The Embattled: Horses are Saddled.

by

Glenn Allen Nolen

	

Copyright © 2003 by Glenn Allen Nolen
All Rights Reserved

	Dedication

To every man and woman in the military,
Your profession gets hairy.
Trained killing is scary.
May your family never have to bury?

i

						Contents

Chapter I                                                                                         1
Chapter II                                                                                      11
Chapter III                                                                                    18 
Chapter IV                                                                                    29
Epilogue                                                                                         33
Bibliography                                                                                  34
Appendix A - Conflict of Ancient Civilization                           36
Appendix B - Notable Conflict of History                                  63
Appendix C - United Nations Peacekeeping Operations           82
Appendix D - United Nations Charter                                         85 
Appendix E - American War Library Casualties List              144
Appendix F - Ireland's History & Battles                                  147 

ii

	Chapter I

The cavalry rode into range
Aligned two by two.
An order was given to change.
A line formed a new.

Swiftly moving to the left,
They stood tall in the saddle.
A soldier could never have had more heft
Before entering a battle.

With bayonets drawn,
The horse soldiers loomed.
An hour after dawn,
The first cannon boomed.

Their battle-tested leader
Yelled for the bugler to sound something for Saint Peter.
They galloped at speed.
It was time to bleed.

Brave men held their ground 
On a rain soaked barren field.
Fear could not be found.
No one raised a shield.

The cavalry simply bounded.
Not one-foot soldier ran.
Their generals were astounded.
As they stood together to the man,

That army managed to hold steady
Concealing their fear.
Every soldier must have been ready.
No one did veer.

It was the Kings pride
Beckoning that battlefield ride.
Why do people have to die
When nations vehemently vie?

1

Is war a permanent fixture?
Do nations have that right?
They can undermine our international societal mixture.
Our destiny should traverse a new height!

Or is war ingrained?
It is something we frame.
Aren't we about drained?
Call it our institution of shame.

Generations of people have been outraged
Protesting against nations that can’t behave.
Those aggressive tendencies must be caged
Or civilized society will be stranded at the grave.

Testosterone is the primary reason men shave.
Aggression is something we can learn to stave.
It's time to take a stand.
After all, we are part of the same homogeneous band.

War, more and more, is predominantly staged.
Take it off the societal front page.
Our previous history has already been gauged.
Do we really want to be judged by the wars we wage?

War is something that should never be sought.
Our international society clamors for restraint. 
Does anyone really believe war should be taught?
Personally, I don't have that urge to paint.

Ancient civilizations pioneered military service induction.
Were they a little deranged?
Knowledge eliminates the need for death and destruction.  
On the evolutionary scale, we have changed.

It is "our attitudes toward war"
That has kept us fighting in more. 1

1. Gwynne Dyer, War (New York: Crown Publishers, 1985), 3.

2

That particular state of mind
Must some how unravel and unwind.

For ten thousand years,
Soldiers have killed and died
Facing their battlefield peers.
Families on both sides cried.

Historically, society has used its ability for thought
To produce advanced weapon technology,
How hard a soldier has fought
Has been our societal chronology.

Ancient civilizations could not end their struggle.
We, on the other hand, have the means in place 
For each nation to snuggle;
The United Nations must keep pace.

We cannot let ancient hate
Be our everlasting fate.
We can absolutely overcome
The war fervor hum,

Pre-civilized cultures killed.
Historically, that is a given.
For the most part, it was self-willed
And not city or state driven.

People then huddled together for warmth and protection
Building the first structures of a village.
That first assemblage and collection,
With out a doubt, resulted in pillage.

Someone piled the first stone
Resulting in a protective wall.
I can hear their voices moan
Attempting to make it tall.

Others didn't have enough gall
And watched the village fall.
The village was soon overrun.
Leading, eventually, to the development of a gun.

3

The implementation of killing tools
Was almost certainly cause and effect. 
The effort used in staving off fools
Has been our only means to connect.

With each invasion or mere threat,
We built up our defenses.
The way we manage to fret
Has dulled our extremely good senses.

The ancient Greeks and Persians
Fought many battles in war.
They had time-honored excursions,
But what are we following their example for?

We build weapons to defeat any door. 
They decided to prodigiously bore
Into "the accumulated silver reserves of the state"
In an attempt to protect the Athenian gate. 2 

Modern war and or its battles,
Therefore, have an ancient financial frame.
We, simply, no longer use paddles
In order to kill or maim,

Armies still cross-expansive ponds.
Ten thousand years of travel
Have been paid for from bonds.
Must we continue pounding that gravel?

Is another alternative the way?
Historical records do indicate
That it's the only game we really know how to play.
Psychologically, everyone can relate.

Man's earliest written recorded date
Exhibited a propensity for war and hate.

2. Ibid, 40.

4

Five thousand years of history,
Warfare is certainly no mystery.

Pre-civilized hunter-gatherer bands
Subsisted with occasional conflict.
Basically, their killing hands
Had not yet forthrightly clicked.
						  
They instinctively and justifiably linked
Forming a unique cross section of tribal land.
That's how pre-civilized man kinked
And evolved his way into our modern quicksand.

At first, tribal warfare was limited and ritual bound.
Exacting a death wasn't a need.
Efficient killing hadn't been found.
Soon, however, people would bleed.

The advent of villages and towns
Is our modern thorn of crowns.
As a matter of fact it was power and control 
That forced man into a deep historical hole.

8,000-7,000 B.C., The first army appeared.
That "first truly large-scale slaughter of people"
Must have really seemed weird. 3  
Perhaps, survivors constructed a large steeple.

The discipline of thousands of men
Forced leaders to use a "different psychology." 4 
Their teaching was of sin
Relying on efficient killing biology.

Consequently, the warrior ethic has been difficult to destroy.
Man fights for honor and glory.
It's truly a time-tested ploy
And it is an endlessly repeating story.

3. Ibid, 11.
4. Ibid, 12.

5

The battle and siege of Troy 
Was bathed in a glorious joy.
For ever after, the spilling of blood
Has kept society bogged down in the mud.

By 7,000 B.C., The town of Jericho
Had been solidly built and fortified.
Perhaps, two thousand people or so
Were not fearful or mortified.

To the contrary, living two hundred per acre
With walls "twelve feet high and six and a half feet thick"
Gave security to the village baker,
And the candlestick maker had time to finish his wick. 5

"Flanked by a circular stone tower
And encircled by a deep ditch"
Allowed the inhabitants a sense of power
Putting a get along in their enemy’s hitch. 6

"They had wealth worth defending," 7
But their fate was pending.
Enemy troops would be descending
On that barrier and noisily rending,

Building a stable faction,
For empowerment and support,
Was a reasonable defensive action.
People must have gotten over at least one worrywart.

Thus the advent of city-states 
Was the prelude to modern nations.
Stone and rock guarded gates
Gave rise to offensive creations.

5. Ibid, 15-16.
6. Ibid, 16.
7. Ibid.

6

"Over the next four thousand years,
... Armies and states ... evolved." 8
People must have cried a lot of tears,
But nothing ever got resolved.

It was a vicious cycle.
No wonder there's an Archangel named Michael.
Historians fly over this period like a bird.
Quite possibly because there is no written word.

Circa 2700 B.C., Defensive works were raised
By rival Mesopotamian cities: Umma and Lagash. 
They fought over water and where animals could be graved.
It wasn't over who had the most cash.

For two centuries (2550-2350 B.C.), War was waged.
Umma then got a dominating stance.
Survivors of Lagash were so enraged.
They began a guerilla war dance.

About that time, "a new phenomenon" emerged.
Leaders developed who were empire builders. 9
In Egypt and Mesopotamia, city-states were purged
Creating obsessive power wielders.

The Egyptians Menes and Narmer
Conquered every small farmer,
And the Sargon of Akkad
Overran Mesopotamia and others without the money for a wad.

Ancient empires are long dead.
However, their pattern of dominance remains.
The quest for power and control continues to be fed
By a wanton need for blood, and it rains.
 
Today, we do have a choice.
Whether to sit idly by,

8. Ibid.
9. Ibid, 21.
7

Without even a whisper in our voice,
Or we can demand to know why.

Four thousand years ago,
Indo-Europeans devastated Europe and Asia Minor.
As a layman, one might say so,
But isn't our destiny finer.

During the last ten thousand years or more,
Man has practiced the art of war.
I sense another one looming.
Here comes the thunderstorm, and it's booming.

My dream for modern homo-sapient man
Has been to negotiate a last war treaty.
Some members of the United Nations think we can.
Others believe we have gotten greedy.

The dream started one dreary day
Getting soaked in a cold European mist.
I told nonbelievers to get out of the way,
Or listen for the Global Union gist.

My one and only true goal
Is a non-violent future.
Regional groups take their toll
Using an all-purpose military suture.

Historically, city-states merged into nations.
Nations developed a series of regional associations.
Logically, we took that to its core.
What else is the mind for?

We seek a one-parliament world ruled
Which is totally democratically weighted.
Governed by people schooled:
Not power driven and dominated.

Global unity’s time has come.
We should all try to agree.
The Global Union beat that drum.
Set our violent history free!

8

It was, remarkably, a hard sell.
Only a few nations listened,
But we kept ringing that bell.
Soon our repertoire glistened.

We developed a small following.
Would the world one-day be pleasurably wallowing?
Can we avoid our violent past?
Would peace and harmony last?

Would Armageddon be repeated?
The King of Kadesh hoped not.
In 1480 B.C., His army was defeated.
Men broke ranks and fled in a trot.

It was "the first detailed account of a battle." 10
Yet, countless thousands must have been fought.
Man is often treated as cattle.
When military force is sought.

"Greek nobles of ... [that] age
Loved war and were devoted to fighting and plundering." 11
How long must we sit in their cage?
Isn't anyone else wondering?

Lessons have not been learned.
Broken and naked bodies are still dragged and burned.
Somalia was a prime example,
But that brutality was only a small sample.

"Armed force dominates." 12
That is our historical perspective.
Man unnecessarily abominates.
It's time to be reflective.

10. Ibid, 22.
11. James Henry Breasted, Conquest of Civilization (New York:
	Harper Brothers, 1954), 277.
12. Dyer, 33.
9

The Global Union put forth the notion
That battle shouldn't determine the course of our lives.
Man has crossed many an ocean.
Couldn't we accomplish more by putting down our knives?

The cavalry supplanted the chariot,
And rifles displaced spears and arrows.
Why shouldn’t we bury it
Placing it along side city-states and pharaohs? 
	
Isn't war a bit outdated?
Intrinsically, we hate it!
Don't let nations create it.
It's worn out and jaded.
   
All people should have a capacity for defense.
The Global Union is not a peace movement, per se.
We desire a new tense,
Thus, we propose another way.

The United Nations has the capability to be our savior.
It only needs a few simple and modest reforms.
Every nation must alter its behavior
And retriangulate its performance norms.

We propose a military trade
Directing nationalism to port.
Nations need not be afraid.
You'll still have the capacity to defend a fort.

Only others will man them,
No one will be left hanging on the rim.
When our brothers fight and die:
A world united will cry.
__________________________________________________________

“Go; tell the Spartans, you who pass by,
That here, obedient to their laws, we lie.” 13
___________________________________________________________

13. Epitaph for Leonidas and the 300 who died holding the 
       Pass at Thermopylae, Simonides 480 B. C; Ibid, 261.	
10

	Chapter II

The first organization to endorse
The Global Union world government principle
Was our sister organization the European Union, of course?
Together, we would make the world invincible.

The United Nations General Assembly took up our cause.
Opposition, we vowed to overcome.
It formed a committee to re-write the laws.
I was one of its illustrious alum.

Our task was to keep war cold.
"Thus arose the conflict, which never ends -
The conflict [was] between the new age and the old.” 14 
Evolution is paramount to survival, 
And it is on what our world depends.
   
At the time of civilizations beginning,
People only knew about sinning. 
War meant a family member or friends death. 
It took away peoples breath.

The Global Union's view of world government can give man a chance.
We can conquer our violent past.
The United States and others* refused to acknowledge the dance.
They wouldn't even be part of the cast.

A General Assembly vote creating a permanent United 
Nations (IMF) International Military Force
Was vetoed by a Security Council divided.
It would lead to the embattled saddling their horse.

14. Breasted, 411.
_______________________________________________________________

*United States, China, Russia, India, Pakistan, Iran, Libya, 
Cuba, Iraq, Syria, Egypt, Israel, Sudan, Somalia, Yemen,  
Haiti, and Saudi Arabia. 
11

Within sixty months, except for the nations already listed,
Most of the worlds military units joined the blue caps.
The tendency was for those other governments to remain fisted.
No one else thought it in their best interest, 
Except them perhaps;

To all others, the honor most rife 
Was being wounded or giving one's life
In defense of another's residence.
The first United Nations Globalization ceremony set precedence.

Thousands of men and women in armed service,
Who had given their loyalty to an individual country, 
Showed no outward signs of being nervous
Taking the oath* of a world gun free.

That day took five long years.
It was an entangled process
Moving slowly through international cogs and gears.
There was no way to simplify the mess.

The United States, China, and Russia constructed a powerful door.
Politically, they were militarily geared
Resisting changing the mode of war.
A bit fearful of altering the way they were reared.

