shall solve the problem by creating a child who will be the god of the wind."

He took a deep breath and exhaled their next child. The newborn god cloaked himself in a great blast of air. Then he flew over his sisters and brothers, scattering the mists that concealed them.

Izamani said to her husband, "Now that you have revealed the country we created we must make our islands beautiful. We must create lofty mountains and peaceful valleys, cool forests and lush meadows, sparkling waterfalls and bubbling streams." So Izanagi and Izanami created the gods of the sea, the gods of the mountains, the gods of the rivers, and the gods of the trees.

When they saw that their country was truly beautiful, Izanagi said, "Now let us create the god who will rule the universe."

Together they produced the goddess of the sun, Amaterasu Omikami. From the time of her birth, Amaterasu shone with a brilliance that illumined the entire world. Izanagi and Izanami were delighted with their youngest child. "We have many children," Izanagi said, "but not one of them can compare with our beautiful Amaterasu! Clearly our country is no place for such a great goddess. She belongs in heaven where she can shine down upon the earth! As soon as she can, let her climb the ladder of heaven."

Amaterasu was in heaven when Izanami gave birth to the god of the moon. His beauty and brilliance were almost as great as Amaterasu's. He too climbed the ladder of heaven, for in time he would become Amaterasu's husband and would rule the universe with her.

Izanagi and Izanami's next child, Susano-o-no-Mikoto, had a disposition that brought no joy to anyone. Whenever he was not creating havoc with his temper tantrums, he was crying. His parents gave him the power to rule the earth, but he misused that power. He caused the forests to wither, and he brought early deaths to many people.

Finally Izanagi and Izanami said to him, "Your love of destruction gives us no choice but to banish you. You are so cruel that it is unfair to let you rule the earth! We are sending you down to rule the netherland, where you can do less damage."

Izanagi and Izanami's next child was the god of fire. In the process of being born, he burned his mother, and Izanami died. As she was dying, she gave birth to the earth goddess and the water goddess. The god of fire married the goddess of the earth, and their daughter produced the mulberry tree and the silkworm from the hair on her head, and five kinds of grain from her navel.

Meanwhile, as Izanami lay dying, Izanagi cried, "How grieved I am!" In anger and resentment, he drew his sword and sliced the god of fire into three pieces, each of which became a god.

Overcome with sorrow and loneliness, Izanagi then followed Izanami, traveling the long path into Yomi, the dark land of death. When he found her he said, "I have come to you here in this dreadful place, Izanami, because I love you, and I cannot bear to live without you!"

To his surprise, Izanami did not welcome his words. "Izanagi, my husband and my lord, why did you take so long in coming?" she complained. "I have already eaten Yomi's food! Now I cannot go with you. If you love me, please let the darkness be a blessing, and do not look upon me. Instead, you must return the way you came, for my death has put an end to our marriage."

But Izanagi truly loved Izanami. He could not leave his beloved wife so easily, nor could he refrain from looking at her one last time. Secretly, he broke off an end tooth from the many-toothed comb that he wore in his hair and created a torch by igniting it. Then he confidently held the blazing torch toward his beautiful wife.

As the glow illuminated her figure, Izanagi recoiled with shock and revulsion. Izanami's body was now in a state of decay, and a host of maggots were voraciously feeding upon her rotting flesh. "The land of the dead is indeed a dreadful place!" he exclaimed in a whisper.

Izanami heard him and rose in a fury. "Why did you not leave as I wished?" she asked. "Now you have shamed me, and I will punish you for it!" Izanami called forth the eight ugly females of Yomi, who relentlessly pursued Izanagi.

To delay them, Izanagi removed his black headdress and tossed it on the ground. It immediately turned into a large bunch of grapes, which the pursuing females stopped and ate. When they had finished eating, they resumed their chase.

Izanagi removed his many-toothed comb from his hair and tossed it on the ground. It immediately turned into bamboo shoots, which the pursuing females stopped and ate. When they had finished eating, they resumed their chase.

By the time they caught up with Izanagi, he had reached Yomi Pass, the border between the dark land of the dead and the bright land of the living. There he blocked the path with a huge rock that it would take 1,000 men to move. From his safe position behind the rock, Izanagi remained to talk with his wife.

"Izanagi!" she exclaimed. "You have so shamed me that I am prepared to kill every one of your subjects! I can strangle 1,000 each day. In no time at all, you will rule over an empty kingdom."

"If you do so, Izanami," Izanagi replied, "I will see to it that 1,500 people are born each day!"

"Izanagi, my husband and my lord, you must accept my death," Izanami said soothingly. "We have loved one another long and well. Together we have created a beautiful country and many gods. Is this not enough? My time on earth has come to an end, and it is too late for me to return. So let us come to peaceful terms with each other."

"All right, Izanami," Izanagi replied. "I know it was weak of me to follow you into the land of death. I know that bad luck follows those who visit the land of Yomi while the wind of life blows through their bodies. Our marriage is hereby severed. As you wish, I will leave you to your life with Yomi in his dreadful land. I will return to the land of the living and will not bother you again."

True to his word, Izanagi never did.

The Maori are the original Polynesian inhabitants of New Zealand, having migrated from Tahiti when food supplies were inadequate to sustain a large population. Aotearoa is the name they gave to their new home, a word which literally means "long, white cloud." Maori myths speak of a distant land where they first called by the name Hawaiki (literally, "homeland"), although scholars dispute whether this refers to the island group known today as "Hawaii."

The presentation of myths among the Maori was chiefly the responsibility of the "Whare Wanagu," or the "Colleges of Sacred Things," where one could study the "Upper Jaw," consisting of the instruction about the gods, creation, astronomy, and time, or the "Lower Jaw," focusing on genealogies, migrations, and taboos. Maori creation myths feature a set of abstract initial conditions ("In the beginning there was nothing but an idea. . . .") from which springs the sky god, Father Rangi, who creates the sun and moon. Nature (and nature "gods") in its manifold forms, is created from the union of the sky and the earth (Mother Papa). In a similar fashion to what transpires in Hesiod's THEOGONY, however, these offspring find their parents stifling and are forced to engage them in cosmic battle to win their own freedom to act.

In the beginning, there was nothing but an idea. The idea was remembered. It then became conscious. Finally, it became a wish to create. So it came to pass that out of nothing came the power to live and to grow, even in emptiness.

And it came to pass that out of this power to live and to grow came the deep, dark, long, and gloomy Night, a presence felt, but unseen, in the sightless, empty universe.

And it came to pass that out of this power that was the Night came life, in the form of the sky, far-reaching Father Rangi. Father Rangi lived with rosy dawn's pale light and created the moon. He lived with golden morn's warmer rays and created the sun. Then he tossed both the moon and the sun into the deep, dark, and gloomy Night so that they would illuminate the universe and be its eyes. Now there were both Night and Day.

Father Rangi then lived with Mother Papa, the Earth. In love, he lay upon her, and they created land.

Father Rangi and Mother Papa produced many children, who lived in the darkness of the small space that existed between their parents. Mother Papa's body was covered with low plants, and the sea was as black as Father Rangi.

Father Rangi loved Mother Papa and clung to her. No light could come between them. Their first children became tired of living in everlasting darkness, and their six sons met together to discuss what they could do to improve their situation.

"We can kill Father Rangi and Mother Papa, or we can force them apart. For only then will we be able to escape this darkness. Which will it be?"

Tu, the fierce father and god of war-spirited human beings, finally exclaimed, "We must kill them!"

To these words, Tane, father and god of trees, birds, and insects, replied, "No, it would be better to push Father Rangi away from Mother Papa, to live like a stranger far above us. Meanwhile, we could let Mother Papa remain where she is under our feet, so she can continue to nourish us with the foods that she grows for us."

Tane's words were so wise that even the warrior Tu was quick to agree with his brother's advice. But one brother, Tawhiri, father and god of all winds and storms, stood alone against the others. Now and forever, he separated himself from his brothers, fearing the loss of his own power and regretting his parents' separation. In defiance he held his breath and would do nothing. So it came to pass that five of Father Rangi and Mother Papa's six sons made an effort to try to separate their parents.

First came Rongo, father and god of the sweet potato and other edible cultivated plants. He lacked the necessary strength to separate Father Rangi and Mother Papa. Next came Tangaroa, father and god of all fish and sea reptiles. Tangaroa was stronger than Rongo, but no matter how hard he pushed, he could not separate Father Rangi and Mother Papa either. Third came Haumia, father and god of the fern root and other edible wild plants. However he, too, was unsuccessful. Then, confident in his own strength, Tu, the fierce father and god of war-spirited human beings, grabbed an axe-like tool and chopped away at the tendons that bound his parents together. The blood from these tendons created sacred red clay. However, Father Rangi and Mother Papa remained bound together.

Finally, Tane, father and god of forests, birds, and insects, took his turn. Just as a young tree pushes up from the earth, increasing in strength as it grows, so Tane slowly used his body to force his parents apart. First he tried to use his arms and hands, but all their might could not move Father Rangi up and away from Mother Papa. Then, he decided to rest his head and shoulders against Mother Papa and to use his feet to push up against Father Rangi. Very, very slowly, Tane's continuous pressure stretched and then tore the tendons that bound his parents together. Despite their anguished cries, he pushed Mother Papa far under him and thrust Father Rangi far above him. So it came to pass that Tane freed all of Father Rangi and Mother Papa's other children from their dark world.