Their power came from military might,
And their leaders most prestigious duty was to send 
Soldiers off to fight.
_________________________________________________________
*Oath of Allegiance - I swear to uphold the Constitution and 
Be obedient to the laws of the Global Union, the United 
Nations General Assembly, and any nation to which my services
May be assigned. I hereby pledge to give my life for the 
Preservation of international peace and security and promise
To adhere to any lawful command and abide by United Nations 
General Assembly regulations and protocols on discipline and
Moral character, and I pledge to observe all ethnic, social,
Religious or political differences among the population of 
This here united Global Union.  

12

Their opposition to a New World order just wasn't right.
The United Nations General Assembly rose to a new height.

By more than a two-thirds majority
Another resolution of the UNGA passed
Dissolving all Security Council authority
And establishing the Global Union, whose function was vast.

The Organization was thrown into turmoil.
When the Security Council refused to disintegrate. 
Waves began to ripple and boil.
Internationally, we had set an end to World War date.

"Never has it been more dramatically staged
Than as we find it here in the daily growing friction
Between" those nations boxed and caged
Believing they were reading fiction. 15

We called it a New World order,
But every nation would still have its own border.
That started the War for Global Unification.
Non-member states refused all efforts at adjudication.

The non-members major sticking point
Was their desire to hold on to military power.
It is with that people anoint
Themselves king of the tower,

It was a matter we tried hard to resolve,
But all our efforts came to no avail.
If governments stagnate and do not evolve,
Then as citizens, we all fail.

Thus, things came to a head. 
Violence started traveling around.
The President of the United States of America said:
"A substitute for his authority could never be found."

15. Ibid.

13

All this happened and occurred,
When Cuban residents demanded to be heard.
They protested for the right to join
Hoping it would end their poverty and bring them more coin.

A dozen or more protesters for the GU had been killed.
Many more received stab wounds and beatings.
Taking notice of the events was the American guild.
Miami held fundraiser meetings.

Cuban exiles began smuggling in arms.
Ammunition poured in from those meager donations.
It only put their Cuban relatives in the path of further harms
And did nothing to solve the plight of their brethren Haitians.     

Who were also demanding to be one.
They desired economic equality with their fellow earthlings.
Each group fought hard against their national military gun.
They brought the GU's telephone its birth rings.

The Mayor of Miami and several area U.S. Congressmen asked
The GU to get involved with their task  
Of protecting their relatives, citizens, and neighbors
Struggling for a permanent end to non-benefits for their labors.

The United States was opposed to any such action
Grounded in the belief that their struggle was economically based.
Therefore, the U. S. and the GU were an opposing faction.
Economic parity was an issue the GU embraced.

No longer could it strictly be a Caribbean debate.
South Florida officials requested the GU step in
Putting them at odds with the principle of an American gate.
GU forces comprised of some 10,000 women and men

Were soon to be re-deployed from their previous spot.
Most had already been reassigned to protect a new homeland.
Not many had ever been to a place so hot,
But they swore an oath to lend a helping hand.

14

The first blue helmets deployed to the sugar canes
Mysteriously disappeared in their planes.
Remarkably close to a U. S. vessel smaller than a cruiser.
Peace is a casualty of war. And soldiers are the first to lose her.

Their disappearance was undoubtedly strange,
And tension between the U. S. and the GU was even more strained. 
Years ago, that Bermuda Triangle range
Quite possibly should have been drained.

Nevertheless, it was viewed as a deliberate act.
American demonstrators took to the streets.
South Floridians considered it fact.
It wasn't Halloween, and they weren't accepting sweets.

A U. S. military installation was ransacked.
The Florida Governor failed to call for the National Guard.
He and his constituents were damn jacked
And frustrated that the U. S. position was so cold and hard.

The President of the United States was about to be duped.
A federalized National Guard unit trooped
Doing the stockade shuffle to the Global Union side.
For the most part, the violence in South Florida died.

Persuaded by the politicians of that region
Not to fire on demonstrators and defect.
It became the GU's only American Legion.
As far as the United States government could detect.

In support of their Cuban and Haitian GU brothers,
Recruitment began on American soil.
Soon there would be plenty of others
Swearing the oath to the GU to be loyal.

Reacting badly to the news,
The President of the United States over reacted         
Recalling municipal bonds and state dues.
They were never to be extracted.

15

Future U. S. deployments only exacerbated the cause.
Their intend was to develop a pause
In what was described as statewide treason.
To most South Floridians, the GU offered a better reason.    

As GU reinforcements started to arrive
Deploying at the request of Southern Florida politicians.
The U. S. Air Force was ordered to dive
Giving business to all the morticians.

Solemnly, worldwide civil war developed
Between those embracing a new way
And people who were still enveloped
Draped in a nationality past its day.

Every Global Union non-member state
Had a civilian uprising to quell.
The Global Union met its obligation and set the date
Answering each and every bell.

It gave aid to every non-citizen
Fighting for their right to become a GU denizen.
With a bit of luck, skill, and tenacity;
People would be able to evolve to capacity.

I enlisted into GU service.
We were past diplomatic concerns.
Becoming Lieutenant Colonel Allen Gervase
Was a series of totally unexpected right turns.

I was ordered to the Middle East
And bussed somewhere west of Tel Aviv.
At first glance, my commanding officer was such a beast.
That I thought about a way to leave.   

He was obviously a fighting man
Schooled in the intricacies of gore.
A General from Afghanistan,
He helped win the terrorist war.

Here I am the son of a diplomat,
Who was taught not to spat,

16

Involved in the fight for the next millennium.
Lord! Please make it a short compendium.

Luckily, I was only the General's aide.  
There sure was a great deal to learn.
A lot of organizational skill goes in to mounting a raid.
If it's done wrong people and cities burn,

Over the next year, General Omar taught me well.
I was about to act upon what I had studied.
The battle, at last, had become mine to tell.
"This is no time for your mind to be muddied"

Were his last words of advice.
Before my men and I climbed on our steed.
Strangely, my nerves were like ice.
A month, we trained for the deed.

Our primary object of attack
Was Damascus and straight back.
We blew our enemy out of the water.
Killing is as easy as cutting down fodder.

It was a remarkably easy to lead
Fighting with the right men, equipment, and training;
It was a soldier’s time to bleed.
On my next mission bullets were raining.

Consequently, Corporal Damian Hans
Was my first battlefield mistake.
He would never again see the beautiful dawns.
Writing that letter made my heart ache.

It's easy to fight and win glory.
Diplomats have the hard job.
Their efforts can write a new story.
A grenade anyone can lob.

Before I resigned my commission.
General Omar's promotion submission
Came through making me a full bird.
It was time for peace again to be a word.   

17

	Chapter III

With General Omar's help, I commandeered a plane.
There really was no plan.
I would be winging it in the rain.
My first thought was to get to Saipan.

An American ex-diplomat I knew there
Would at least not be hissing.
She was one person woefully aware
That war leaves people with something missing.

Evelyn Russell’s grandmother had been orphaned at an early age.
Her Asian family had been blown apart by a man knighted Sir
Catching them up in some other nations rage.
Eventually, an American with a Purple Heart adopted her.

My plane, however, was forced down  
Crossing somewhere beyond the coast of Asia-New.
For some reason, I got a severe case of deja vu.
Had I been in some long forgotten battle?
Had I been knocked out of the saddle?

My pilot said over his radio that I should prepare to ditch.
He didn't liken the emergency to eject,
But he couldn't maneuver, roll or pitch.
On impact, we didn't have time to reflect.

The last thing I remember was flipping
And tumbling into the water nose over fin.
He tried to land like a rock skipping.
We weren't as graceful as we should have been.

I must have gotten knocked out.
There's no telling how long I floated.
Coming to, I felt that I had fought a fifteen round bout.
Only the life preserver made me look bloated.

I didn't see the plane or Lieutenant anywhere.
It gave me quite a scare.
That kind of loneliness would make some people panic,
But my year with General Omar had turned me into a clinical mechanic.
18

Precisely, like the aviator who shot us down.
Air combat is relatively clean.
An aviator doesn't need to wear a facial frown.
Hitting a target isn't dirty or mean.

Modernization has taken war
Shooting it to a faster and higher level.
Soldiers are hardly ever face-to-face anymore.
You just don't see the eyes of the devil.

Targeting and firing is all computer controlled.
Rarely ever does a soldier get to see the prize
That he or she is fighting to scold.
Politicians and Generals have participated in the demise.

It's all kill or be killed
From a greater distance than should be willed.
War has become the push of a button.
It has definitely gotten away from systematic cuttin'.

Hand to hand brutality is gone.
The notorious Genghis Khan,
Described as the worst barbarian of all,
"Butchered forty million" Chinese to make room for animal fall.16

Hitler sent millions to a clean chamber of gas.
Historically, we have gotten better 
At killing people in quantities of mass,
Their blood isn't running any redder.

In fact, for the most part it’s hardly ever seen.
We have turned the brutality of war into a science.
Armies can recruit even the dumbest teen
And teach them to operate an appliance.

Today's modern soldier may be easily disgusted or shocked
At how the Roman's knocked.

16. Dyer, 46.

19

Thrusting ones sword was a more efficient method of killing over the slash.
It left the enemy with a lethal gash.

From a wound like that blood pours forth.
Many soldiers have gotten repulsed at that sight.
It has caused countless millions of deserters to travel north
Fleeing into the darkness of night.

To counteract that human response,
The military has advanced weaponry and methods of training 
Alleviating a sleep full of haunts,
But soldiers are still complaining.

Whether one attacks with a sword
Or a precision guided strike.
Killing stretches the human cord.
It really isn't something most people like.
  
The younger a recruit
The easier they are to boot.
Some fit like a glove,
But others yearn for the meaning of love.

Turnover is continually recurring
Devastating national military ranks.
At the GU, a new dawn is stirring.
Soldiers have taken that to their banks.

No longer will a soldiers death
Be fruitless, without effect or in vain.
They know that with every breath.
We get a step closer to the Global Union train.

Their willingness to die
For the globalization cause
Has not gone unnoticed as we vie
Preparing to unite the world's laws.

This time one gets a different sense.
It's not one of innocence.
Countless millions have died in the past.
Our fight is to make this New World order last.

20

I searched the horizon of the South China Sea.
Floating along with the waves 
Made me as unfamiliar as one could be.
I took comfort from the graves

Of dead and drowning men;
I spotted a shark, 
And it put some life back in me then.
Getting rid of that life preserver, I played dead until dark.

Luckily, I could still swim.
That fright had given me a spark.
I used my one good limb
And swam for a mark.

I must have done that for days.
My mind was in a haze.
I went back to classical times.
I heard their wind chimes

Becoming a Carthaginian off the North Africa coast
Getting routed by a Roman galley
Boasting a fleet of 330, at most.
I had been marked in the lost tally

And taken by the tide.
Wounded, I suffered gravely
Bouncing on that intrepid ride.
Being sloshed back and forth, I bravely

Took matters in hand
Ending up on an unfamiliar shore
Living the rest of that life in a foreign land.
It might have been a delusion, but it opened a door.

I kept my body moving.
It was slow motion grooving
Beaching myself upon a rock
Surviving on the eggs from a bird flock.

I gained strength and managed to start a fire. 
If not for diligency

21

My fate would have been dire.
Survival takes a forceful and resolute act of militancy.		

It accounts for our combative, war like and aggressive behavior.
I must have sat there for weeks
Hoping for someone to be my savior.
A boat appeared and I kissed those people on their cheeks.

They gave me back my sanity
Taking time to recover.
I had had no need for vanity,
But once Evelyn had been my lover.

So before that message, I did send.
I took the time to mend.
Upon reaching Saipan,
I was again a handsome man.

Evelyn Beth was still a heavenly vision.
She was as beautiful as the day we parted.
Going our separate ways was not my decision,
But I thought we both had left broken hearted. 
          
Seeing her on that dock
Brought back memories of which we talked
Sitting on some old memorialized rock.    
Arm in arm then hand in hand, we walked.

The bright turquoise sky of day
Changed to a red flaming sunset of night.
Love had come back to stay.
It felt so right.

We went to the Garapan Market Festival on Hotel Street.
It was Thursday the fifteenth of June, and I was off my feet
Flying high above the “sandy beaches and mountainous terrain.” 17
She made me forget all about war and pain.

17. www.cnmi-guide.com/history/japanese

22

In the mid 1930s, her family had moved to Saipan.
They were part of the Japanese sugar industry that “occupied
68 percent of the arable land.” 18
That industry efficiently ran.
Then Allied guns were manned.

War changes everything!
People and places get transformed.
National Anthems proudly sing.
And the dead are mourned.

The next few weeks were bliss
Touring the tropical island chain.
All I could think about was her kiss.
I did not want this time alone with her to wane.

Sooner or later, reality always sets back in.
The deaths were estimated at between three to four million women, children, and men.
Someone ordered a new kind of attack.
Evelyn Beth and I hurriedly stuffed clothes in a pack.

On the way to the United States we strategized
And planned our diplomatic campaign.
God! The way she looked at me with those beautiful eyes
Rushing to catch a train.

Worldwide, flights were cancelled and ships held in port.
American policy was to become even more isolated.
We had to get them to abort.
We openly questioned their wisdom. Why be so dated?