Tawhiri, father and god of winds and storms, had sympathized with his parents' love for each other and had considered their attachment to be appropriate. Living in darkness was also compatible with the nature of his power, whereas living in a lovely, bright world was not. Tawhiri greeted Tane's success with jealousy and anger. Tane had created exactly what Tawhiri dreaded--Day, with its power to push away the gloomy darkness of Night and light up and beautify the universe. The father and god of winds and storms feared that there would no longer be a place for him in this new world.

So it came to pass that Tawhiri hurried to join Father Rangi. The god of the sky and weather was pleased to have this son's companionship and help. Together, they worked to create many great winds and storms that flew north, south, east, and west, battering those on Mother Papa with their blows. Tawhiri sent winds that delivered fiery blows, winds that delivered freezing blows, winds that dumped rain, and winds that dumped sleet. Finally, Tawhiri came down to his mother's realm as a hurricane. He surprised Tane by tearing apart his forests and leaving his mighty trees to rot away, broken and useless upon the earth.

Having felled Tane's forests, Tawhiri then attacked Tangaroa's seas. Tangaroa loved to live along the seashore, but now he found himself battered by great tides, churning whirlpools, and mountainous waves. Terrified, he ran and hid in the deepest part of the ocean, where Tawhiri would not be able to find him.

Meanwhile, Tangaroa's two grandchildren, the father of fish and the father of reptiles, together with their own children, argued about whether they would be safer on land or in the sea. Shark tried to persuade Lizard and the other members of his family to seek refuge in the sea with the fish. "If you are captured on land," he warned, "you will have to endure death by fire before being eaten!"

"That may be," Lizard replied, "but all of you will be caught and eaten as well!"

And so it came to pass that the children of Tangaroa separated forever. Tangaroa became furious with Tane for sheltering Lizard and his children in the forests, and from that time to this, the god of the sea has been at war with his brother Tane. Tangaroa continues to nibble away at the forests that grow along the seashore, causing Tane's trees to fall prey to his waves. And Tangaroa enjoys chewing the wood from houses and trees that floods bring him. Meanwhile, Tane provides his brother Tu's children with the means to capture Tangaroa's sea-bound children by supplying human beings with wood for their canoes, fishing spears, and fish-hooks, and with flax and other plant fibers for their fishing nets. In response, Tangaroa attacks Tu's children with his waves and tides, capsizing their canoes and claiming their lives.

During the war between Tangaroa and Tane, revenge continued to occupy Tawhiri's thoughts and actions. After he was satisfied with his punishment of Tangaroa, he attacked Rongo and Haumia, the gods of planted and wild food. However, Mother Papa came to their rescue. Knowing that her other children needed the sweet potato and the fern root in order to survive, she hid Rongo and Haumia where Tawhiri could not find them.

Finally, Tawhiri attacked his last brother, Tu, the father and god of war-spirited human beings, and the one brother who originally had suggested that the gods kill Father Rangi and Mother Papa. However, Tu was ready for the assault. He placed his feet upon Mother Papa's chest, where they took their strength from their mother. Thus Tu survived Tawhiri's strongest storm-winds. Tu's victory caused Tawhiri to give up his battle.

Peace had little opportunity to reign on earth, however. Once Tu, the eternal warrior, had proved himself against Tawhiri, he became angry with his four other brothers. Not one of the gods of the earth and the sea had shown the courage and strength against Tawhiri that he had. Tane had been surprised by Tawhiri's attack and had made no effort to stop the father and god of winds and storms from destroying his forests. Tangaroa had avoided any confrontation with Tawhiri and, instead, had taken refuge in the depths of the sea. Rongo and Haumia had let Mother Papa protect them from Tawhiri by hiding them.

Tu was most angered by the fact that not one of his brothers had had the courage and the sense of loyalty to help him in his own fight against Tawhiri. The eternal warrior, therefore, set out to punish the four of them by taking control of their kingdoms.

The fierce father and god of war-spirited human beings decided to attack Tane's children first before they became numerous enough to outnumber and overwhelm his own children. He fashioned leaves into nooses and hung them cleverly to trap Tane's birds. Once caught he defiled them by cooking them, and then he ate them.

Next, Tu attacked Tangaroa's children. He wove the flax from Tane's plants into nets and dragged them through the sea to catch Tangaroa's fish. These, too, he defiled by cooking them, and then he ate them.

Finally, Tu attacked the children of Rongo and Haumia. He fashioned a digging stick from one of Tane's trees and wove a flaxen basket from one of Tane's plants. With these, he dug up and collected the sweet potato and the fern root. Once again, he defiled them by cooking them, and then he ate them.

So it has come to pass that, from the time that Tu conquered Tane, Tangaroa, Rongo, and Haumia, the warrior god and his human children have dominated and eaten the children of these gods of earth and sea. To this day, the human family continues to eat Tane's birds, Tangaroa's fish, Rongo's sweet potatoes, and Haumia's fern roots. Tu has never been able to gain power over Tawhiri, but, to this day, he continues to fight him, for Tawhiri's winds and storms remain a destructive force on both earth and sea.

The Creation of Human Beings

Before there was man, there was woman, and it was Tane who created the first woman. He molded her from the sacred red clay that had received the blood from the tendons that had bound Father Rangi and Mother Papa together. When he had finished, he blew the breath of life into her nostrils and called her Hine Ahu One, the Earth-Maiden.

Tane loved the woman he had made, and from their love, a daughter called Hine Titama, the Dawn-Maiden, was born. Tane love Hine Titama as well, and from their love, children were born who became the first men and women.

All was well until Hine Titama asked Tane, "Who is my father?"

When she learned that Tane was her father as well as her husband, she exclaimed, "Because I am so ashamed, Tane, I must now leave you, and our children, and this world of light that I love! I will find my grandmother, Mother Papa, deep in the Underworld, and I will remain there with her from this time forth and forever. I will make a path as I walk, for I know that, in time, our children, their children, and all who come after them will know death and will follow me into the lower world."

In order to be certain that no one attempted to prevent her going, Hine Titama cast a spell of weakness upon Tane and a sleeping spell upon her children. Down, down, down, she traveled from the world of light into the eternal darkness of the lower world.

At the entrance to the Underworld, a guard confronted her. "Return to the upper world, Dawn-Maiden," he advised, "while you still can. Our spirit world is not for one like you! Here it is always black and grim. You would never choose to be here, for this is truly a joyless place!"

"I know that what you say is true," Hine Titama replied. "But it is here that I intend to live, and it is here that I will watch over my children who will be coming to me from the world above."

As Hine Titama turned from the guard to walk through the gates, her eyes fell upon Tane. Despite the deep gloom, she could see that he was tearfully following her.

"Poor Tane!" she cried. "Return to the upper world, and be a father to our children while they live in the world of light. Know that, in time, all of our children, and their children, and their children's children, from this time forth and forever, will follow this path that I have made.

"For death should come to all men and women," she explained, "and then, they should return to the dark world from which they came. That is why I intend to remain here. I want to be a mother to them when it is time for them to join me."

With these words Hine Titama turned and walked into the Underworld, where she became known as the Night-Maiden and the goddess of Death. From that day to this, the sun begins its morning journey in the east and returns to its home in the west, while Tane follows it on its journey. And men, women, and children follow Hine Titama's path down into the Underworld when death claims their spirits.

Meanwhile, despite their forced separation, Father Rangi and Mother Papa have continued to feel a great love for each other. In the beginning, Father Rangi cried so long and hard that his tears caused the sea to flood and swallow up most of the land and its people. Most of these people continue to live beneath the sea. Many of them have become so accustomed to living in their murky world that if the sun's rays ever were to touch them, they would die.

Some of Father Rangi and Mother Papa's sons began to fear that the upper world would entirely disappear into the sea unless they could find a way to stop Father Rangi's tears. They decided to ease their parents' grief by turning Mother Papa's face down upon the earth so that she and Father Rangi would not be able to see each other's tears. Their plan succeeded. The flood-waters that lay upon the upper world subsided, and from that time until this, Father Rangi's tears form the morning dew, while Mother Papa's tears form the morning mist.

Her sons turned Mother Papa's body while her infant son, young Ruaumoko, was drinking at her breast. At first Ruaumoko continued to cling to his mother. Then he fell into the Underworld. In time he grew up. Now whenever he walks around the Underworld, he creates earthquakes in the upper world. Some say that he has become Hine Titama's husband.

Nigeria is home to the Yoruba people who today number more than 10 million. Yoruba culture is old and distinguished, with its roots extending back more than 2,300 years. In ancient times, the Yoruba were organized in terms of relatively small "city-states," not unlike those of ancient Greece. The major Yoruba city was Ife, a sacred community from which sprang many of the religious beliefs that spread to other cities. Along with a common language, these beliefs helped build a sense of cultural identity that transcended the Yoruba's sometimes divisive political organization.

The Yoruba were polytheistic and their myths recount the stories of hundreds of deities. The major gods create and organize the cosmos, beginning with a static situation between Olorun, the Sky God, and Olokun, Goddess of Waters, that is catalyzed by Obatala, a younger god, who becomes bored with a featureless, watery earth. Minor gods protected local villages and regions. They are all related to each other and share an active interest in the lives of human beings.

In the beginning the universe consisted only of the sky above and the water and wild marshland below. Olorun, the god who possessed the most power and the greatest knowledge, ruled the sky, while the goddess Olokun ruled the endless waters and wild marshes. Olokun was content with her kingdom, even though it contained neither vegetation nor animals nor human beings.