Now was not the time to turn back the clock.
Increasingly, people needed to unite.
The United States determined it was in their best interest to stem the tide of the growing new flock
In a desperate attempt to hold on to past. They decided to fight.

18. Ibid.

23

Our first obstacle was even getting to the States.
They closed their borders and harbors tighter than most gates.
Luckily, Evelyn Beth finally got through to old State Department friends.
They made some arrangements and got us around all the curves and bends.

As we stepped on to American soil,
The San Francisco police and F. B. I. arrived.
We found out her old State Department buddies were not loyal.
Hurriedly, on to the escalator we dived.

Our escape attempt came to no avail.
All exits were blocked.
We were arrested at the end of that escalators trail.
Quite a few bystanders just stood and gawked.

Amazingly, the Americans domestic flights were crammed full.
People and commerce seem to adjust.
In war or peace, there is always a market for wool.
Shelved products didn’t see any settling dust.

Hoarding had become a major internal political debate.
Really, what else can people do when they give in to hate.
I was given a quick deportation date.
Evelyn Beth simply sat in jail to wait.

She was charged with treason.
I didn’t understand how that could be.
Had the Americans lost their ability to reason?
I just hoped the whole country hadn’t been blinded by fear or lost their ability to see.

Americans weren’t getting the whole picture.
The American media had to follow a strict government isolationist rule.
Freedom of speech was no longer an American societal fixture.
How could the entire nation have become as stubborn as a mule?

They’re struggling to hold onto a past that was cruel.
Their form of government is dead.

24

It couldn’t eliminate worldwide poverty or send every child to school.
I say put it to bed

And give our movement a chance.
Let us try and improve the impoverished circumstance.
Our mission is to eliminate tyrants. So get out of the way you fools.
We are trying to give every one the same economic, political, and social opportunity. Help us manufacture a few billion stools! 

I told anyone who would listen,
But most Americans’ ears were blocked.
They all thought that I had a screw missin’.
No wonder Evelyn Beth’s chains were locked.

My northbound transportation was an old prison bus.
One guard was sympathetic.
His name was Gus.
The other two called me pathetic.

And the younger of the two spat on me.
Looking for an avenue of escape,
I came to the conclusion that I was trapped like a cat in a tree.
I worried about Evelyn Beth and the prospect of rape.

Nonetheless, my obligation after reaching the northern U. S. Border
Was to further establish the Global Union order.
I tried not to dwell on Evelyn Beth,
Or think about her classified sentence of death.     
  
I had a duty. 
It was to uphold a diplomatic code.
Evelyn Beth certainly was a beauty.
I felt lower than a horned frogs toad.

It was I, who got her into this mess,
There was no apparent way out.
Dreaming of her caress,
Quickly, I came about.

25

Time could not be wasted.
Lives were at stake.
Millions faced it,
Not only Evelyn Beth for heaven sake.

Calling every diplomat I knew proved to be futile.
And it took a long while.
Fresh out of an idea,
I rented a little Kia.

I don’t remember having a plan.
Driving east twelve hours got me tired. 
And I slept in that mini-van.   
Restless, I woke up wired

Deciding to make a dash back to the States.
Shockingly, I made it finding a gap through the lions’ paws.
Ramming only through two gates,
Perhaps, it was a heavenly cause.

An unpaved road north of Malta, Montana
Gave me a second chance.
All I had left was a yellow bandanna.
That car failed to make it to the dance.

Spending the night in Theodore Roosevelt National Park 
Gave me a spark.
Like the Roughriders,
I had to recruit me some fighters.

I got lucky
In the town of Belfield
Meeting a guy named Bucky.
His surname was Wield.

He listened contently as I explained.
How political globalization was the way to win the game.
Americans, he said, have been trained
To believe in nationalization, but that’s a shame.

He and his friends refused to take part in that philosophy:
Saying: “The men of the militia of Southwest Dakota

26

Yearn to break free.”         
In the time it took to open a soda,

Bucky had men moving from Dickinson, Bowman, Glen Ullin, Mandan, Hettinger to Bismarck,
But I thought it best to wait until dark.
All total, we numbered twenty-two.
I told them we would be fighting for Evelyn Beth and you.

Our first mission would be to infiltrate a military base.
As luck would have it these men knew Airmen in the USAF Space Command.
Their friendship got us close enough to use mace.
With that, we gained the upper hand.

A few of those men joined our cause.
Most of the rest were escorted to a makeshift brig
Refusing to abandon America’s outdated laws.
For the most part, it was a non-violent gig.

We used their satellite and telecommunications equipment to broadcast an impassioned plea
Asking every citizen of our world to put an end to the violence
And demand that their governments let them be.
The President of the United States remarked with silence.

Many other world leaders and citizens alike called for a vote.
In the editorial pages it was all they wrote.
The debate didn’t go far.
Worldwide, tanks were ordered out to run over people in their car.
  
Our group of Global Union fighters thought it best to be on the move.
We were rapidly growing.
America wasn’t in a groove. 
An enormous amount of blood was still flowing.

We got word that a military unit in Texas would join our ranks.
So we headed south that day.
The Global Union owes General Mark Olsen more than thanks.
He saved our bacon ordering his pilots to escort us every inch of the way.     

27

We numbered 2030,
Before we made that trip.
War is a business that’s dirty.
Generals Omar and Olsen were the finest men who never learned to sip.

Apparently, they knew each other and made a pact.
They would treat the opposition as a brother diminishing the war, in fact.
Those two men would one day be called the Union’s founding Father. 
Only we still had nationalism with which to bother.

Still, I was desperate for a sensible diplomatic approach.
Evelyn Beth was the key.
Somehow, we had to make her the coach.
She could make people see.

Soldiers or civilians could not yet sleep peacefully in the sack.
Worldwide, national governments were still in tact.
Luckily, the rhetoric had been dialed back.
And Evelyn Beth had not yet been whacked.

Generals Omar and Olsen gave us diplomats some room.
I was determined for it not to be wasted.
Otherwise, the world was in for more doom.
And I along with countless billions did not want to taste it.

How then do you take advantage of a relatively peaceful lull in the action.
I did it in traction.
God or I didn’t help Evelyn Beth.
On the morning of January 3rd, she was put to death.        

28

Chapter IV

A nurse gave me the bad news.
General Olsen’s aide had given her the message over the phone.
Immediately, I started singing the blues.
My caterwauling and wailing was in a monotonous moan.

America had gotten so sad,
Wasting more than one good life,
Trying to hold onto what they had.
American politicians could have helped bring an end to the strife.

Instead, they buried their head in the sand.
It was an asinine attempt to dodge the bullet.
Where the hell was America’s helping hand?
Backward, they decided to pull it.

America executed the one person who might have been able to save the earth.
All we could do now was pray for a miraculous birth.
She was just that persuasive.
Negotiating with her, no one could be evasive.

If only I hadn’t rolled over in that truck
Breaking my back in three places.
I’ve always had rotten luck.
I must not be in someone’s good graces.

Prior to her execution, America’s politicians and the White House had no response
To my telephone calls.
I vowed to give them all haunts
Walking through their corridors and halls.

The next eighteen months were a trial.
Everyone just waited.
The world and myself wobbled every mile.
Tensions, however, never faded.

What would the future bring?
Would people ever again sing?

29

Elections were slated.
No one knew what kind of world order would be created.

We all lived in our own little enclaves.
Texas alone was divided into 834 parts.
Funeral homes prepared for more graves
And families desperately tried to mend broken hearts.

I was in a lot of pain
Accompanied by most people.
Everywhere, someone was out in the rain
Looking for a steeple.    

Nationalism had died,
But what would come next?
For months, the world had no guide.
All our lives seemed hexed.

Europe faired no better.
War made her rivers run redder.
All her people no longer did believe.
The enormous amount of death and destruction made a utopian future impossible to conceive.

As governments collapsed worldwide,
Opportunist took hold
Making my vision slide
Slipping into the depths of the cold.

Millions faced starvation.
The UNGA failed to act fast enough.
Tyrants and thugs carved each nation
Dividing them down to each green and rough.

Feudalism again reigned.
How could we have gone backward?
God, people are now being caned!
Why had my voice ever even been heard?

General Omar and his troops
Managed to control most of their groups.

30

Asia and the Middle East
Were in freedoms hands, at least. 

General Olsen controlled his military base
Extending out to a one hundred mile perimeter.
The rest of Texas was wide-open space.
It and a great deal more of the earth had no judicial limiter. 
            
One afternoon he came to talk,
And I wasn’t in the mood.
Hell, I couldn’t even walk.
So we had a bit of a feud.

I didn’t have an answer 
To his question or any solution.
I blamed myself for this cancer
And had no idea how to clean up the pollution.

America, he said, was in bad shape
Carved up and divided by miles of red tape.
The rest of the northern hemisphere wasn’t quite as bad,
He certainly didn’t exhibit signs of being glad.

He told me of his troop strength
Detailing equipment breakdown and trouble.
It was all interlinked
And could burst with any bubble.

“It is a unique struggle for the right to globally belong.“
He said as he left the room.
“I hope you have enough heart to complete our song.
This is not a time for gloom.” 

I knew he was right.
This was not your average struggle for freedom.
We were on a path of new height.
We had to beat um.

The next morning I tried to be happy,
But my effort was rather sappy. 
I gave it my all,
And I tried not to fall.

31

A nurse helped me to my feet.
My legs were rather weak.
A few baby steps and I was beat.
My prospect for walking looked bleak.

Then about noon I managed to get up again.
The professionals say: The more effort you make
The more you win,
But God did I ache.

After seven more weeks of constant attention,
Unassisted, I walked to the end of the hall.
Later that day, I left without a mention.
My posture made me feel a little small.

I asked for General Olsen’s assistance.
On my part, it took some effort and persistence.
Standing at the foot of Evelyn Beth’s numbered grave,
I couldn’t even manage a good-bye wave.

As I made it back to the car, 
Her voice was as clear as day.
“Make the world go far.
You’ll think of a way.”

But I couldn’t.
She was the world’s only hope.
She made me promise that I wouldn’t
Sit around and mope.

I had pondered on the situation for more than a year
And came up dry.
No politician was willing to listen or give me his or her ear.
So I didn’t even try.

What else can one do?
Back home, I flew.
I waited like everyone else to cast my ballot.
Meanwhile, I stuffed my palate.

32

Epilogue

Utopian societies are a figment of the imagination.
Nevertheless, it is in our best interest to dream.
The Garden of Eden was a God creation, 
But it melted away like ice cream.

So how does the last war end?
You decide.
Public opinion can change the course of the wind,
Or we can all go stick our heads in the sand and hide.

Did we vote to compromise?
Or did we choose to reconcile?
Were we influenced by someone's lies?
We should know in a while.

We have traveled the long way around.
Stop! Listen for the sound.
It's within a mile.
Ten billion faces with a smile.

33
  
Bibliography

Breasted, James Henry. The Conquest of Civilization.

	New York: Harper Brothers Publishers, 1954.

Coe, Michael D. The Maya. London: Thames and Hudson, 1990.

Degenhardt, Henry W. Comp., and Day, Alan J. Gen. Ed.

	Treaties and Alliances of the World. 4Th Ed.

	Detroit: Gale Research Company, 1986.

Dyer, Gwynne. War. New York: Crown Publishers, 1985.

Encyclopedia Americana: International Edition.  

	Danbury, CT: Grolier, 2000. Vols 1-30.

Funk & Wagnalls. Standard Desk Dictionary. New York:

	Lippincott & Crowell, 1980.

Hajnal, Peter I. Guide to United Nations Organization,

	Documentation and Publishing. Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.:

	Oceana Publications, 1978. 

Kahn, George C. Dictionary of Wars. New York: Facts on

	File Publication, 1986.

Keegan, John. A History of Warfare. New York: Alfred A.

	Knopf, 1993.

34

Parker, Geoffrey., Ed. The Cambridge Illustrated History

	of Warfare: The Triumph of the West. Cambridge: 

	Cambridge University Press, 1995.

United Nations. General Assembly and Security Council.

	Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace 

	Operations. A\55\305-S\2000\809. 21 August 2000.

Wetterau, Bruce. The New York Public Library Book of

	Chronologies. New York: Stonesong, 1990.

35

Appendix A

Conflict of Ancient Civilization

Assyria

7500-5000 B.C. - Building of Villages and Settlements

2250 B.C. - Conquered by Sargon of Akkad

19O0 B.C. - Ilushumma Overran Babylonia

1900-1748 B.C. - Settled Regions Overrun by Amorites

1748 B.C. - Shamshi-Adad I Conquered the Entire Region 
		  from the Mediterranean to Elam (Southwestern
		  Iran)

1696 B.C. - Assyria became a Vassal State of Babylon

1308-1276 B.C. - Captured Carchemish; Defeated the
			  Hittites and the Kassites

1116-1078 B.C. - Middle Assyrian Empire Spread Across
			  Syria and Phoenicia into Anatolia
			  Overwhelming Babylon

853 B.C. - Warrior King Shalmaneser III Reigns;
		 Battle of Qarqar on the Orontes

746 B.C - Warrior King Tiglath-Pileser III Campaigns
		Against Chaldaean Tribesmen

743 B.C. - Tiglath-Pileser Fought and Won Battle with
		 Sarduris of Urartu

722-705 B.C. - Warrior King Sargon II Conquers Babylonia,
			Syria, Israel, Carchemish and Tyre, Egypt

36

586 B.C. - Jerusalem Destroyed

539 B.C. - Babylon Captured by Persian Empire

Aztecs

1300 - Invaded the Valley of Mexico; Later Defeated at
	  Chupultepec

1325 - Founded Tenochtitlan

1428 - Storming of Azcapotzalco

1431 - Nezahualcoyotl Enthroned at Texcoco

1473 - Axayacatl (King of Tenochtitlan) Stormed 
	  Tlatelolco

1519 - Spanish (Cortes) Arrived

1521 - Aztecs Make Their Last Resistance in 
	  Tlatelolco

Babylon

C3000 B.C. - Babylon Founded

2360 B.C. - Babylonia Conquered by Sargon The Great
		  (The First Semitic Empire)

2180 B.C. - Invasion of Gutians from the Zagros Mountains

37

1900 B.C. - Mesopotamian States Came Under Amorite 
		  Influence

1531 B.C. - Babylon Sacked by Hittite Army; Invasion
		  of Kassites 

1150 B.C.- Nebuchadnezzar I Defeated Elam

1000 B.C. - Assyria Controlled Babylonia

689 B.C. - Babylon Destroyed by Strife with Assyria

648 B.C. - Civil War Destroyed Babylon

605 B.C. - Victory at Carchemish by Nebuchadnezzar II

587 B.C. - Nebuchadnezzar II Destroyed Judah and 
		 Jerusalem

539 B.C. - Babylon Fell to Cyrus The Great

514 B.C. - Babylon'S Walls Destroyed in Final Revolt
		 Against Darius The Great

China

C3000 B.C. - Lung-Shan Culture Builds Defensive Walls

1523 B.C. - The T'Ang Overthrow the Hsia Dynasty

1523-1028 B.C. - Frequent Warfare in the Shang 
		       Dynasty

1027 B.C. - The Chou Defeated their Overlord becoming a
		  Dominant Power in Northern China

38

771 B.C. - Chou Dynasty Defeated by Barbarians (Outsiders)
		 Allied with a Vassal and were forced to move 
		 Capital Eastward

C500 B.C. - Warring States (Ch'In, Ch'U, Ch'I)

256 B.C. - Ch'In Defeated the Chou

230-222 B.C. - Ch'In Defeated the Ch'U, Ch'I, and
			other remaining Rivals

221-206 B.C. - Ch'In Dynasty Linked Up Earlier Walls, 
			Built by Individual States, into the 
			Great Wall

			Drove the Hsiungnu beyond the Great Wall

			Brought Imperial Control to Fukien, Kwang
			Tung, and Kwangsi

206 B.C. - Ch'In Ruling House Destroyed by its Subjects

206-203 B.C. - Battle for Power between Hsiang Yu and 
			Liu Pang

202 B.C. - Triumph of Liu Pang and the Han Dynasty

154 B.C. - Seven Imperial Princes Rebel and are Defeated
		 by the Han Dynasty

52 B.C. - Northern Border Tribes submit to Chinese 
		Domination after a Series of Long and Bitter
		Campaigns

52 B.C.-10 - Han Expansion through Military Campaigns

9 - Revolts against Wang Mang Begin

23 - Anarchy Resulted in the Assassination of Wang Mang

39

25 - Peasant and Landlord Alliance Restored the Han to 
	the Throne

196 - Ts'Ao Ts'Ao Took Control of the Central Government

220 - Ts'Ao P'Ei Established Wei Dynasty of North China

221 - Shu Dynasty Established in the Szechwan Basin by a 
	 Member of a Remote Branch of the Han with aid from 
	 Chuko Liang and Kuan Yu

222 - Wu Dynasty Established in the Lower Yangtze Valley

280 - Ssu-Ma Yen Brought Unity to China

290 - Civil War

316 - Nomads Invade Overrunning North China

317 - Wu Dynasty Restored at Nanking

383 - Battle of the Fei River in Anhwei (Anhui)

439 - Toba Tartars Restored Peace Throughout North
	 China

446 - Buddhist Persecution

574 - Buddhist Persecution

589 - Sui Dynasty Reunifies all of China 

615 - Eastern Turks Attack Sparking Internal Rebellion

617 - Li Shih-Min (T'Ang T'Ai Tsung) Captured Ch'Ang-An
	 (Sian)

617-626 - Expansion of T'Ang Dynasty

40

627-650 - Chinese Armies Push Deep into Central 
		Asia, Tibet, and Northwestern India

704 - Empress Wu Deposed

751 - Chinese Armies Defeated by Arabs in Turkestan

755 - Revolt by Lu-Shan Sparked an Internal Crisis

841-845 - The Great Buddhist Persecution

947 - The Khitan, an Eastern Branch of the Mongols, Won
	 the Cession of 16 Prefectures Below The Great Wall

960 - A Century of Militarism and Regional Separation
	 Ended by Chao K'Uang-Yin

1069-1085 - Unwise Military Adventures Under
		  Wang An-Shihs

1086-1126 - The Chin Defeated the Sung Armies

1227 - Genghis Khan, Who Forged an Empire from Korea
	  to the Volga and from Siberia to India, Dies

1260-1294 - Kublai Khan Conquers South China

1368 - Widespread Peasant Revolts

1403-1424 - Yung Lo Strikes Deep into Central Asia
		  Sending Maritime Expeditions to the 
		  Persian Gulf and the East Coast of Africa

1644 - Rebellion Allowed the Manchus to Overrun
	  China

1674-1681 - K'Ang Hsi Crushed a Major Revolt of 
		  Chinese Generals

41

1683 - Manchu Forces Gained Control Over Formosa 
	  (Taiwan)

1795 - Western China Rebellion Against Manchu Army

Egypt

3110 B.C. - Menes United Upper and Lower Egypt 

3000 B.C. - Narmer Conquered His Enemies

2568 B.C. - Khufu'S Death and Royal Succession of
		  Redjedef Disorderly

2327-2278 B.C. - Uni (Official Of Pepi I) Led
			  Expeditions Against Nomads in the 
			  Northeast Probably Reaching Mt. Carmel
			  in Palestine

2154-2134 B.C. - Hieraconpolis Fought Against Thebes and
			  Coptos

2134 B.C. - A Family from Thebes Took Control of the 
		  South including This And Abydos

2061 B.C. - Mentuhotep II Defeated Heracleopolitans
		  Attempt to Retake This

2061-2011 B.C. - Mentuhotep II Reunited Egypt and His
			  Armies Campaigned in Sinai, Syria, 
			  Libya, and Nubia (South of Egypt)

1991-1962 B.C. - Amenemhet I Constructed Forts at the
			  Northeastern Frontier and another at 
			  Semma in Nubia

1962 B.C. - Amenemhet I Assassinated

42

1878-1843 B.C. - Senusert III Suppressed the Nomarchs
			  Favored by Amenemhet I

			  Senusert III Cleared and Enlarged
			  the Channel through the First Cataract
			  in an effort to utilize Large Warships
			  in Expeditions Against Rebellious Nubians

1652 B.C. - The Hykos (Rulers of Foreign Lands) Set Up 
		  Capital at Avaris

1594-1554 B.C. - Auserre Apopi Challenged the Authority of
			  the Hykos in the North

1554 B.C. - Sekenenre Tao Led an Army North to Fight the 
		  Hykos. He most probably Died in the Battle.

1554-1529 B.C. - Ahmose Drove Out the Hykos Reuniting 
			  Egypt and Led Three Campaigns into Nubia

1529-1509 B.C. - Amenhotep I Sent Campaigns Against the
			  Libyans and the Asiatics

1508 B.C. - Thutmose I Fought South to the Third Cataract
		  in Nubia Sending Campaigns into Palestine and
		  Syria

1489-1469 B.C. - Hatshepsut Launched Four Campaigns
			  Leading One into Nubia

1468 B.C. - Thutmose III Won His Greatest Victory (Of
		  16 oR 17 Campaigns) In His First Campaign at 
		  the Battle of Megiddo Defeating a Coalition
		  of Asiatic Powers (Including the Mitanni, 
		  Under the Ruler of Kadesh)

1438-1412 B.C. - Amenhotep II Campaigns Brought to 
			  Egypt Great Quantities of Captives and 
			  Booty

43

1303-1290 B.C. - Seti I Fought the Bedoiun in Sinai and
			  in Southern Palestine

			  Seti I Proceeded to Northern Palestine 
			  and Syria

			  Seti I Fought Against Libya

1285 B.C. - Victory Over the Hittites at Kadesh Resulting
		  in Peace Treaty (Last Campaign of Seti I)

1223-1211 B.C. - Egypt Invaded by Peoples From The Sea

1190-1181 B.C. - Ramses III Stopped The Sea People in the 
			  Nile Delta

1181-1158 B.C. - Ramses III Successfully Defended Egypt
			  Against Invasions by Libyans and The Sea 
			  People

1158-1075 B.C. - Civil War and Marauding Libyans

940-919 B.C. - Sheshonk I (Descended from a Libyan Family
			Living at Heracleopolis) Campaigned into
			Palestine Sacking the Temple of Jerusalem

725-715 B.C. - Tefnakht Took Over Control of the Western 
			Nile Delta and Marched South to Heracleopolis

710 B.C. - Piamkhi (Ruled at Napata) Conquered All of Egypt
		 and Returned Home

685-664 B.C. - Sennacherib and the Assyrian Army 
			Destroyed Taharko

664-657 B.C. - Tanutamon Took the Offensive and was 
			Driven Out of Egypt

657-610 B.C. - Psamyik I Gained Control Over the North 
			Forming a New Dynasty

44

595-589 B.C. - Psamtik II Sent Armies South to the Fourth 
			Cataract

589-525 B.C. - Apries was Dethroned after being Defeated
			by Greeks at Cyrenaica

525 B.C. - Persia Invaded Egypt Overthrowing Psamtik III 
		 at the Battle of Pelusium

486 B.C. - Egyptian Rebellion Put Down by Xerxes I

460 B.C. - Egyptians Rebel Against Persian Rule Led by
		 Inaros who Defeated and Killed the Satrap of
		 Egypt

386 B.C. - Artaxerxes II of Persia Attacked Egypt

361-359 B.C. - Teos Led an Army into Phoenicia and was 
			Overthrown

343-341 B.C. - Artaxerxes III Reconquered Egypt for 
			Persia (2nd Persian Rule)

332 B.C. - Alexander The Great Conquers Egypt

246-241 B.C. - 3rd Syrian War

217 B.C. - Ptolemy IV Defeated Antiochus IV at the 
		 Battle of Raphia, Near Gaza, Rebellions
		 Followed

180-168 B.C. - Ptolemy IV Defeated By Antiochus IV

168 B.C. - Antiochus IV Forced To Withdraw from Egypt
		 by the Romans

85 B.C. - Thebes Destroyed by Ptolemy IX in order to 
		Suppress a Revolt

31 B.C. - Cleopatra and Mark Anthony Defeated at Actium

45

27 B.C.-14 - Egypt Invaded by Nubians; Augustus of Rome
		   drove them out taking their Capital, Napata

211-217 - Caracella Massacred Citizens of Alexandria

250 - Persecution of Christians Began

270 - Queen Zenobia Briefly Conquered Lower Egypt

276-282 - Egypt Regained for Rome

297 - Egypt Rebels (Siege of Alexandria)

619 - Egypt Falls to the Persians

639-642 - Muslim Conquest of Egypt (Arab General
		Anur Ibn Al-As took Alexandria)

Greece

2500 B.C. - Troy (Earliest Fortress in the Aegean)

2000 B.C. - Cretan Civilization Highly Developed with
		  means of Defense (Armories)

1500 B.C. - Massive Strongholds Built at Tirvne and
		  Mycenae with Protective Walls (Mycenaean 
		  Age)

		  Dorians Subdued the Achaeans and the Aegeans

1400 B.C. - Dorians Invade Crete Destroying Cnossus

1200 B.C. - The Seige, Capture, and Burning of Troy

1200-1000 B.C. - Dorians, Ionians, Aeolians (Greek
			  Tribes) Conquered Remaining Islands 
			  and the Coast of Asia Minor

46

1000-750 B.C. - City-Kingdoms Struggle for Power with
			 Nobles

750 B.C. - Greek Expansion; Colonies of Southern Italy
		 Stopped by the Etruscans

650 B.C. - Tyrannic Rulers Appeared

624 B.C. - Merchants of Megaro Seized the Island of
		 Salamis (Nobles Attempt to Recapture Failed)

594 B.C. - Solon Elected as Archon

540-528 B.C. - Pisistratus, Returned from Exile, Built 
			War Fleet and Seized Sigeum

500 B.C. - Athens Freed from Tyrannic Rule

		 Spartan Military Successes Established the
		 Spartan League (Controlled 1\3 of the 
		 Peloponnesian Peninsula)