However, the young god Obatala was not satisfied. As he looked down from the sky, he said to himself, "The world below needs something of interest! Everything is water-soaked, and not one living thing enlivens the area! I must talk with Olorun and see what can be done to improve the situation."

Obatala said to Olorun, "Poor Olokun rules nothing but marshland, mist, and water! What she needs in her kingdom are mountains and valley, forests and fields. All kinds of creatures and plants could live on that solid land."

Olorun replied, "Of course, solid land would be far better than this endless expanse of water. But who can create it? And how?"

"With your permission," Obatala replied, "I will create solid land."

"It is always my pleasure to give you whatever you wish, Obatala," Olorun replied. "You know that I love you as my son!"

So Obtala went to the house of Orunmila, the oldest son of Olorun, who had the gift of prophecy. Orunmila understood the secrets of existence, including fate and the future.

Obatala said to Orunmila, "Your father has given me permission to create solid land where now nothing exists except endless water and wild marshland. With your superior knowledge, you can teach me how to begin my project. I want to populate the earth with living beings who will be able to raise crops and build villages."

Orunmila replied, "First, Obatala, you must acquire a chain of gold long enough to reach from the sky above to the waters below. Then you must fill a snail's shell with sand. Finally you must place that shell, a white hen, a black cat, and a palm nut in a bag and carry them with you as you climb down the chain to the wild marshland. That is how I advise you to begin your project."

"Thank you, Orunmila," Obatala replied. "I will find the goldsmith and begin at once."

The goldsmith said, "I will make you a chain of the length you need if you will bring me the gold I need to fashion it. I do not think you will find enough gold in the sky. But ask each of the gods for whatever gold he or she possesses, and you may succeed. I wish you well!"

Obatala approached the gods one by one. To each god he said, "I plan to create solid land where now there is nothing but water and wild marshland. Then I will create all sorts of plants and creatures to live on that land. Before I can begin, I need the goldsmith to make me a chain that will stretch from the sky above to the waters below. Will you contribute whatever gold you possess?"

The gods were sympathetic to Obatala's cause. They gave him their gold: necklaces, bracelets, rings, and even gold dust.

The goldsmith examined the gold Obatala had collected and said, "Can you not find more gold? This will not be enough!"

"It is the best I can do," Obatala replied. "I have asked every god in the sky, and each has given me whatever he or she owned. Make as long a chain as you can, with a hook at one end."

When the chain was ready, Orunmila accompanied Obatala while he hooked one end of the chain to the edge of the sky and lowered the rest of it toward the waters far below. Orunmila gave Obatala the sand-filled snail's shell, the white hen, the black cat, and the palm nut. One by one, Obatala put him into a bag, which he slung over his shoulder. Then he said farewell to Orunmila and began to climb down the golden chain.

Obatala climbed lower and lower and lower. When he was only halfway down, he saw that he was leaving the world of light and entering the world of twilight.

Again he climbed lower and lower and lower. As he reached the end of the chain, he could feel the mist rising cool and wet upon him and hear the splashing of the waves as they crashed upon the sea. But he could see that he was still far above the ocean.

"I cannot jump from here," he thought. "The distance is so great that I will drown!"

Then, from the sky far above, Orunmila called out, "Obatala! Use the sand in your snail shell!"

Obatala reached into the bag at his side, withdrew the snail's shell, and poured the sand on the waters below him.

No sooner had he finished when Orunmila called out, "Obatala! Free the white hen!"

Obatala reached into the bag at his side, withdrew the white hen, and dropped it on the waters where he had poured the sand.

The hen fluttered down, landed upon the sandy waters, and immediately began to scatter the sand by scratching at it. Wherever the sand fell, it formed dry land. The larger piles of sand became hills, while the smaller piles became valleys.

Obatala let go of the golden chain and jumped to the earth. He named the place where he landed Ife. He walked with pleasure upon the solid land that he had created. The earth now extended farther in all directions than his eyes could see. It was still completely devoid of life, but it was a beginning.

Obatala dug a hole in the dry land and buried his palm nut in the soil. Immediately, a palm tree emerged and grew to its full height. The mature tree dropped its nuts upon the land, and they also quickly grew to maturity. Obatala built himself a house of bark and thatched the roof with palm leaves. He then settled down in Ife with his black cat for company.

Olorun wished to know how Obatala was progressing with his plan, so he sent his servant, the chameleon, down the golden chain to find out.

When the lizard arrived, Obatala said to him, "Tell Olorun, ruler of the sky, that I am pleased with the land I have created and the vegetation I have planted. But it is always twilight here. I miss the brightness of the sky!"

When the chameleon gave Obatala's message to Olorun, the ruler of the sky smiled and said, "For you, Obatala, I will create the sun!" Once Olorun tossed the sun into the sky, it shed light and warmth upon Ife as it moved across the sky on its daily journey.

Days passed. Months passed. Obatala continued to live on the earth that he had created with only his black cat for company. Then one day he said to himself, "I love my cat, but it companionship does not satisfy me. I would be happier if creatures more like myself could live in Ife with me. Let me see what I can do."

Obatala began to dig in the soil. He found that the particles held together in his hand, for the substance he dug up was clay. He laughed as he shaped little figures just like himself. One by one he finished them and set them aside to dry. Obatala worked on and on so enthusiastically that he was not aware of how tired and thirsty he was.

Finally his fatigue overcame him. "What I need is some wine to drink!" he thought. Obatala placed his last clay figure upon the ground and went off to make palm wine from the juice of the palm tree. Obatala drank bowl after bowl of the fermented palm juice, for he was very thirsty. He did not realize it, but the wine made him drunk.

Obatala returned to his task of making clay figures, but his fingers were clumsy now. The figures he created were no longer perfect. Some had arms that were too short, some had legs of uneven length, and some had backs that were curved. Obatala was too drunk to notice the difference. He continued to fashion one figure after another. In time, he was satisfied with the number of clay figures that he had created.

Obatala then called out to the ruler of the sky, "Hear me, Olorun, you who are like a father to me. I have created figures out of clay, but only you can breathe life into them and make them into living people. I ask you to do this for me so that I can have human companions in Ife."

So it came to pass that Olorun breathed life into the figures Obatala had created, and they became active, thinking human beings. When they noticed Obatala's house, they fashioned houses for themselves and placed them nearby. Thus they created the first Yoruba village in Ife where there had been only one solitary house.

When the effects of the palm wine wore off, Obatala realized that the creatures he had fashioned while he was drunk were imperfect. With a sad heart he announced, "I promise that I will never drink palm wine again! Moreover, I will devote myself to protecting all the people who have suffered from my drunkenness." And Obatala became the protector of all those who are born deformed.

The people prospered, and the Yoruba village of Ife grew into a city. Iron did not yet exist, so Obatala gave his people a copper knife and a wooden hoe to use as tools. The Yoruba cleared the land and began to raise grain and yams.

Obatala eventually tired of ruling his city of Ife, so he climbed up the golden chain and returned to his home in the sky. Thereafter, he divided his time between his home in the sky and his home in the Yoruba city.

The gods never tired of hearing Obatala describe the city that he had created on earth. Many of them were so fascinated with what they heard about Ife that they decided to leave their sky homes and live among the human beings on earth. As they prepared to leave, the ruler of the sky counseled them. "Remember," Olorun said, "that you will have obligations to the humans among whom you life in Ife. You must listen to their prayers and protect them. I will give each of you a specific task to fulfill while you are living there."

Not every god, however, was pleased with Obatala's success on Ife. Obatala had not consulted the goddess Olokun, ruler of the sea, when he had created solid earth and a Yoruba city in her kingdom. As the ruler of the sea watched one of the great sky gods usurp her power and rule a large part of her kingdom, she became angrier and angrier. Finally she conceived a plan that would avenge Obatala's insult to her honor.

Olokun waited until Obatala had returned to his home in the sky. Then she summoned the great waves of her vast ocean and sent them surging across the land that Obatala had created. One after another, the waves flooded the earth until water once again flowed as far as the eye could see, and only marshland existed amidst the waves of the ocean. Whole groves of palm trees became uprooted and floated away. Yams rotted and washed like dead fish upon the surface of the sea. People drowned in their fields, in their groves, and in their homes.

Those who still remained alive fled into the hills and cried out to Obatala for help, but he could not hear them over the roaring of the waves so far below him. So they sought the god Eshu, who was living among them. They knew that he could carry messages to Obatala and to Olorun. "Please return to the kingdom of the sky," they pleaded, "and tell the great gods of the disastrous flood that is destroying us!"

Eshu replied, "You must send a sacrifice along with your message if you want one of the great sky gods to listen to you."

The people sacrificed a goat to Obatala and said, "We send this goat as food for Obatala."

"That is not enough," Eshu replied. "I too deserve a gift for the service I am performing for you."

When the people had sacrificed accordingly, Eshu climbed the golden chain and told Obatala about how Olokun had flooded Ife and the rest of the earth.

Obatala did not know how to deal with Olokun, so he asked Orunmila for advice. Orunmila replied, "You rest here in the sky while I go down to Ife. I can make the waters withdraw and the land come forth once again."

So it came to pass that Orunmila climbed down the golden chain to the waters that covered Ife and the earth. Using his special knowledge, he caused the power of the waves to wane and the waters to retreat. Once the waves had subsided, he dried up the marshland and put an end to Olokun's attempt to recover the area that she had lost to Obatala.