492 B.C. - Persian Fleet Wrecked and Destroyed at Mount 
		 Athos

490 B.C. - Persians Burn Eretria; Battle of Marathon

480 B.C. -  Battle of Thermopylae; Salamis

479 B.C. - Battle of Platea

476-463 B.C. - Cimon (Commander In-Chief of Athenian
			Forces) Reduced All Remaining Persian
			Forces in the Northern Aegean and 
			Captured Greek Coastal Cities held by
			the Persians

477 B.C. - Delian League Complete (Federation of City-
		 States)

458 B.C. - 1st Peloponnesian War (Athens\Sparta)

47

445 B.C. - End Of 1st Peloponnesian War

431 B.C. - 2nd Peloponnesian War

421 B.C. - Nicias Arranged Peace After Years of 
		 Indecisive Warfare

413-404 B.C. - 3rd Peloponnesian War or Decelean War
			(Athenian Expedition Completely Destroyed 
			by Syracusians)

406 B.C. - Battle of Arginusae

405 B.C. - Lysander (Peloponnesian Commander)
		 Surprised and Captured the Athenian Fleet

404 B.C. - Athenian Empire Destroyed

401 B.C. - Greek Mercenaries (Xenophon and the Ten 
		 Thousand) Raid Persian Territory

395-387 B.C. - Corinthian War

387 B.C. - King's Peace (Sparta Dominant Over the 
		 Greek States)

378 B.C. - Athenian Empire Rebuilt and Defeated 
		 Sparta

371 B.C. - Battle of Leuctra (Ended Sparta's Leadership
		 Over the Greek States)

362 B.C. - Theban Supremacy Collapsed at the Battle of
		 Mantinea Leaving the Greek World Exposed

360 B.C. - Philip Gained Control Over Macedonia

338 B.C. - Philip Victorious Against Greek Forces 
		 at Battle of Chaeronea

334 B.C. - Alexander The Great Battled Greek Forces 
		 at the River Granicus

48

333 B.C. - Alexander Met the Main Army of Persia at
		 the Gulf of Issus

330 B.C. - Darius (Of Persia) Defeated by Alexander

330-324 B.C. - Alexander's Iranian and Indian Campaigns

323 B.C. - Alexander Enters Babylon

280 B.C. - Gauls Invade Greece After Devastating 
		 Macedonia

277 B.C. - Antigonus II Defeated the Gauls at Thrace
		 Driving Them Out of Macedonia

277-200 B.C. - Achaens Battle with Sparta and are 
			Continually Defeated (Macedonia Intervenes
			Defeating Sparta; Henceforth, Macedonia 
			Ruled Greece with Athens Securing 
			Recognition of Neutrality)

Hittite

1900 B.C. - Conquered Central Turkey

1650 B.C. - Hattusilis I Established Kingdom 
		  of City States

1600 B.C. - Mussilis I Overran Syria and Babylon

1475 B.C. - Hurrians (Mitanni Kingdom) took Northern
		  Syria

1450 B.C. - Tuthaliyas Regained Control of Northern
		  Syria; Campaigned in Western and Northwestern
		  Anatolia; Conquered Isuwa

49

1380 B.C. - Suppiluliumas, One of the Greatest Hittite
		  Kings, Recovered Isuwa, Destroyed Mitanni 
		  and Reorganized Northern Syria

1345-1310 B.C. - Mursilis II Conquered Western Anatolia
			  and made Arzawa a Hittite Vassal

1287 B.C. - Western Vassals Broke Away

1285 B.C. - Battle of Kadesh

1265-1240 B.C. - Copper Mines of Isuwa Lost to Assyria

1225 B.C. - Suppiluliumas II effected a Revival

1200 B.C. - Overran by Peoples Of The Sea

Inca

1400 - Inca's Rose from Obscurity Conquering Aboriginal 
	  Inhabitants of Peru

1400-1438 - Pachacuti Extends the Empire East of Lima,
		  South to Lake Titicaca and Conquered the 
		  Aymara Indians

1438-1463 - Conquered Southern and Central Peru

1463-1471 - Toba (Pachacuti's Son) Aided in
		  Conquering Territories South to Ecuador

1471 - Topa Conquered Lands South into Central Chile;
	  Subdued the Chimu Kingdom in Northern Peru
	  and Put Down Rebellions in the Cuzco Area

50

1493-1527 - Huayna Copac (Topa's Son) Conquered
		  Lowland Areas of Ecuador; Defeated the 
		  Guarani Indians and Crushed Several 
		  Rebellions

1527-1532 - Civil War upon the Death of Huayna Copac

1532 - Francisco Pizarro (Spain) Arrived with Troops

1538 - Spanish Troops Successfully Subjugated
	  the Inca People

Japan

799-600 B.C. - Frontier Wars

300-200 B.C. - Jomon Culture Displaced by the Yayoi

300 - Conquest of the Yamato Plain

300-399 - Appearance of Mounted Warriors; Military
		Consolidation within the Islands

400-499 - Armies Engaged in Struggle for Korean Peninsula

532 - Half of Mimana (Korean Colony) Lost

562 - Japan Driven Out of Korean Peninsula

1185 - Minamotono-Yoritomo: The Victor Over Taira

1487 - Onin War Begins

1568 - Oda Nabunaga Enters Kyoto

1573 - Nabunaga Deposes the Last Ashikosa Shogun

1600 - Tokugawa Leyasu Victorious at Sekigahara

51

Maya

400 - Mayan Highlands Fell to Teotihuacan 
	 Domination; Central Mexicans Seized Kaminaljuya

600 - Teotihuacan Destroyed by Unknown People

628 - Butz' Chan (Ruler of Copan) Dies Leading to War

750 - Petexbatum Region Destabilizes Resulting in Major
	 Warfare

750-790 - Alliances Break Apart Leading to Conflict
		Between Neighboring City-States

792 - Battle Of 792

987 - Tezcatlipoca Forced to Leave Tula (Toltec 
	 Capital); K'Uk'Ulkan took Yucatan from 
	 Rightful Owners; Battle for Chich'En Itza

1156 - Tula Destroyed

1441-1461 - Mayapan Destroyed

1517 - Battle of Champoton (Hernandez De Cordoba
	  Killed by Mayan Warriors)

1523-1541 - K'Iche' and Kaqchikel (Mayan Kingdoms)
		  Succumbed to Spanish Rule

1542 - Merida Established as Spanish Capitol
	  (Revolts Continue)

1697 - Yucatec Maya Surrendered to Spanish Control

1847 - Mayan Revolts

1860 - Mayan Revolts

52

1897-1901 - War of the Castes

1978 - Guatemalan Troops Kill Mayan Protestors

Ottoman Empire

1243 - Mongols Defeated Seljuk Armies

1261 - Byzantines Regain Constantinople

1300? - Ottoman Empire Founded

1314 - Siege of Bursa by Osman I 

1326 - Fall of Bursa

1331 - Iznik Captured by Orhan I

1337 - Izmit Fell to the Ottoman Empire
	  After Six Year Siege

1346 - Turkish Troops Help in the Struggle for
	  Byzantine Leadership

1353 - A Permanent Base is Established in the
	  Gallipoli Peninsula

1361 - Edirne Falls to Murad I

1363 - Filibe Fell; Murad Killed All Three Brothers
	  (Rivals for Power)

1365 - Pope Urban V Alliance Defeated Near Edirne

1383 - Murad Intervenes in the Secession of Neighboring
	  Tribe

53

1387 - Battle of Konya

1388 - Ottomans Attack and Take Control of Bulgaria

1389 - Balkan Campaign (Kosovo)

1390 - Antalya Seized by Bayezid

1391 - Siege of Constantinople by the Turks

1394 - Bayezid Defensive Alliance with Kadh Burhan
	  Eddin Against Timor'S Invasion

1396 - Crusade Forces Defeated at Nicopolis

1397 - Ottoman Campaign Against the Karamanoglu

1398 - Samsun on the Black Sea taken by Bayezid

1402 - Ottoman Empire Overpowered on the Ankara Plain
	  By Timur

1402-1413 - Civil War (Warring Sons of Bayezid)

1414 - Truce Arranged with the Karananoglu by 
	  Mehmed

1416 - Walachia Campaign

1419 - Transylvania Campaign; Izmir Revolt Suppressed

1421 - Murad II Defeated Insurrections to the Throne

1425 - Southwest Anatolia Regained

1428 - Hungarian Peace Treaty

1430 - Salonika Fell to the Ottoman Empire

1431 - Albanian Revolt

1434 - Balkan and Danubian Uprisings

54

1435-1437 - Campaign Against the Karananoglu

1441 - Reconquest of the Balkans by Janos Hunyadi

1443 - Open Revolt of Albania by Skanderbeg

1444 - Balkan Alliance Defeated at Varna

1448 - Ottoman Empire Victorious in Kosovo

1453 - Mehmed II Took Constantinople

1456 - Siege of Belgrade Unsuccessful

1458-1459 - Strategic Aegean Islands Taken;
		  Ottoman Control of Morea

1459 - Serbia Became a Province of the Ottoman 
	  Empire After Four Campaigns

1461 - Trabzon Defeated

1472-1473 - Azerbaijan Campaigns

1478 - Albania Pacified

1480 - Otram Occupied; Rhodes Besieged

1481 - Revolt of the Sipahis of Anatolia

1484 - Capture of Kilia and Akkerman

1485-1491 - Five Wars Fought with the Egyptian
		  Mamluks in Syria and Southern Anatolia

1499-1500 - Capture of Morea, Lepento, Modon, and
		  Coron from the Venetians

1514 - Selim I Challenged the Safavids and Destroyed
	  Shah Ismail on the Calduran Plain

55

1516 - Mamluks Defeated Near Aleppo

1517 - Selim I Took Cairo

1519 - Submission of Barbary Corsairs

1521 - Suleyman Captured Belgrade

1526 - Battle of Mohacs

1528 - Siege of Vienna

1529 - Budapest Falls

1534 - Tunisia Fell

1547 - Transylvania Becomes an Ottoman 
	  Protectorate

1566 - Chios Fell; Siege of Szigetvar

1571 - Cyprus Fell; Ottoman Fleet Defeated at
	  Lepanto

1578 - Georgia Overrun

1606 - Treaty of Sitvatorok Between Austria and
	  Ottoman Empire

1639 - Peace Between Safavid and Declining 
	  Ottoman Empire

1664 - Battle of St. Gotthard

1669 - Crete Taken

1683 - Second Siege of Vienna

1696 - Peter The Great Took Azov

1699 - Treaty of Karlowitz (Ottoman Empire
	  Surrenders Most of Hungary)

56

1711 - Treaty of the Pruth

1718 - Treaty of Passarowitz

1768 - Catherine The Great Overran Danubian
	  Principalities and Occupied the Crimea

1774 - Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji (End of the 
	  Ottoman Empire as an Independent Agent)

Persia

C2000 B.C. - Elam Developed

639 B.C. - Invasion of Ashurbanipal of Assyria

612 B.C. - Sacking of Nineveh by the Babylonians 
		 and the Medes

550 B.C. - Anshan Gained Independence from the Medes

546 B.C. - Cyrus The Great Victorious at Sardes

538 B.C. - Persians Enter Babylon

529 B.C. - Cyrus The Great Controlled the Middle East

525 B.C. - Cambyses (Son of Cyrus) Conquered Egypt

492 B.C. - Persians Under Darius Advance into Greece

490 B.C. - Persians Burn the City of Eretria

480 B.C. - Battle of Thermopylae, Salamis

330 B.C. - Conquered by Alexander The Great

300 B.C - Empire of Parthia

57

53 B.C. - Defeated Crassus of Rome

224 - Revolt by Ardashir Established the Empire of 
	 Sassanian

260 - Shapur Captured the Emperor Valerian

651 - Overwhelmed by Arabs

Roman Empire

753 B.C. - Rome Founded 

500 B.C. - Roman Independent Republic and Revolt Against
		 Euruscan Rulers

474 B.C. - Fleet of Syracuse Destroyed the Euruscan Fleet

406-396 B.C. - Ten Year Siege of Veii (Fortress Ten Miles
			From Rome)

400 B.C. - Romans Defeat Marauders and Establish Colonies 
		 Along the Coast

390 B.C. - Gauls Invade Rome

338 B.C. - Latin War (Latin League Defeated by Rome)

325 B.C. - Rome Lost Battles to the Sammites

295 B.C. - Rome Victorious at the Battle of Sentinum
		 Giving Rome Possession of Central Italy

280 B.C. - Pyrrhus of Greece Defeated Romans at Heraclea

279 B.C. - Romans Defeated at Asculum

58

275 B.C. - Pyrrhus Forced to Return to Epirus

264 B.C. - Carthaginian War Began

241 B.C. - Rome Defeated the Carthaginian Fleet

241-230 B.C. - Rome Conquered Greece, Asia Minor,
			Syria, Palestine, Egypt

217 B.C. - Hannibal Defeated the Entire Roman Army

216 B.C. - Hannibal Marched to Cannae

212 B.C. - Syracuse Recaptured by Rome

211 B.C. - Capua Captured by Romans

207 B.C. - Hasdrubal (Hannibal's Brother) 
		 was Defeated and Slain by the Romans

203 B.C. - Scipio (Of Rome) Twice Defeated 
		 Carthaginian Forces

202 B.C. - Scipio Defeated Hannibal at Zama

201 B.C. - Treaty Between Rome and Carthage

190 B.C. - Rome Overthrew Antiochus and the Lands
		 of Asia Minor Eastward to the Halys  
		 River Came Under Roman Control

145 B.C. - Carthage Destroyed; Burning of Corinth

133 B.C. - Dictatorship and Civil War

90-88 B.C. - Social War (Central and Southern 
		   Italian Revolt)

82 B.C. - Sulla's Slaughter

59

67-62 B.C. - Pompey Crushed the Kingdom of Seleucids;
		   Made Syria a Roman Province and Conquered 
		   Jerusalem

58-50 B.C. - Caesar Subdued the Gauls

48 B.C. - Caesar Clashes with Pompey at Pharsalus in
		Thessaly

47 B.C. - Caesar Campaigns in Asia Minor

42 B.C. - Battle of Philippi

31 B.C. - Naval Battle at Actium

43 - English Campaigns

70 - Titus Captured and Destroyed Jerusalem

101-106 - Dacian Kingdom Destroyed

115-117 - Trajan Defeated the Parthians
		(Roman Empire at its Largest)

167 - Northern Germans Invade

200 - Decline with Internal Strife and Goth Raids

270-275 - Aurelian Defeated Zenobia; Captured 
		Palmyra and had Successes in Gaul

284 -  Diocletian Restored Order and Revived Trade

324 - Constantine I Moved Capital to 
	 Byzantium (Constantinople)

357 - Julian (Constantine's Nephew) Battles the
	 Germans at Strassburg

361-363 - Julian Defeated the Germans in the West 
		and Led His Army to the East Against the 
		Persians Dying in the Process

60

376 - Visagoths Attacked

410 - Rome Sacked by the Goths

455 - Vandals Capture Rome

527 - Justinian (Crowned at Constantinople)
	 Destroyed the East Goth Allowing for the 
	 Destruction of the Remaining Empire

Turkey

1037 - Seljuk Empire Founded After Gaining Control 
	  of Persia 

1055 - Seljuk Empire Takes Baghdad

1071 - Byzantine Forces Defeated at Manzikert

1097 - First Crusade

1098 - Antakya Fell to the Crusaders

1204 - Fourth Crusade Drove the Byzantines Out of
	  Constantinople

Vikings

750 - End of 8th Century (Viking Raids begin looking
	 for Gold & Silver)

750 - 840 - Raids continuous on England, France, Ireland,
		  and the Netherlands (Long Ships made Raids 
		  possible)

61

		  Raids into Russian Territories that Dominate
		  Trading Routes

840 - Ireland Invaded (Year Round Colonization)

	 England Almost Conquered (King Alfred Treaty
	 gave Vikings Rule over North and Eastern
	 Territory)

970 - Eric the Red Clashed with Neighbors and was 
	 banned from Iceland. He Sailed to Greenland.

62

Appendix B

						Notable Conflicts Of History

War			Contestants**	Notable Battles	Treaties

Trojan War		Greek 	Siege of Troy
1203-1193 B.C.	Warriors-
			Troy

First			Sparta-		Conquest of
Messenian		Messenia		Messenia
War
735-715 B.C. 

Second 		Sparta-		Messenian 
Messenian		Messenia		Revolt
War
650-600 B.C.

Greco-			Greek States-	            Marathon, 490;
Persian		Persia			Thermopylae,
499-478 B.C.					Salamis,480;
						Plataea, Mycale,
						479

Third			Sparta-		Messenian
Messenian		Messenia		Revolt
War
464-461 B.C.

Peloponnesian  	Sparta-		Syracuse, 415;		Peace of
431-404 B.C.		Athens			Cyzicus, 410;		            Nicias,
						Aegospotami, 405	            421

Corinthian		Athens,		Nemea, Coronea,
War			Allies-  		Cridus, 394
395-387 B.C.		Sparta
___________________________________________________________
*Indecisive **Victor Shown First

63

Sacred Wars		Macedonia-		Macedonia Gained
355-338 B.C.		Greek States		Control Over All 
						of Greece

Sammite 		Rome-			Rome Subjugated 
Wars			Sammites		the Sammites
343-290 B.C. 	            (Central
			Italy)

Latin War		Rome-			Latin Rebellion
340-338 B.C.		Latin
			Cities

Alexander's		Macedonia-		Issus, 333;
Wars of 		Persia,			Tyre, 332;
Conquest		Media,		Gaugamela, 331;
334-324 B.C.		India,			Hydaspes, 326

Lamian		Macedonia-		Crannon, 322
War			Athens,
323-322 B.C.		Allies

Wars of		Rival			Corupedion, 281	Permanent
Diadochi		Macedonian					Division-
323-218 B.C.		Generals-					Macedonia,
			Scythia,					Seleucid
			Egypt						Asia Minor,
									Ptolemaic
									Egypt

Tarentum		Rome-			Asculum, 279
Roman War		Tarentum
282-272 B.C.

Syrian Wars		Ptolemaic		Fight For Control
276-195 B.C. 		Egypt-			Over Eastern
			Seleucid		Mediterranean
			Asia Minor		Region

Chremondian		Sparta-		Attica, 266;
War			Athens			Corinth, 265;
266-262 B.C.					Athens, 262

64

First Punic		Rome-			Mylae, 260;		Rome 
264-241 B.C.		Carthage		Drepanum, 249;	Gains
						Aegates, 241		Sicily

Second Punic					Lake Trasimene, 
218-201 B.C.					217; Cannae, 216;
						Zama, 202

Macedonian		Rome-			Macedonia Becomes
Wars			Macedonia		Roman Province
214-148 B.C.

Third Punic		Rome-			Rome Invades
149-146 B.C.		Carthage		Carthage

Mithridatic		Rome-			Rome Defeats King
Wars			Asia Minor		of Pontus
88-64 B.C.

Gallic Wars		Rome-			Caesar's
58-51 B.C.		Gaul, 			Conquest of
			British			Gaul and
			Isles			Invasion of
						British Isles

Roman 		Caesar-		Crossing of
Civil			Roman		Rubicon, 49;
War			Enemies,		Pharsalus, 48;
49-46 B.C.		Pompey		Zela, 47;
						Thapsus, 46

Wars of The		Rome-			Marcus Aurelius
Marcomanni		German		Campaigned
and Quadi		Tribes			Against Invading
167-175 					Germanic Tribes

Visagoth		Visagoths-		Sacking of Rome,
Roman		Rome			410; Gaul, 412;
War						Spain, 416
406-419 

65

Attila The		Attila			Eastern Empire,
Hun\Roman		The Hun-		441, 447; Gaul,
War			Roman 		451; Italy, 452
441-453 		Empire

Byzantine		Byzantium-		Africa, 533-534;
Reconquest		Africa,			Italy, 535-554
533-554 		Italy

Muslim		Muslims-		Syria, 634-641;
Invasion of		France, 		Persia, 635-642;
Europe		Syria,			Egypt, 639-642;
711-1492 		Egypt,			Poitiers, 732;
			Persia,			Spain, 800-1492
			Spain

Charlemagne's	France-		Unites Much of
Wars of		Italy,			Europe
Conquest		Germanic
771-804 		Tribes

Norsemem		Danes of		England, 787;
Invasion of		Denmark-		France, 845
Europe		England,
787-1000 		France

Norman		Normandy-		Hastings, 1066 
Conquest		England
1066 

Crusades		Christianity*-		Jerusalem, 1099;
1096-1291 		Muslims		Acre, 1191, 1291

Mongol		Genghis		China, 1207;
Invasions		Khan-			Persia, 1218;
1207-1227 		China,			Russia, 1223
			Persia,
			Russia

66

Barons'		Simon De		Lewes, 1264
War			Montfort,
1264-1267 		Other 
			English
			Barons-
			Henry Iii

Hundred Years'	England-		Crecy, 1346;
1337-1453 		France			Poitiers, 1356;
						Agincourt, 1415;
						Siege of Orleans,
						1428-1439; Patay, 1429

Wars of The		York- 			St. Albans, 1455;
Roses			Lancaster		Towton, 1461;
1455-1485 					Bosworth Field, 1485

Italian 			Spain-			French Invasion of
Wars			France			Italy, 1494
1494-1559 

Conquest 		Spain-			Tlatelolco, 1521
of Mexico		Aztecs
1519-1522 

Livonian		Russia-		Baltic Territories
War			Sweden-
1557-1582 		Poland

Wars of		Catholics-		Accession of King 
Religion		Protestants		Henry IV. 1553;
1562-1598 					Edict of Nantes, 1598

Thirty Years		Denmark,		Leipzig,			Westphalia,
1618-1648 		Sweden,		Breitenfeld, 1631;		1648
			France-		Lutzen, 1632
			Hapsburg
			Dynasty,
			Holy Roman
			Empire

67

English Civil		Roundheads-		Marston Moor,
War			Cavaliers		1643; Naseby,
1642-1649 					1645

Dutch Wars		England-		Trade War Resulted
1652-1678 		Netherland		in General European
						War

First 			Sweden-		Right of Succession
Northern 		Poland,		to Swedish Throne
War			Alies
1655-1660 

War of			Netherlands,		France Invades Spanish
Devolution		Sweden.		Netherlands
1667-1668 		England-
			France

Russo-			Russia-		Russia Expands Its
Turkish 		Ottoman		Borders
Wars			Empire
1676-1878 

War of The		French*-		Fleurus, 1690;
Grand 			Holy Roman		La Hougue, 1692
Alliance		Empire,
1689-1697 		England,
			Allies

Second Great		Russia-		Poltava, 1709		Nysted, 
Northern War		Sweden &					1721
1700-1721 		Baltic Allies

War of The		England,		Blenheim, 1704		Utrecht, 
Spanish		Austria,						1713
Succession		Prussia,
1701-1714 		Netherlands-
			France, Spain

68

Queen Anne's		England-		Raids on North American
War			France			Frontier Settlements
1702-1713 

War of The		France-		Rhine 			Vienna,
Polish			Austria,		River, 1733-35	1735
Succession		Russia
1733-1735

War of The		France,		Dettingen, 1743;	Aix-La-
Austrian		Prussia, 		Fontenoy, 1745 	Chapelle, 
Succession		Sardinia,					1748
1740-1748 		Spain-
			Austria,
			England

King George's	England*-		Fight For Control of
War			France			North American Colonial
1744-1748 					Territory

French & 		England-		Plains of
Indian War 		France			Abraham, 1759;
1755-1763 					Montreal, 1760

Seven Years'		Prussia-		Rossbach, 		Hubert-
War 			Austria, 		Leuthen, 1757		Usberg,
1756-1763 		France, 					1763
			Russia

Mysore		England-		British Conquest of
Wars			Mysore 		Mysore
1767-1799 		(India)

American 		American 		Lexington, 		Paris,
Revolutionary 	Colonies-		Concord,		1783
War 			England 		Bunker Hill, 1775;
1775-1783 					Saratoga, 1777;
						Yorktown, 1781

69

Maratha		England-		English Control of
Wars			Maratha		Maratha Confederacy
1775-1818 		Confederacy
			(India)
                    
Tripolitan		United			U.S. Invasion,		Peace
War			States-			1805			Agreement
1801-1805 		Tripoli

Napoleonic 		England, 		Nile, 1798; 		Campo-
Wars 			Austria, 		Trafalgar, 1805;	Formio,
1796-1815 		Russia, 		Jena, Auerstadt, 	1797;
			Prussia, Etc.-		1806; Leipzig, 	Tilsit,
			France 		1813; Waterloo,  	1807;
						1815 			Schon-
									Brunn,
									1809;
									Paris,
									1814-1815;
									Vienna, 
									1815

Latin			Independence: 	Argentina, 1816;
American					Chile, 1818; Peru, 1824;
Independence					Bolivia, 1825; Venezuela, 1821;
1809-1825 					Columbia, 1819

War of 		United	 		Lake Erie, 1813; 	Ghent, 
1812 			States-			New Orleans, 1815	1814
1812-1815 		England

Greek War of 	Greece, 		Navarino, 1827 	London, Independence 
1821-1829 		Sweden,					England, 1827
			Russia-
			Turkey

Black Hawk		U.S.-			Expansion Forced
1832			Sauk, Fox		Natives West Across
			Indians		Mississippi

70

Seminole		U.S.-			Everglades,		Treaty of
Indian War		Seminole		1835-1842		Removal,
1835-1842 		Indians					1835

Texas 			Texas-			Alamo, Goliad,	Treaty of
Independence		Mexico		San Jacinto,		Indepen-
1836 						1836			Dence, 1836

Anglo-			Afghanistan-		Afghanistan
Afghan		England		Independence, 1919
1838-1919 

Opium			U.K.-			Amoy, Ningpo,	Nanking,
1839-1842 		China			Canton, 1841		1842

U.S. 			United 		Resaca De La	Guada-
Mexican War 	States-			Palma, 1846; 		Lupe
1846-1848 		Mexico 		Chapultepec, 1847	Hidalgo,
                 								1848

Sikh			England-		English Annexation
Wars			Sikhs			of Punjab (Northern
1846-1849 		(India)			India)

Crimean War 		Turkey, 		Sevastopol, 		Paris, 
1854-1856 		England,		Balaklava,		1856
			France, 		Alma, 1854
			Sardinia-
			Russia