The people who had survived greeted Orunmila as their hero and pleaded with him to stay and protect them. Orunmila had no desire to remain in Ife, but he agreed to stay long enough the teach the gods and humans who lived there how to tell the future so that they could begin to control the forces they could not see. When he had done so, Orunmila returned to his home in the sky but, like Obatala, he often climbed down the golden chain to see how life was progressing in Ife.

The ruler of the sea made one final attempt to remain the equal of the ruler of the sky. Olokun was an excellent weaver of cloth, and she possessed equal skill in dyeing the fabrics she had woven. So the ruler of the sea sent a message to Olorun, ruler of the sky, challenging him to a weaving contest.

Olorun said to himself, "Olokun is a far better weaver than I am. However, I cannot give her the satisfaction of knowing that she is superior to me in anything. If I do, she will exert her powers in other ways as well, and that will disrupt the order that now exists throughout the universe. Somehow I must appear to accept the challenge and yet avoid participating in her contest. Now, how can I do this?"

Olorun thought and thought. Suddenly his eyes sparkled. With a smile, he summoned his messenger, the chameleon, to his side. "Go before Olokun, ruler of the sea," he ordered, "with this message: 'The ruler of the sky greets the ruler of the sea. He asks you to display samples of the cloth that you have woven to his messenger. Let the chameleon judge your skill. If your cloth is as beautiful as you say it is, then the ruler of the sky will compete with you in the contest you have suggested.'"

The chameleon climbed down the golden chain and gave the goddess Olorun's message.

Olokun was happy to obey Olorun's request. She put on a bright green skirt, and to her amazement the chameleon turned a beautiful shade of bright green. She next put on a bright orange skirt, and to her amazement the chameleon turned a beautiful shade of bright orange. She then put on a bright red skirt, and to her amazement the chameleon turned a beautiful shade of bright red. One by one, the goddess Olokun put on skirts of various bright colors, and each time the chameleon turned into the particular color that she was wearing. Finally Olokun gave up.

The goddess said to herself, "If someone as ordinary as Olorun's messenger can duplicate the bright colors of my finest fabrics, how can I hope to compete against the greatest of the gods?"

She said to the chameleon, "Tell your master that the ruler of the sea sends her greetings to the ruler of the sky. Tell him that I acknowledge his superiority in weaving and in all other pursuits as well. Olorun is indeed the greatest of the gods!"

So it came to pass that peace returned between the ruler of the sky and the ruler of the sea, and that peace restored order in the universe.

Located in what are now Guatemala and the Yucatan Peninsula, the Mayan people developed a rich and complex culture that extended over hundreds of years. The Spanish conquest of the Maya in 1524 marked the decline of their culture. Spanish soldiers burned their main city, along with all their manuscripts. Spanish missionaries converted the Mayan to Christianity and taught the Mayan scribes to write phonetically using the Latin alphabet.

The Popol Vuh (or Book of the Community), the ancient Mayan epic, was written down anonymously between 1554 and 1558, long after the golden age of Mayan civilization (317-889 a.d.) It represents the sacred history of the Quiche-Maya from the western highlands who became the most powerful of Mayan tribes. The Popol Vuh begins with an account of creation, followed by a history of the tribe down through the Mayan kings in 1550. Originally part of the oral tradition, the Popol Vuh was likely first inscribed in the old Mayan hieroglyphic language, although no copies of such a manuscript are extant. The Mayan creation account is included as part of the epic.

In the beginning, only the sky above and the sea below existed in the eternal darkness, and they were calm and silent, for nothing existed that could move or make noise. The surface of the earth had yet to rise forth from the waters. Grass and trees, stones, caves, and ravines, birds and fish, crabs, animals, and human beings had yet to be created. Nothing could roar or rumble; nothing could sing or squeak; nothing could run or shake, for there was nothing but the vacant sky above and the tranquil sea below.

Hidden in the water under green and blue feathers were the Creators. These great thinkers talked quietly together in the water, alone in the universe, alone in the darkness of the eternal night.

Together they decided what would be. Together they decided what would be. Together they decided when the earth would rise from the waters, when the first human beings and all other forms of life would be born, what these living things would eat in order to survive, and when dawn would first flood the world with pale light.

"Let creation begin!" the Creators exclaimed. "Let the void be filled! Let the sea recede, revealing the surface of the earth! Earth, arise! Let it be done!"

And so they created it. The Creators made it. Out of the mist, out of a cloud of dust, mountains and valleys rose from the sea, and pine and cypress trees took root in the rich soil. Fresh water ran in streams down the mountainsides and between the hills.

And the Creators were satisfied. "We have thought about it and planned it," they said, "and what we have created is perfect!"

Then the Creators asked, "Do we want only silence beneath the trees we have created? Let us create wild animals, birds, and snakes. Let it be done!"

And so they created them. The Creators made them.

"You, deer, will walk on four feet through the thicket and the pasture. You will multiply in the forest, where you will sleep in the cool shade of the ravines and in the fields along the banks of rivers. You, birds, will live in the branches of the trees and in the vines. There you will build your nests, and there you will multiply." This the deer and the birds were told, and this they did.

And the Creators asked for more from the living creatures they had created. "Speak, call, cry, as each of you can. Call us by name, praise us and love us."

But all this the birds and animals could not do. They could scream, hiss, and cackle, but they could not name their creators.

The Creators were disappointed with the living creatures that they had made. They said to them, "We will not take from you that which we have given you. However, because you cannot praise us and love us, we will make other beings who will. These new creatures will be superior to you and will rule you. It is your destiny that they will tear apart and eat your flesh. Let it be done!"

And so they created them. The Creators made them. They decided to fashion an obedient and respectful creature who would praise and love them. First they tried to model him out of muddy earth, but the material was too soft. He was limp and weak. He could speak, but no mind gave meaning to the words he spoke.

"Creatures fashioned from mud will never be able to live and multiply!" the Creators exclaimed. So they destroyed this creature.

Next the Creators tried to carve their new creature out of wood. "This material seems to be just right! It is firm and strong," they said. "These creatures look and speak like human beings. Let us make many more of them. Let it be done!"

The wooden creatures lived and multiplied, but no mind gave meaning to the words they spoke, and no soul existed within them. Their faces lacked all spirit, their hands and feet all strength. Their flesh was yellow and dry, without a bloody moisture pulsing beneath the surface to nourish it. They wandered aimlessly on all four limbs and did not think of their creators.

"Creatures fashioned from wood are not good enough to be able to live and multiply!" the Creators exclaimed. So they determined to destroy these wooden creatures.

The Creators caused a great flood of sap to form in the sky and fall to earth, striking the heads of the wooden creatures and felling them like trees. Then an eagle descended upon them and tore out their eyes. A bat descended upon them and cut off their heads. A jaguar leaped upon them and broke and mangled their bones. The face of the earth became covered in darkness, and a black rain fell without ceasing.

Once they were powerless, these wooden creatures were beset by enemies. Animals, both large and small, attacked them. Sticks and stones plates and pots attacked them. Dogs they had starved and taunted now tore into their faces with their teeth. Stones they had used for grinding now ground them. Pots and griddles they had burned upon the cooking fire now burned their faces.

Desperately fighting for their lives, the wooden creatures tried to climb to the roofs of their houses, but the houses collapsed and tossed them back to the ground. They tried to climb the trunks of trees and find safety in their branches, but the trees shook them off and threw them to the ground. They tried to enter caves, but the caves closed and refused to shelter them.

All but a few of the wooden creatures were destroyed. The others survived with mangled faces and jaws, and their descendants became known as monkeys.

The Creators then took counsel together in the darkness of the night. The sun, the moon, and the stars had yet to appear in the sky above them. "Let us try again to create creatures who will praise us and love us. Let it be done! Let noble creatures live on the surface of the earth. Let us search for the substance we can use to fashion them."

Four animals--the mountain cat, the coyote, the crow, and a small parrot--came before the Creators and told them of yellow ears and white ears of corn that grew abundantly nearby. The Creators took the road the animals showed them. They found the corn, ground it up, and fashioned their noble creatures from this food. "Let it be done!" they exclaimed.

And so they created them. The Creators made them.

So it came to pass that the four First Fathers were created. The Creators fashioned their bodies from cornmeal dough. They made corn drinks from ground yellow and white corn and fed them to their new creatures to give them muscles and flesh, and with these strength.

And the Creators were satisfied. "We have thought about it and planned it," they said, "and what we have created is perfect!"

These four First Fathers looked and talked like human beings. They were attractive, intelligent, and wise. They could see far into the distance. Mountains and valleys, forests and meadows, oceans and lakes, the earth beneath their feet, and the sky above their heads all revealed their natures to them.

When the four First Fathers saw all there was to see in the world, they appreciated what they saw, and they thanked their creators. "We thank you for having created and formed us," they said. "We thank you for giving us the ability to see, hear, speak, think, and walk. We can see what is large and what is small, what is near and what is far. We know everything, and we thank you!"

The Creators were no longer pleased. "Have we created creature who are better than we intended? Are they too perfect?" they asked each other. "Have we made them so knowledgeable and wise that they will be gods like ourselves? Should we limit their sight so that they will see less and know less? Let it be done!"

So the Creators spoke, and they changed the beings they had created. They blew fog into their eyes so they could see only that which was close to them. In this way, the Creators destroyed the original knowledge and wisdom that the four First Fathers had possessed.

After the Creators had created and formed our grandfathers in this way, they said, "Now let us carefully create and form wives for the First Fathers. Let their wives come to them while they are asleep and be there to bring them joy when they awaken. Let it be done!"