United 		Union  			Bull Run, 1861; 
States 			(North)-		Antietam, 1862;
Civil War 		Confederate 		Chancellorsville,
1861-1865 		States 			Gettysburg,
			(South) 		Vicksburg,
						Chattanooga, 1863;
						Wilderness, 1864

Sand Creek		U.S.-			900 man Cavalry Raid,
Massacre		Cheyenne,		Men, Women, And Children
1864			Arapaho		killed

71

War of The		Brazil,			Brazil and Allies
Triple			Argentina,		Defeat Paraguay
Alliance		Uruguay-
1865-1870 		Paraguay

Seven Weeks		Prussia-		Austria Excluded From
War			Austria		Confederation of 
1866 						Northern Germany

Franco-		Prussia-		Sedan, 1870 		Versail-
Prussian War 		France						Les, 1871
1870-1871 

Sioux			U.S.-			Little Big
Indian			Sioux			Horn, 1876
1876-1877 		Indian

Zulu War		U.K.-			Isandhlwana,
1879 			Zulu			Ulandi, 1879

War of The		Chile-			Atcama Desert	Treaty
Pacific			Bolivia,					Gave Chile
1879-1884 		Peru						Land in
 					                                        	Bolivia,
									Peru

Battle of		U.S.-			Last Major Conflict
Wounded Knee	Sioux			Between U.S. and 
1890			Indians		Native Population

Sino-			Japan-			Pyongyang,		Shimon0-
Japanese		China			Yalu River, 1894;	Seki, 1895
1894-1895 					Weikaiwei, 1895

Ethiopian		Ethiopia-		Italy Failed to
War			Italy			Expand Beyond Colony
1895-1896 					At Eritrea

72

Spanish-		United 		Manila Bay, 	Paris, 1898
American War	States-			Santiago, 1898
1898 			Spain

Philippine		U.S.-			Struggle for
Insurrection		Filipino		Independence
1899			Insurgents

Boer War 		England-		Ladysmith, 1899 	Vereen-
1899-1902 		Transvaal 					Iging,
			Republic &					1902
			Orange Free
			State

Russo-			Japan-			Port Arthur, 		Ports-
Japanese 		Russia 		Mukten, 		Mouth,
War 						Tsushima, 1905	1905
1904-1905 

Italio-			Italy-			Italy Invasion of	Lausanne,
Turkish		Turks			North Africa		1912
War						(Libya)
1911-1912 

First 			Bulgaria, 		Scutari, 1912;
Balkan War 		Serbia, 		Salonika, 1912;
1912-1913 		Greece, 		Adrianople, 1912
			Montenegro-
			Turkey

Second 		Bulgaria,		Bulgaria Attacked	London, 
Balkan War		Greece,		Serbia; Romania, 	1913
1913 			Romania,		Greece, Turkey
			Turkey-		Attacked Bulgaria
			Serbia

73

World War I 		Allies-			Dardanelles,		Versasil-
1914-1918 		Central 		1915; Verdun,	Les	Saint-
			Powers 		Somme, Jutland,	Germaine,
						1916; Caporetto, 	Neuilly,
						1917; Vittorio		1919;
						Veneto, Amiens, 	Trianon,
						Marne, Ypres,	Sevres,
						1918			1920;
									Lausanne,
									1923

Russian		Bolsheviks-		Petrograd,		USSR,
Revolution		Cossacks		Vladivostok, 1917;	1922
and Civil					Murmansk, Kazan,
War						Ornsk, 1918
1917-1922 

Baltic War of		Estonia,		Independence for 
Liberation		Latvia,			Estonia, Latvia,
1918-1920 		Lithuania-		Lithuania
			Russia,
			Germany

Russo-			Poland,		Poland Invaded 	Riga,
Polish War		Ukraine-		Ukraine; Russian	1921
1919-1920 		Russia			Counterattack

Greco-			Turkey-		Inonu, Sakarya	Lausanne,
Turkish		Greece		River, 1921		1923
1921-1922 

Chinese 		Communist-		Kuomintang,		Peoples
Civil War		Nationalist		1927-28;		Republic
1927-1949					Peking, 1949		of China,
									Formosa
									(Taiwan)
									1949

Chaco			Paraguay-		Territorial
War			Bolivia			Dispute
1932-1935 

74

Italio-			Italy-			Ualual, 1935;
Ethiopian		Ethiopia		Addis Ababa, 1936
1935-1937 

Spanish 		Insurgents-		Teruel, 1937;
Civil 			Loyalists 		Ebro River, 1938 
1936-1939 

Sino-			Japan-			Manchuria,
Japanese		Chinese		Peking, 1937
War			Nationalists,
1937-1945 		Communists

World 			United			Dunkirk, 1940; 	Potsdam, 
War II 		Nations-		Crete, 1941; El 	1945
1939-1945 		Axis 			Alamein, 1942; 
			1939-1945 		Tunis, 1943; 
						Stalingrad, 1942-43;
						Kharkov, 1943;
						Cassino, 1943-44;
						Saint Lo, 1944;
						Rhine, Ruhr,
						Berlin, 1945 

			United 		Pearl Harbor, 			San Fran-
			Nations-		1941; Bataan,			Cisco, 1951
			Japan 			1941-42;
			1941-1945		Singapore, 
						Coral Sea, Midway,
						Guadal Canal, 1942;
						Bismarck Sea,
						Tarawa, 1943;
						Leyte Gulf, 1944;
						Philippines, 1944-45;
						Okinawa, 1945

Russo-			USSR-			Territorial
Finnish		Finland		Dispute
1939-1940 

75

Greek 			Rightist-		Struggle for
Civil War		Communists		Control of Greece
1944-1949 

Indo-			Vietnam-		Dien Bien Phu, 1954
China			France
1945-1954 

India-			India-			Riots, 1946-47;
Pakistan		Pakistan*		Kashmir: Uri,
1947-						Muzaffarabad, 1947;
						Dacca, Bangladesh, 1971

Cold War		U.S.-			Nuclear Proliferation
1947-1989		USSR

First Arab		Israel-			Old City of Jerusalem,
Israeli War		Arab			Negev Desert, 1948-1949
1948-1949 		States

Korean 		United 		Inchon,		Panmun-
War			Nations-		Pyongyang, 1950; 	Jom, 1953
1950-1952 		North Korea, 		Seoul, 1951
			China

Second Arab		Israel-			Sinai, Gaza,
Israeli War		Egypt,			Suez Canal, 
1956 			Arab			Sharm El-Sheikh, 
			States			1956

Viet Nam 		North Viet 		Pleiku, 1965; 		Paris, 
War			Nam-South 		Dak To, 1966-68;	1973
1958-1973 		Viet Nam, 		Da Nang, 1968-69;
			United			Hue, 1968-69
			States

Congo						Chaos Erupts When Katanga
Civil War					Province Secedes
1960-1963 

Bay of Pigs		Cuba-			Attempted Overthrow of
1961			US			Cuban Exiles	Fidel Castro Repulsed
						(U.S. Trained)
76

Chadian		Muslim-		Tibesti, 1978
Civil War		Christian
1965-

Third Arab		Israel-			Sinai, Gaza,
Israeli War		Egypt,			Suez Canal,
1967 			Arab			West Bank,
			States			Golan Heights,
						1967

Nigerian-		Hausa,			Port Harcourt,\parBiafran War		Yoruba-		Aba, Owerri, 
1967-1970 		Ibo			1968-69

Ethiopian		Eretrea-		Ogaden			Accord,
War			Somalia &						1988
1969-1988 		Others

Zimbabwe		Front For		Umtali, 1978
(Rhodesian)		The Libera-
Civil War		Tion of 
1969-1979 		Zimbabwe-
			Rhodesia

Pakistani		East Pakistan-	Bangladesh
Civil War		West Pakistan	Independence, 1971
1971 

Fourth Arab		Israel-			Sinai, Suez
Israeli War		Egypt,			Canal, Mount
1973 			Syria,			Hermon, 1973
			Arab States

Cambodian		Khmer			Phnom Phen,
War			Rouge-		Genocide, 1975
1975 			Cambodia

Angolan 		MPLA, UNITA-	Guerrilla		Cease
Civil War		FNLA			Raids			Fire,
1975-1989 								1989

77

Zaire			FNLA, UNITA-	Tutsi-Hutu
1975-1998		Zaire			Genocide

Lebanese		Shi'Ite,		Southern
Civil War		Sunni, Druze,		Lebanon,
1975-90 		PLO-			Beirut
			Phalangists

Salvadoran		ARENA-		Guerrilla 
Civil War		FMLN			Raids
1977-1992 

Cambodian		Vietnam-		Phnom Penh, 
War			Cambodia		1979
1978-1979 

Afghan 		Mujahedin-		Kabul, 1979;
Civil War		Taliban-		Guerrilla Raids
1979-1998		USSR

Iran-Iraq		Iran-			Abadan,
War			Iraq*			Khorramshahr,
1979-1988 					1980

Falklands 		U.K.-			San Carlos,
War			Argentina		Goose Green,
1982 						Port Stanley,
						1982

Granada		U.S., 			Organization of 
1983			Allies-			Eastern Caribbean
			Granada		States Requested Aid
						in Ousting Marxist
						Regime

Punjab			India-			Revolt For
Indian			Sikh			Autonomous State
1984 

78

South			African 		Struggle Against
Africa			National		Apartheid
1985-1994		Congress-
			National
			Party

Philippine		Filipino's-		Struggle For
1986 			Ferdinand 		Democracy
			Marcos

Chinese		China-			Struggle For 
Student		Students		Reform
Revolt
1986 

Sri Lanka		Tamil			Jaffne City,
1987 			Rebels-		1995-96
			(LTTE)
			India

Panama		United			Panama City
1989 			States-NDF

Tienanmen		China-			Struggle For
Square			Demonstrators	Democracy Crushed
1989

Persian		U.S.,			Liberation of Kuwait,
Gulf War		Allies-			Battles in southern Iraq,
1990-1991 		Iraq			1991

Rwandan		Hutu-			Genocide
Civil War		Tutsi
1990-1994 

Nigerian		Touareg,		Northern
Civil War		FLAA, CRA-		Region
1990-1995 		Nigeria

Chechen		North Ossetia-	Guerrilla War
1991-			Ingushetia-
			Russia

79

Bosnia-		Croats, 		Srebrenica,		Dayton,
Herzegovina		Muslims-		Zepa, Bihac,		1995
1991-1995 		Serbia			Sarajevo

Kosovo		Albanians,		Belgrade Aerial
1991-1999 		NATO-		Bombardment,
			Serbia			1999

Congo 			Congo-		2.5 Million Dead
Democratic		Rwanda,
Republic 		Burundi,
1998-			Uganda,
			Angola, Etc.*

East			East Timor		Dili, 1999
Timor			Independence
1999			Movement-
			Pro-Indonesian
			Militia

Liberian		Liberia-		Monrovia &
Civil War		Rebel Groups		throughout the country
2000-

Israeli-		Israel-			Gaza, 
Palestinian		Palestine*		West Bank, 2000-2001;
2000-                         				Ramallah, Bethlehem,
                              				Jenin, West Bank, 2002

Macedonian		Macedonia-		Border Region		Aug, 
2001			Albanian                    				             2001
			Rebels*

War on		U.S.,			World Trade
Terrorism		Allies-			Center, N.Y.;
2001			Osama Bin		Pentagon, D.C.,
			Laden, Al-		Pennsylvania,
			Qaeda, 		11 Sept 2001; Kandahar,
			Taliban		Mazar-E-Sharif,
						Kunduz, Tora 
						Bora Mountains,
						Camp Rhino, 2001,
						Gardez, 2002
80

2nd Persian		U.S, UK,		Liberation of Iraq: 
Gulf War		Australia,		Um Qasr, H2 & H3
2003			Poland,		Airfields, Basra, Bamerni
			Spain, Denmark,	Airport, An Nasiriyah,
			Allies-Iraq		Kirkuk, Mosul, Tigrit, Baghdad,
						Al Faw Peninsula, Karbala, 
						An Najaf, Al Hillah, Al Kut,
						Samawah, Al Qaim, Al Kifl

81

Appendix C

United Nations Peace-Keeping Operations

Current Peace-Keeping Operations

	Africa

Democratic Republic 
Of The Congo - MONUC				Dec 1999-
Ethiopia and Eritrea - UNMEE 			Jul 2000-
Sierra Leone - UNAMSIL				Oct 1999-
Western Sahara - MINURSO			Apr 1991-

	Asia

East Timor - UNTAET				Oct 1999-
India-Pakistan - UNMOGIP				Jan 1949-

	Europe

Bosnia & 
Herzegovina - UNMIBH				Dec 1995-
Kosovo - UNMIK 					Jun 1999-
Croatia - UNMOP					Jan 1996-
Cyprus - UNFICYP					Mar 1964-
Georgia - UNOMIG					Aug 1993-

 	Middle East

Golan Heights - UNDOF				Jun 1974-
Iraq\Kuwait - UNIKOM				Apr 1991-
Lebanon - UNIFIL 					Mar 1978-
Middle East - UNTSO 				Jun 1948-