And so they created them. The Creators made them.

And the Creators were satisfied. "We have thought about it and planned it," they said, "and what we have created is perfect!"

So it came to pass that the Creators made many more human beings like the First Fathers and the First Mothers. They lived and multiplied in darkness, for the Creators had not yet created light of any kind, neither sun, nor moon, nor stars. These human beings lived together in the east in great numbers, both light-skinned and dark-skinned, rich and poor, speaking different languages.

They made no images of their gods, yet they remembered their creators and were loving and obedient. They raised their faces to the sky and prayed, "Oh, Creators! Stay with us and listen to us! Let there be light! Let there be dawn! Let there be day! Let dawn flood the world with pale light, and let the sun follow. As long as the sun shines from the sky, brightening each day, grant us daughters and sons to continue our race. Give us good, useful, happy lives, and give us peace!"

With these words the people entreated the sun to rise and to illuminate with its golden rays the steps of those whom the Creators had made.

"So let it be!" the Creators said. "Let there be light! In the dawn of the universe, let the light of early morning shine upon all that we have created! For we have thought about it and planned it, and what we have created is perfect!"

And so they created it. The Creators made it. The sun rose from the waters and cast its golden rays upon the surface of the earth. And the animals and the people were joyful because of it. Large and small animals rose to their feet in the cool shade of ravines and along the banks of rivers and turned to face the rising sun. The jaguar and the puma roared, and the snake hissed. The birds stretched their winds and broke into song. The people danced around their priests, who were burning incense and making sacrifices. For the Creators had illuminated the earth with light, and it was perfect.

The Toltec people flourished in the northern part of what is now called Central America from 900 to 1200 a.d. with their capital city of Tula being located near what is now Mexico City. Like the Maya, many of whom the Toltecs conquered, they possessed a cultural heritage rich in myths and legends. In about 1200, civil war destroyed the Toltec people, and, for nearly a century, the region remained unsettled. In the early fourteenth century, the Aztecs migrated from their historic home called Aztlan, located north of the Colorado River. In 1325 they settled the site that later became known as Mexico City.

Aztecs held the remnants of the Toltec people in high esteem, particularly in terms of their cultural traditions. In 1376, the Aztec king claimed descent from Quetzalcoatl, the legendary founder of the Toltecs. Shortly after that, the Aztecs adopted the Toltec language and mingled Toltec myths with their own.

Under Aztec rule, the region prospered economically, politically, and culturally. The Aztecs supported the arts and literature and built huge palaces, temples, and canals. However, the Aztecs were a warlike people who were often cruel to their neighbors and who practiced human sacrifice. When Hernanado Cortez invaded in 1519, he received support from neighboring people and even from the Aztec king himself who thought Cortez to be a reincarnation of Quetzalcoatl.

The Spanish conquerors did to the Aztecs much the same as they were shortly to do to the Mayans. They destroyed their cities and burnt their manuscripts. However, as in the case of the Mayans, they also taught the Aztecs the Latin alphabet and took interest in preserving some of the Aztec myths and legends. The text in which many of these myths are preserved, the CHIMALPOPOCA CODEX: ANNALS OF CUAUHITILAN AND LEGEND OF THE SUNS, is written in a Latinized version of the Aztec language, Nahuatl.

The Five Worlds and Their Suns

Five worlds were created, each with its own sun, each following upon the death of the preceding one. The first world was illuminated by the sun of earth. The people of this first world acted improperly, so the gods punished them by causing jaguars to feast upon their flesh. No one survived, and their sun died along with them.

The second world was illuminated by the sun of air. Its people acted without wisdom, so hurricane winds descended upon the earth, and the people were punished by being turned into apes. Their sun died when they became animals.

The third world was illuminated by the sun of the rain of fire. Its people acted without respect and reverence for the gods, refusing to sacrifice to them, so they were punished by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions of fiery ash, and other forms of flaming death. Their sun burned along with them.

The fourth world was illuminated by the sun of water. The great god Quetzalcoatl created a race of human beings from ash. The people were very greedy, so they were punished by a great flood. Their sun drowned when most of the people were transformed into fish.

The Supreme Being tried to save one human couple from the deluge. His voice came to them and said, "Find a mighty tree, make a hole in the trunk large enough to hide in, and take refuge there until the flood waters recede. You will survive if you master your greed and eat only one corncob each."

The husband and wife eagerly obeyed the instructions of the Supreme Being. They found a great tree, took refuge in it, and survived the flood.

When the waters had receded, they looked upon a strange world. Fish lay twitching on the ground where animals once had roamed. "Why should we gnaw on a corncob when fish are so plentiful?" they asked one another.

They proceeded to break off dry twigs from their tree, make a fire, and roast one of the fish. The gods smelled the savory smoke and became enraged at the greed and disobedience of this couple. They descended upon them in wrath and cut off part of their heads, giving them brains the size of animals'. Then they transformed them into dogs.

Before the gods created the fifth world, our own world, they gathered together in the darkness to choose who would illuminate it by creating the fifth sun, the sun of four movements. This sun would combine within it the earlier four elements of earth, air, fire, and water. One wealthy god, lavishly dressed in shining feathers of the hummingbird and in jewels of turquoise and gold, volunteered--thinking more about the praise he would receive than about what the deed would entail.

"One will not be enough for this great deed," the gods said. "We need a second volunteer." Each god remained silent. Finally the gods asked, "Will you help us, Nanautzin?"

Nanautzin looked up in surprise. Never before had he been worthy of their attention. He knew that the other gods despised him because he was misshapen, ugly, covered with disgusting-looking sores, and dressed in plain clothing made from woven reeds.

"If you will help us bring forth a fifth world, we will truly value you!" they said.

"If you wish it, I will do it," Nanautzin replied.

The two gods spent the next four days purifying themselves for the sacrifice. Then they approached the blazing fire upon the stone altar with their best gifts. The customary offerings were hay, dead branches, cactus needles, and bloody thorns. However, the wealthy god made a mighty show as he offered nuggets of gold, rich feathers, and gems. Nanautzin's offering seemed scanty as he placed in the fire three bundles of three green reeds, hay, the scabs from his sores, and thorns covered with his own blood.

All of the gods then built a towering pyramid of stone, made a bonfire on top of it, and let it burn for four nights while they too purified themselves. Finally they said to the wealthy god, "We are ready. Now perform the deed that you said you would do. Light up the world."

"How do you expect me to do this?" the wealthy god asked.

"You must leap into the center of the flames!" the gods replied.

The wealthy god's heart filled with terror, but he was ashamed to go back on his word. Four times he gingerly approached the flaming bonfire, and four times he retreated in the face of the terrifying flames and the great heat. "I know I volunteered, but I just cannot do this," he admitted in shame.

"Then, Nanautzin, it is your turn to perform this great deed," the gods said.

So Nanauatzin forced courage into his heart and jumped into the flames. As the fire burned away his life, his blazing clothing lighted up the sky and gave life to the sun. The wealthy, cowardly god felt that he had no choice but to follow Nanautzin's brave example, so he too gathered the courage to sacrifice his life and he cast himself into the flames. But because Nanautzin had courageously led the way, from that time forth it was he who was honored among the gods. Many even say that Nanautzin was a form of the great god Quetzalcoatl.

The Creation of the Earth

Quetzalcoatl, the light one, and Tezcatlipoca, the dark one, looked down from the sky and saw only water below. A monstrous goddess floated upon the water, eating whatever she could find with her many mouths, for every joint in her body contained eyes sharp enough to spot any source of food and mouths that bit like wild animals.

"We must find some way to stop that goddess from devouring whatever we create," the two gods said to one another.

So it came to pass that the two great gods transformed themselves into two huge serpents. One of them quickly grabbed the goddess by her arms, while the other quickly grabbed her by the feet. Then, before she could resist, they pulled until she broke apart in the middle. Her head and shoulders became the earth, while the lower part of her body rose into the sky and became the heavens.

The other gods were angry at what Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca had done to the goddess. They came down to earth and decided to give her gifts that would compensate for her mutilation. They decreed that whatever human beings needed for survival, she would provide. They created trees, tall grass, and flowers from her hair, fine grasses and tiny flowers from her skin, small caves, fountains, and wells from her eyes, large caves and rivers from her mouth, hills and valleys from her nose, and mountains from her shoulders.

The goddess is often unhappy. Sometimes in the night, people can hear her crying. Then they know that she is filled with a ravenous thirst for human blood. Whenever this thirst comes upon her, the goddess will not provide the fruits of the soil and will not stop crying until the blood from human hearts has quenched her thirst. She who provides sustenance for human lives demands human lives in return for her own sustenance. So it has always been; so it will ever be.

The Creation of Human Beings

In the fifth world, our own world, the great god Quetzalcoatl prepared to create a new race of human beings. First he decided that his creations must have nourishing food to eat. He set forth across the face of the earth, stopping to examine every plant and animal to see if that particular food would be best for his people.

When the ants showed him the grains of corn they ate, Quetzalcoatl decided that this was the food for which he had been searching. But he knew the ants would never give him their corn. He would have to steal it from them.

So Quetzalcoatl transformed himself into a black ant. Along with the other black ants, he laboriously transported the corn from the field to a place of storage, grain by precious grain. But Quetzalcoatl only pretended to store the corn for the ant community. He was really building an enormous pile of grains for the people he was about to create. Finally he collected enough corn in his secret hoard to enable him to teach his people to plant it and produce a crop for themselves. He resumed his normal shape, put the corn into a huge bag, and returned to the heavens with it.

Quetzalcoatl was now ready to turn his attention to the second part of his plan, the creation of our present race of human beings. Each day he flew across the heavens from east to west, following the path of the sun. Each night he traveled through the Underworld from west to east, emerging at dawn. During one of his night journeys through the Underworld, Quetzalcoatl decided to find the Lord of the Dead Land and take the first step toward creating the new race of human beings.

"I would like you to give me the bones of my father that are buried in this land," he said to the Lord of the Dead Land.

"Why should I do you this favor, Quetzalcoatl?" the Lord of the Dead Land asked. "Whatever is buried belongs to me. What do you intend to do with these bones?"

Quetzalcoatl replied, "These bones are very dear to me, since they are all that remains of my father. The gods want another race of human beings to live upon the earth, and I intend to create them from my father's bones."

"Here they are, then," the Lord of the Dead Land replied. "The bones will be yours once you perform the deed I require of you. Take this conch shell in one hand and carry the bones in your other hand. Blow into the shell, making a great sound, as you walk four times around that circle of jade."

Quetzalcoatl took the bones and the conch shell from the Lord of the Dead Land and began to walk around the jade circle. When he tried to blow into the shell, it made no sound, for something was blocking its interior.

Quetzalcoatl called on the worms and the bees who lived in the Underworld to help him. First the worms entered the shell and pushed through the substance that was blocking it. Then the bees entered the twisting passages and cleared out any material that the worms had left behind.

Once Quetzalcoatl had successfully blown on the conch as he walked around the circle, the Lord of the Dead Land has said, he could take the bones. However, the lord secretly told his servants to examine Quetzalcoatl before he left and make certain that the god left the bones behind.

When the servants commanded Quetzalcoatl to leave the bones behind, the great god did not know how to evade the order. He called on his nahual, his animal double, for advice.

"Pretend to leave the bones, Quetzalcoatl," his nahual replied. "Then, once the servants have returned to their master, pack up the bones and take them with you."

So Quetzalcoatl pretended to obey the order to leave the bones, but he carefully wrapped them up and returned to the upper world.

The Lord of the Dead Land was not deceived by Quetzalcoatl's actions. He said to his servants, "Quetzalcoatl has disobeyed my orders and has taken the bones with him. Dig a pit that will trap him and cause him to drop the bones."

The servants of the Lord of the Dead Land dug a pit in the earth and concealed it well with leafy branches and dirt. As they had planned, Quetzalcoatl tripped and fell into the trap. Birds threatened him so menacingly that the great god fainted from terror, dropping his precious package. The birds then pecked apart the wrappings and the bones within them.

When Quetzalcoatl awakened, he wept with grief at his plight. "Oh, my nahual," he cried. "What should I do now?"

"Do not despair," his nahual replied. "Make the best of it, and continue your journey."

Quetzalcoatl gathered up the bones that the birds had pecked into tiny pieces, wrapped them as best he could, and returned with them as he had intended.

The goddess Woman Snake ground the bits of his father's bones into bone meal and placed it in a jade bowl. Then Quetzalcoatl pierced his body and moistened the meal with his own blood. From this mixture he molded the new race of human beings, both male and female.

The term "Iroquois" refers to a group of nations of Native American peoples who spoke the same language and participated in a confederation, the League of Iroquois, founded in 1452. The five original members, the Mohawk, the Oneida, the Onondaga, the Cayuga, and the Seneca, were joined in 1722 by the Tuscarora. Organized democratically, the League provided a model for political organization of importance to the framers of the U.S. Constitution. A council, consisting of fifty clan leaders, provided governance. Each nation received proportional representation on the council.

Iroquois life was organized along matriarchal lines. Property was inherited through the mother, and the women owned the land and the dwellings in which they lived. Husbands were considered invited guests in the wives' homes. The male "head of the household" received that distinction only because he was the brother of the oldest sister. Women, also, were the ones who nominated, with approval of the respective national councils, the clan leaders to serve on the ruling council of the League.

The Revolutionary War marked the demise of the Iroquois League. Some nations supported the British and some the Colonial interests, thus creating irreconcilable divisions among League members. In 1777, the League held a formal dissolution ceremony in which the great Council fire was extinguished.

As one might expect of groups with common ties of language, traditions and culture, the Iroquois nations produced myths and legends that are remarkably similar to each other. The Iroquois' creation account is striking for the central role is played by a woman. It was first recorded by David Cusick who published a version of it in 1827 in SKETCHES OF ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE SIX NATIONS.

When time was young, there were two worlds, the upper world and the lower world. Divine Sky People lived in the upper world. Great Water covered the earth in the lower world, and there the only living beings were the animals who knew how to swim. Great Darkness covered everything between Great Water and the upper world.

In the upper world, the Sky People had a great chief, who had a lovely daughter named Atahensic. It came to pass that the goddess Atahensic became very ill with a strange disease. The medicine man tried one remedy after another, but nothing would make her well.

A great corn tree stood near the chief's lodge and provided the Sky People with their principal food. It came to pass that a Sky person dreamed that the goddess would be cured if the chief placed her on the ground by this tree and then dug up the great tree by its roots.

To the chief, the welfare of his daughter was more important than the welfare of his nation. Consequently, as soon as the chief heard the Sky Person's dream, he decided to follow its prescription without delay. He placed Atahensic beside the great corn tree and directed other Sky People to dig the earth away from its roots. The great tree soon toppled to the ground with a thunderous crash.

Alarmed by the terrifying sound, another Sky Person--a young man--ran toward the great corn tree and was horrified to see that it had been uprooted. It was clear that the chief had committed an outrageous act! The young man turned to his chief and unleashed his fury. "You have no right to destroy this tree!" he exclaimed. "Without its fruit, we will all die of starvation! Even the life of a chief's daughter is not that important!"

The removal of the corn tree's roots had left a large hole in the ground. The young man was so enraged that, before the chief could stop him, he kicked Atahensic into that hole.

Down, down, down the goddess fell, through the hole that formed a tunnel from the world above into the dark world below.

Loon was the first to see the glow that marked the fall of the goddess, and he decided to rescue her. He called out to the other water animals, "Look! Sky Woman is falling into our world! She needs our help, or she will drown!"

Loon caught Atahensic on his wings and then slowly descended with her to the Great Water on which he lived. Meanwhile, many of the animals wished to do their part to save Sky Woman's life, so they gathered together and made a raft of their bodies on which she could rest.

Sky Woman landed safely, and the animal raft was able to support her. However, the animals could not live forever in the form of a raft, and Sky Woman could not live forever upon their backs. The animals needed to rest, and the goddess needed to move about. So it came to pass that the water animals who were forming the raft said, "We must come up with a better plan to care for Sky Woman! We are all tired out! Do any of your have a good idea?"

Great Turtle was the first to volunteer. "Place her upon my back," he directed. "Mine is larger and stronger than all of yours put together!"

Once they had done this, Muskrat said, "That's all well and good, for now! But Sky Woman will surely die unless we can create a bed of earth upon which she can live. It will have to be large enough for her to be able to walk happily during the day and to sleep comfortably at night."

"I agree," Great Turtle said. "Those of you who think that you can do it should dive down to the bottom of Great Water, bite off a piece of the earth that you find there, and carry it back up here in your mouth."

It came to pass that Muskrat was the first to muster the courage necessary to make the deep dive. He was followed by Beaver, and then by Otter.

Beaver was the first to return alive. He was very tired and very short of breath, but when Great Turtle looked inside his mouth, he could find no earth. Otter returned quite a while after Beaver. He was more tired and more short of breath, but when Great Turtle looked inside his mouth, he could find no earth.

By this time, all of the water animals had become very worried about Muskrat, who had not yet returned from the deep. While they were discussing what to do, Muskrat's body suddenly reappeared on the surface of the water. He was dead. However, Muskrat had been as skillful as he was courageous, for clutched in his claws and lodged inside his mouth was earth from the bottom of the sea.

Great Turtle gave the earth to Sky Woman, who spread it carefully around the edges of Great Turtle's shell and the more earth she spread, the larger grew Great Turtle's shell and the more earth there was to spread. In fact, the earth continued to grown broader and deeper until it formed an enormous expanse of dry land, called Great Island. And from that day to this, Great Island has rested upon Great Turtle's shell.

It came to pass that on Great Island the goddess Atahensic recovered from her strange disease, just as the dreamer had dreamed she would. Sky Woman now built herself an earth lodge and, despite the eternal darkness, she lived happily with the water animals for neighbors. In time, she gave birth to a baby girl, who became known as Earth Woman.

It came to pass that one day, as Earth Woman was digging the wild potatoes that grew in the dirt of Great Island, she inadvertently forgot to face the west and, instead, faced the east. Not long after that, Earth Woman found that she had become pregnant. West Wind had blown into her body and had impregnated her.

Just as her birth pangs were beginning, Earth Woman heard the twin sons within her body angrily arguing about when and how to be born. Evil Twin, who was bold and selfish, was determined to emerge first, from his mother's armpit. Good Twin, who was gentle and unselfish, was content to emerge second in the usual way. So it came to pass that while Good Twin was being born, Evil Twin impatiently burst forth from their mother's side, thereby causing her death.

Sky Woman buried Earth Woman on Great Island and reared her twin grandchildren by herself. Good Twin was her favorite. She had no love for Evil Twin, whom she blamed for the death of her daughter. Every day, she would sit by Earth Woman's grave and weep over her.

It came to pass that, in time, Good Twin became tired of living in eternal darkness. He told his brother, "I want to create a great light that will illuminate our world."

"Don't be absurd!" Evil Twin replied. "Our world is good enough as it is! Leave it alone!"

Despite his brother's opinion, Good Twin was determined to live in a bright world. Therefore, from his dead mother's face, he fashioned a brilliant sphere, which he tossed high into Great Darkness to shine upon Great Island each day. From the back of his mother's head, Good Twin then fashioned a smaller sphere and many tiny spheres, which he also tossed high into Great Darkness to shine upon Great Island each night. So it came to pass that Great Island and Great Water enjoyed Sun, Moon, and Stars, and with them, Day and Night.

It then came to pass that, nourished both by Sky Woman's tears and by Sun, the Three Sisters began to push through the earth that covered Earth Woman's body--the squash vine from what remained of Earth Woman's head, corn plants from her chest, and bean plants from her arms and legs. Good Twin loved these plants, and so he asked Thunder to provide the rain that they would need in order to flourish.

In their own time, the twin boys grew to become young men. They continued to have different personalities and different opinions. However, they agreed that the time had come to prepare Great Island for the Eagwehoewe people, who would soon live on it. They planned to start out together, to spend the day apart from each other, and to meet at their lodge, as usual, that night. When they separated, Evil Twin would walk toward the west, while Good Twin would walk toward the east. And, as they walked, each would create such things as lakes, forests, plants, and animals. Then, during the next two days, each brother would take the other to see what he had created.

So it came to pass that as Good Twin walked toward the east, he would reach down to the earth at his feet, pick up a handful of dirt, and toss it. Sometimes he tossed it in front of him; other times he tossed it behind him. Sometimes he tossed it on the ground; other times he tossed it into the air. However, no matter where Good Twin tossed his handful of dirt, living plants or animals came into being. Meanwhile, wherever Good Twin had placed his feet, maple trees began to grow.

Still determined to be the first in everything, Evil Twin, whose Iroquois name means "like flint," was the first to show off his creations. Unlike Good Twin, he possessed an evil imagination and enjoyed creating mischief. Consequently, he had created a range of mountains on his part of Great Island. It was difficult to walk there because of all the rocks underfoot and the many treacherous ledges.

As they traveled, Good Twin was annoyed by the company of Mosquito, who was as large as Turkey. Finally, Good Twin told him to run away. Mosquito then ran toward a young tree, stuck his sharp, pointed nose into the slender trunk, and caused the tree to fall to the ground.

"You can't do that, Mosquito!" Good Twin exclaimed. "The Eagwehoewe people are soon going to live on Great Island, and if this is what you do to a tree, I can see what you will do to them! They are much weaker than a tree, and they will surely die from the thrust of your nose!"

With these words, Good Twin grabbed Mosquito and rubbed him between his hands until he had become very small. Then he opened his hands and blew Mosquito away. From that day to this, Mosquito has remained just as Good Twin changed him.

In the course of their walk, Evil Twin also showed Good Twin the fierce animals that he had made: Bear, Wolf, and Panther, as well as Fox, Porcupine, Raccoon, and Snake. These animals were all much larger than they are today.

Good Twin looked at these huge predators and exclaimed, "What have you done, Brother? The Eagwehoewe people are soon going to live on Great Island, and these fierce animals will surely kill them!"

Good Twin did not have the power to undo what his brother had created, but he was able to make each animal smaller, so that the Eagwehoewe people could hunt and trap them for their skin and their meat. It was then that Good Twin spied Partridge, whom he had created, but who was now on Evil Twin's land.

"What are you doing here, Partridge?" Good Twin asked him.

"Toad came onto our land and drank up all the water," Partridge replied. "I have heard that if there is any water left, I will only find it here in the land of Flint!"

"Where is Toad?" Good Twin asked his brother.

"I was just about to show him to you," Evil Twin replied. "Of all the animals that I have created, I love him the best! I have fashioned him to be so thirsty that he will drink every drop of fresh water on Great Island."

When Good Twin found Toad, he took one look at his bulging body and shot an arrow into his neck. Suddenly all of Great Island's fresh waters poured forth in a great waterfall that ran off in different directions as the first rivers.

Good Twin was quick to divide each river down the middle so that half the water flowed in one direction and half flowed in the other. "I want one side of every river always to flow downstream," he explained to his brother. "Then the Eagwehoewe people will not have to work at paddling their canoes. Instead, they can float with the current!"

"I can't let you do this!" Evil Twin exclaimed. "The Eagwehoewe people will have to work for whatever they get!" And, with these words, Evil Twin changed all of his brother's rivers so that their waters flowed in only one direction. Moreover, he was not satisfied until he had placed waterfalls, whirlpools, and rapids in many places on each of them. From that day to this, the rivers have remained just as Evil Twin changed them.

Evil Twin was very angry that Good Twin had changed the animals, reptiles, and insects that he had created, but he did not say anything aloud. However, to himself he said, "Just wait until tomorrow, Brother, when you show me what you have created! You have seen what I have done to your rivers. Tomorrow, you will see what I will do to everything else that you have made to please the Eagwehoewe people!"

The following day, the twins walked toward the east so that Good Twin could show Evil Twin the fine animals and the beautiful trees that he had created. Evil Twin was annoyed to see that the animals his brother had created--Buffalo, Elk, Deer, Dog, Rabbit, Squirrel, and Bird--would be useful to the Eagwehoewe people. They were so fat that they would be easy to catch and good to eat.

Later, Evil Twin returned to the area. Despite their cumbersome size, he quietly gathered together all of the animals that Good Twin had created and herded them toward a great cave. Using Good Twin's food as bait, he then imprisoned them inside the cave, blocking the entrance with a huge boulder. He smiled with satisfaction as he imagined how they would all die of starvation.

However, Bird had followed Evil Twin and watched him from above. Bird then flew to Good Twin and told him what Evil Twin had done. Good Twin followed Bird as he flew through the trees in the forest until, in time, Bird led him to discover the huge boulder that blocked the entrance to the cave. Good Twin gathered all his strength and pushed aside the boulder, permitting his animals to regain their freedom.

Evil Twin also noticed that his brother had created sycamore trees that produced sweet fruits and sugar-maple trees whose syrup dripped from the branches.

Of course, Evil Twin was not at all happy with what Good Twin had done. "Brother, I see that you and I can never agree on anything!" he exclaimed. "If I let you have your way, the Eagwehoewe people will have too happy a time! However, as you are beginning to see, I don't intend to let you have your way!"

So it came to pass that Evil Twin later went about from animal to animal, shaking each one until it became smaller and thinner. From that day to this, these animals have remained just as Evil Twin changed them.

Evil Twin then turned his attention to the sycamore tree and caused its fruit to become small and of no use. He changed the sugar-maple tree's syrup to a sweet water. And from that day to this, these trees have remained just as Evil Twin changed them.

It came to pass that one night not long thereafter, Earth Woman appeared to Good Twin in a dream. "Beware of your evil brother my son!" she exclaimed. "He will try to kill you by any means. So, meet his treachery with your own!" And with these words, she disappeared.

The next morning, Evil Twin said to his brother, "It is clear that we will never be able to get along! I am furious with you for changing my creations, and you are furious with me for changing yours. So I suggest that we fight each other for the control of Great Island. Do you agree?"

"I agree to the idea of a contest, and I agree to the prize," Good Twin replied, "but I would like to avoid violence. We should just have a race."

"I agree to that," Evil Twin replied, "but I insist that the victor will then have the right to do whatever he wishes to the loser! And you may as well know that if I win--and, of course, I will win--I will take the wind of life from you!"

"So tell me," Evil Twin concluded, "what is it that can hurt you? If you will confide in me, I will confide in you!"

"I fear the wild rose," Good Twin revealed.

"And I fear Buck's horns," Evil Twin confessed.

So it came to pass that once the twins had chosen their racing path, Evil Twin collected large quantities of the wild rose bush from their grandmother, the goddess Atahensic, who had created it. He placed its branches on the trees that grew along Good Twin's side of the path, and he scattered its flowers on the path itself. Meanwhile, Good Twin wandered through the forest collecting many of Buck's horns, which he then scattered upon Evil Twin's side of the path.

Just as the sun began its morning journey, the twins began their race. Evil Twin, who was always determined to be the first in everything, was so certain that he could outrun his brother that he permitted Good Twin to start first.

Evil Twin chased Good Twin all that day, tearing up mountains and trees like a great whirlwind as he raced after him. However, whenever Good Twin became tired, he would snatch some of the wild rose and eat it, thereby recovering his energy. Evil Twin found no such respite from his own fatigue because Buck's horns were constant thorns in his feet. Therefore, Evil Twin could not catch up to his brother that day. And no matter how Evil Twin pleaded, Good Twin would not stop and permit him to rest.

The sun began its journey on the second day when Good Twin became the first to reach the finish line. By this time, Evil Twin felt defeated by exhaustion as well as by the constant thrust of Buck's horns. He pleaded with Good Twin to let him stop where he was and rest, but Good Twin had the right of the victor to insist that his brother finish the race. Finally, Evil Twin dragged himself to the end of the path and collapsed at Good Twin's feet.

"Don't kill me, Brother!" he pleaded.

"But, according to our agreement, that is exactly what I must do!" Good Twin exclaimed. "The idea of the contest was yours. The idea of the prize was yours. And, despite my objections, the idea of violence was yours. As the winner, I must treat you as you would have treated me if you had won!" And with these words, Good Twin picked up a branch of Buck's horns and beat his brother until the last wind of life had escaped from his body.

That night, the soul of Evil Twin came to Good Twin and said, "I would like to join you in our lodge."

"That I cannot permit you to do," Good Twin replied.

"Then, I bid you farewell, for you will never see me again!" Evil Twin exclaimed. "I shall travel far to the northwest, to the Land of the Great Silence, and there I shall wait for all among the Eagwehoewe people who die to join me. Know that, from this time forth and forever, it is I who will have power over the soul once the last wind of life leaves the body. The souls of the dead will leave Great Island and will live in my land forever." And with these words, Evil Twin left on his journey and became Evil Spirit.

Good Twin repaired the damage to the mountains and the trees that their chase had caused. Then he created the Eagwehoewe people, who would inhabit Great Island. From the dirt at his feet, he formed a male and a female figure that resembled himself and his mother. He then bent down and breathed the wind of life into their nostrils, making their souls come alive. Then Good Twin disappeared from Great Island.

First Man and First Woman loved each other, and from their union the first six pairs of the Eagwehoewe people came forth from the heart of Great Island. They all spoke the Iroquois language, and they became the ancestors of all the Eagwehoewe people.

The first pair traveled toward where the sun begins its morning journey, and they settled beside a great river. They became the parents of the Mohawk people and the keepers of the eastern door. For two and a half days, the second pair traveled toward where the sun ends its journey, and they settled beside an enormous boulder. They became the parents of the Oneida, the "upright-stone people." The third pair continued to travel toward where the sun ends its journey, and they settled on Mount Onondaga. They became the parents of the Onondaga people and the keepers of the central council fire.

The fourth pair continued to travel toward where the sun ends its journey, and they settled by a long lake from which a mountain rises like a great pipe. They became the parents of the Cayuga, the "long-pipe people." The fifth pair continued to travel toward where the sun ends its journey, and they settled along the western border of the land of the Eagwehoewe people. They became the parents of the Seneca, the "great-hill people," and the keepers of the western door. The last pair traveled toward where the sun begins its morning journey and settled on the shore of Great Water. They became the parents of the Tuscarora people.

In the beginning, the first five families resolved that from that time forth and forever, despite differences in language and in location, they, their children, and their children's children would always understand each other and would remain united. It was they who established the great Iroquois nation. In time, the sixth family joined the Iroquois League.

So it came to pass that the Eagwehoewe people inhabited Great Island just as Good Twin had known they would. And their Confederacy of the Six Nations has brought everlasting renown to their nation.

Although China developed one of the great civilizations of the ancient world, its myths do not extend into its remote past. In large part, this is because the first emperor of China in 213 b.c. ordered all books to be burnt that did not deal with medicine, prophecy, or farming. During the Han Dynasty (206 b.c. - 220 a.d.), the teachings of Confucius were established by imperial decrees as forming the official state religion. In this period many of the old myths that were part of the oral tradition were written down by scholars and preserved. However, it is probable that the scholars revised the stories to reflect many of their own attitudes, beliefs, and values so that the myths transmitted to us are not fully representative of ancient times.

The Pangu myth, the most detailed creation account in China, with its opening image of the cosmic egg, doubtlessly contains ancient elements even though the oldest written version dates back only to the third century a.d. Nonetheless, even the most ancient elements are given emphases reflecting Han Dynasty beliefs and interests. The sophisticated treatment of the cosmic egg in the written version, for example, likely is influenced by Han astronomical theory, according to which Heaven and Earth are shaped like an egg, with the earth being enclosed by the sphere of Heaven just as the yolk of the egg is enclosed by its shell.

Chinese myths also tend to incorporate the idea of Yin and Yang, the complementary masculine and feminine elements which permeate the cosmos. Yang is bright, celestial, active, warm and aggressive, while Yin is dark, earthly, cool, and passive. In many Chinese creation myths, the sun god, representing masculine Yang qualities, marries the moon, a goddess representing feminine Yin qualities. Heaven and Earth, too, represent complementary aspects of the whole.

In the beginning an egg contained the entire universe. Within the egg was one chaotic mass. Heaven and earth were identical, and all was eternally dark, for neither the sun nor the moon existed. From within this dark mass, Pangu, the first being, was formed. Finding himself alive in darkness, encased within an egg, and surrounded by chaos, Pangu decided to bring order into the universe.

First he broke open the world egg. The lighter part (yang) rose and become the heavens, while the heavier part (yin) sank and became the earth. Pangu tried to stand upon the earth, but the heavens pressed heavily upon his head. He realized that no life would ever be able to exist on earth if the heavens were not high in the sky, so he sat down and thought about how to solve this problem. Finally, Pangu decided that the only way living objects and creatures would form and survive upon the earth would be if he held up the sky.

For the next 18,000 years, Pangu worked constantly to keep the heavens from crushing the surface of the earth. He ate only the mists that blew into his mouth. He never slept. At first he could only rest on his knees with his elbows bent, as, summoning all of his great strength, he pushed his hands upward against the sky. Then the time came when he could rise to his feet with his elbows bent as he pushed his hands upward against the sky. At last Pangu could stand at his full height and stretch his arms upward to their full length as he pushed his hands upward against the sky.

Day after day and night after night, month after month and year after year, Pangu stood as firmly as a rock column and continuously pushed the heavens upward with his hands. Little by little, the sky rose higher and higher above the erth, moving an additional ten feet each day. The higher the heavens rose, the taller Pangu became.

Finally the heavens rested high above the earth, and Pangu realized that he was very, very tired. He looked up at the sky above his hands and then he looked far, far down to the earth beneath his feet. He felt certain that the distance between heaven and earth was so great that he could lie down and rest without fearing that the sky would collapse and crush the earth.

So Pangu lay down and fell asleep. He died in his sleep, and his body gave shape and substance to the universe.

Pangu's hear formed the mountain of the East while his feet formed the mountain of the West. His torso formed the mountain of the Center, his left arm the mountain of the South, and his right arm the mountain of the North. These five sacred mountains defined the

four corners of the square earth and its center. Each stood firmly upon the earth like a giant stone column and did its part to hold up the heavens.

The hair on Pangu's head and his eyebrows formed the planets and the stars. His left eye formed the sun and his right eye the moon. His flesh formed the soil of the earth and his blood the oceans and rivers. His teeth and his bones formed rocks, minerals, and gems. His breath formed the clouds and the wind, while his voice became lightning and thunder. His perspiration formed rain and the dew. The hair on his body formed trees, plants, and flowers, while parasites living on his skin became animals and fish.

The Mother Goddess Nugua created the first people. She herself was formed like a human being, except that instead of legs she had the tail of a dragon. Nugua glided over the earth, admiring the beautiful forms that had emerged from Pangu's body. She loved the trees, plants, and flowers, but she was particularly fascinated by the animals and fish, for they were more active, living creatures. After studying them for a while, however, Nugua decided that creation was not yet complete. Animals and fish simply were not intelligent enough to satisfy her. She would create creatures who would be superior to all other living things.

As Nugua glided along the Yellow River, she decided to use the substanace of this riverbed to form human beings. Sitting down along the shore of the river, she took handfuls of wet clay from the riverbed and formed them into little people. She made them look almost like her, except that instead of dragon tails, she gave them two legs to match their two arms. Once they were prepared to walk, Nugua breathed life into them. Some she impregnated with yang, the masculine, aggressive principle in nature, and they became men. Others she impregnated with yin, the female, submissive principle in nature, and they became women.

After a while, Nugua became tired of fashioning people one at a time, so she thought of a faster way. She placed a rope in the wet clay of the riverbed and rolled it around until the upper end of it was completely covered. Then she picked up the rope and shook it over the shore. Each drop of mud that fell off became a human being. The two methods did not create exactly the same kind of people, however. The ones Nugua had made by hand were richer and more intelligent than those who had fallen in drops from her rope.

Some time thereafter, when all of Nugua's children had built homes and had settled into villages and farms in order to provide for their daily needs, the monster Gong-gong became very angry. He rammed his head into one of the mountains that supported the sky. The mountain came tumbling to the ground, tearing a great hole in the part of the heavens it had supported and causing the earth to crack open in many places. Flames blazed from some of the crevasses, burning homes and crops. Rivers overflowed their banks and torrents of underground water gushed from other fissures, flooding the land and creating a vast ocean where once there had been villages and farms.

The Great Goddess watched in horror as hundreds of human beings starved to death or drowned. She knew that she had to act quickly if she hoped to save any of the children she had created. First she set fire to the reeds that grew beside the river and stuffed their ashes into the burning cracks in the earth to smother the flames. Then she forced the floods to seep into the earth and to flow in controlled river channels by piling up more of the reed ashes as dikes.

Once human beings could return to their farms and villages and resume their daily occupations, Nugua glided over to the Yellow River and chose a number of stones in five different colors. She melted them in a forge and covered the hole in the heavens with them. Then she removed the four legs from a giant tortoise and used one at each corner of the earth as an additional pillar to support the sky. In this way, the Mother Goddess repaired the devastation that Gong-gong had so thoughtlessly created.

But Nugua knew of now way to raise the northeast corner of the earth on which the fifth pillar had fallen. To this day that land is lower than the rest of China, and rivers flow eastward across that low land into the sea.