82

Completed Peace-Keeping Operations

	Africa

Angola - UNAVEM I					Dec 1988 - May 1991
Angola - UNAVEM II				May 1991 - Feb 1995
Angola - UNAVEM III				Feb 1995 - Jun 1997
Angola - MONUA					Jun 1997 - Feb 1999
Central Africa Republic - MINURCA		Apr 1998 - Feb 2000
Chad\Libya - UNASOG 				May 1994 - Jun 1994
Congo - ONUC 					Jul 1960 - Jun 1964
Liberia - UNOMIL 					Sep 1993 - Sep 1997

Mozambique - ONUMOZ 				Dec 1992 - Dec 1994
Namibia - UNTAG 					Apr 1989 - Mar 1990
Rwanda - UNAMIR					Oct 1993 - Mar 1996
Rwanda\Uganda - UNOMUR 			Jun 1993 - Sep 1994
Sierra Leone - UNOMSIL				Jul 1998 - Oct 1999
Somalia - UNOSOM I				Apr 1992 - Mar 1993
Somalia - UNOSOM II				Mar 1993 - Mar 1995

	Americas

Central America - ONUCA				Nov 1989 - Jan 1992
Dominican Republic - DOMREP			May 1965 - Oct 1966
El Salvador - ONUSAL				Jul 1991 - Apr 1995
Guatemala - MINUGUA				Jan 1997 - May 1997
Haiti - UNMIH					Sep 1993 - Jun 1996
Haiti - UNSMIH					Jul 1996 - Jul 1997
Haiti - UNTMIH					Aug 1997 - Nov 1997
Haiti - MIPONUH					Dec 1997 - Mar 2000

	Asia

Afghanistan\Pakistan - UNGOMAP			May 1988 - Mar 1990
Cambodia - UNAMIC				Oct 1991 - Mar 1992
Cambodia - UNTAC					Mar 1992 - Sep 1993
India\Pakistan - UNIPOM				Sep 1965 - Mar 1966
Tajikistan - UNMOT					Dec 1994 - May 2000
West New Guinea - UNSF				Oct 1962 - Apr 1963

83

	Europe

Croatia - UNCRO					Mar 1995 - Jan 1996
Croatia - UNTAES					Jan 1996 - Jan 1998
Croatia - UNPSG					Jan 1998 - Oct 1998
Former Yugoslavia - UNPROFOR			Feb 1992 - Mar 1995
Former Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia - UNPREDEP				Mar 1995 - Feb 1999

	Middle East

Iran\Iraq - UNIIMOG				Aug 1988 - Feb 1991
Lebanon - UNOGIL					Jun 1958 - Dec 1958
Middle East - UNEF I				Nov 1956 - Jun 1967
Middle East - UNEF II				Oct 1973 - Jul 1979
Yemen - UNYOM					Jul 1963 - Sep 1964

84

	Appendix D

	United Nations 

Charter

Preamble

	We the peoples of the United Nations determined:

1. To save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, 

which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to

mankind, and

2. To reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the 

dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal 

rights of men and women and of nations large and small, and

3. To establish conditions under which justice and respect 

for the obligations arising from treaties and other 

sources of international law can be maintained, and

4. To promote social progress and better standards of life 

in larger freedom, and for these ends;

	a. To practice tolerance and live together in peace

		with one another as good neighbours, and

	b. To unite our strength to maintain international

		peace and security, and

85

	c. To ensure, by the acceptance of principles and the 

		institution of methods, that armed force shall not

		be used, save in the common interest, and

	d. To employ international machinery for the promotion

		of the economic and social advancement of all

		peoples, 

	have resolved to combine our efforts to accomplish 

	these aims.

Accordingly, our respective Governments, through 

Representatives assembled in the city of San Francisco, who 

have exhibited their full powers found to be in good and due 

form, have agreed to the present Charter of the United Nations 

and do hereby establish an international organization to be 

known as the United Nations.

	Chapter I

Purposes and Principles

	Article 1

The Purposes of the United Nations are:

	1. To maintain international peace and security, and to 

	that end: to take effective collective measures for the

	prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for
86

	the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches

	of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means, and

	in conformity with the principles of justice and 

	international law, adjustment or settlement of 

	international disputes or situations which might lead to

	a breach of the peace;

	2. To develop friendly relations among nations based on

	respect for the principle of equal rights and self-

	determination of peoples, and to take other appropriate

	measures to strengthen universal peace;

	3. To achieve international co-operation in solving 

	international problems of an economic, social, cultural,

	or humanitarian character, and in promoting and 

	encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental

	freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, 

	language, or religion; and

	4. To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations

	in the attainment of these common ends.

87

	Article 2

The Organization and its Members, in pursuit of the Purposes

stated in Article 1, shall act in accordance with the 

following principles.

	1. The Organization is based on the principle of the 

	sovereign equality of all its Members.

	2. All Members, in order to ensure to all of them the 

	rights and benefits resulting from membership, shall 

	fulfill in good faith the obligations assumed by them in

	accordance with the present Charter.

	3. All Members shall settle their international disputes

	by peaceful means in such a manner that international

	peace and security, and justice, are not endangered.

	4. All Members shall refrain in their international 

	relations from the threat or use of force against the

	territorial integrity or political independence of any

	state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the

	Purposes of the United Nations.

	5. All Members shall give the United Nations every 

	assistance in any action it takes in accordance with the

	present Charter, and shall refrain from giving assistance

88

	to any state against which the United Nations is taking 

	preventive or enforcement action.

	6. The Organization shall ensure that states which are 

	not Members of the United Nations act in accordance with

	these Principles so far as may be necessary for the 

	maintenance of international peace and security.

	7. Nothing contained in the present Charter shall 

	Authorize the United Nations to intervene in matters 

	which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of 

	any state or shall require the Members to submit such 	

	matters to settlement under the present Charter; but this 

	Principle shall not prejudice the application of 

	Enforcement measures under Chapter VII.

	Chapter II

	Membership

	Article 3

The original Members of the United Nations shall be the states

which, having participated in the United Nations Conference on

International Organization at San Francisco, or having 

previously signed the Declaration by the United Nations of 

89

1 January 1942, sign the present Charter and ratify it in 

accordance with Article 110.

	Article 4

1. Membership in the United Nations is open to all other 

peace-loving states which accept the obligations contained in 

The present Charter and, in the judgment of the Organization, 

Are able and willing to carry out these obligations.

2. The admission of any such state to membership in the United

Nations will be effected by a decision of the General Assembly

upon the recommendation of the Security Council.

	Article 5

A Member of the United Nations against which preventive or 

enforcement action has been taken by the Security Council may

be suspended from the exercise of the rights and privileges of

membership by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of 

the Security Council. The exercise of these rights and 

privileges may be restored by the Security Council.

	Article 6

A Member of the United Nations which has persistently violated

the Principles contained in the present Charter may be 

90

expelled from the Organization by the General Assembly upon 

the recommendation of the Security Council.

	Chapter III

	Organs

	Article 7

1. There are established as the principal organs of the United

Nations:

a General Assembly,

a Security Council,

an Economic and Social Council,

a Trusteeship Council,

an International Court of Justice,

and a Secretariat.

2. Such subsidiary organs as may be found necessary may be 

established in accordance with the present Charter.

	Article 8

The United Nations shall place no restrictions on the 

eligibility of men and women to participate in any capacity

and under conditions of equality in its principal and 

subsidiary groups.

91

	Chapter IV

The General Assembly

	Composition

Article 9

1. The General Assembly shall consist of the Members of the 

United Nations.

2. Each Member shall have not more than five representatives 

in the General Assembly.

Functions and Powers

	Article 10

The General Assembly may discuss any questions or any matters

within the scope of the present Charter or relating to the 

powers and functions of any organs provided for in the present

Charter, and, except as provided in Article 12, may take 

recommendations to the Members of the United Nations or to the 

Security Council or to both on any such questions or matters.

	Article 11

1. The General Assembly may consider the general principles of

co-operation in the maintenance of international peace and 

security, including the principles governing disarmament and 

the regulation of armaments, and may make recommendations with

92

regard to such principles to the Members or to the Security

Council or to both.

2. The General Assembly may discuss any questions relating to

the maintenance of international peace and security brought 

before it by any Member of the United Nations, or by the 

Security Council, or by a state which is not a Member of the 

United Nations in accordance with Article 35, paragraph 2, 

and, except as provided in Article 12, may make 

recommendations with regard to any such questions to the state 

or states concerned or to the Security Council or to both. Any 

such question on which action is necessary shall be referred 

to the Security Council by the General Assembly either before 

or after discussion.

3. The General Assembly may call the attention of the Security

Council to situations which are likely to endanger 

International peace and security.

4. The powers of the General Assembly set forth in this 

Article shall not limit the general scope of Article 10.

	Article 12

1. While the Security Council is exercising in respect of any 

dispute or situation the functions assigned to it in the 

93

Present Charter, the General Assembly shall not make any 

Recommendation with regard to that dispute or situation unless 

the Security Council so requests.

2. The Secretary-General, with the consent of the Security 

Council, shall notify the General Assembly at each session of 

any matters relative to the maintenance of international peace

and security which are being dealt with by the Security 

Council and shall similarly notify the General Assembly, or 

the Members of the United Nations if the General Assembly is 

not in session, immediately the Security Council ceases to 

deal with such matters.

	Article 13

1. The General Assembly shall initiate studies and make 

recommendations for the purpose of:

	a. Promoting international co-operation in the political 

	field and encouraging the progressive development of 

	international law and its codification;

	b. Promoting international co-operation in the economic,

	social, cultural, educational, and health fields, and 

	assisting in the realization of human rights and 

94

	fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to 

	race, sex, language, or religion.

2. The further responsibilities, functions and powers of the

General Assembly with respect to matters mentioned in 

Paragraph 1 (b) above are set forth in Chapters IX and X.

	Article 14

Subject to the provisions of Article 12, the General Assembly 

may recommend measures for the peaceful adjustment of any 

situation, regardless of origin, which it deems likely to 

Impair the general welfare or friendly relations among 

nations, including situations resulting from a violation of 

the provisions of the present Charter setting forth the 

Purposes and Principles of the United Nations.

	Article 15

1. The General Assembly shall receive and consider annual and 

special reports from the Security Council; these reports shall

include an account of the measures that the Security Council 

has decided upon or taken to maintain international peace and 

security.

2. The General Assembly shall receive and consider reports 

from the other organs of the United Nations.

95

	Article 16

The General Assembly shall perform such functions with respect

to the international trusteeship system as are assigned to it 

under Chapters XII and XIII, including the approval of the 

trusteeship agreements for areas not designated as strategic.

	Article 17

1. The General Assembly shall consider and approve the budget 

Of the Organization.

2. The expenses of the Organization shall be borne by the 

Members as apportioned by the General Assembly.

3. The General Assembly shall consider and approve any 

financial and budgetary arrangements with specialized agencies 

referred to in Article 57 and shall examine the administrative 

budgets of such specialized agencies with a view to making 

Recommendations to the agencies concerned.

	Voting

	Article 18

1. Each member of the General Assembly shall have one vote.

	A. Decisions of the General Assembly on important 

	Questions shall be made by a two-thirds majority of the 

	Members present and voting. These questions shall 

96

	include: recommendations with respect to the maintenance of 

	international peace and security, the election of non-

	permanent members of the Security Council, the election 

	Of the members of the Economic and Social Council, the 

	election of members of the Trusteeship Council in 

	Accordance with paragraph 1 (c) of Article 86, the 

	admission of new Members to the United Nations, the 

	suspension of the rights and privileges of membership, 

	the expulsion of Members, questions relating to the 

	operation of the trusteeship system, and budgetary 

	questions.

2. Decisions on other questions, including the determination

of additional categories of questions to be decided by a two-

thirds majority, shall be made by a majority of the members

present and voting.

	Article 19

A Member of the United Nations which is in arrears in the  

payment of its financial contributions to the Organization

shall have no vote in the General Assembly if the amount of 

its arrears equals or exceeds the amount of the contributions

due from it for the preceding two full years. The General

97

Assembly may, nevertheless, permit such a Member to vote if it

is satisfied that the failure to pay is due to conditions 

beyond control of the Member.

	Procedure

	Article 20

The General Assembly shall meet in regular annual sessions and 

in such special sessions as occasion may require. Special 

sessions shall be convoked by the Secretary-General at the 

request of the Security Council or of a majority of the 

Members of the United Nations.

	Article 21

The General Assembly shall adopt its own rules of procedure. 

It shall elect its President for each session.

	Article 22

The General Assembly may establish such subsidiary organs as 

it deems necessary for the performance of its functions.

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Chapter V

The Security Council

Composition

Article 23

1. The Security Council shall consist of fifteen Members of 

the United Nations. The Republic of China, France, the Union 

Of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom of Great 

Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America 

shall be permanent members of the Security Council. The 

General Assembly shall elect ten other Members of the United 

Nations to be non-permanent members of the Security Council, 

due regard being specially paid, in the first instance to the 

contribution of Members of the United Nations to the 

maintenance of international peace and security and to the 

other purposes of the Organization, and also to equitable 

Geographical distribution.

2. The non-permanent members of the Security Council shall be

elected for a term of two years. In the first election of the 

non-permanent members after the increase of the membership of 

the Security Council from eleven to fifteen, two of the four 

99

additional members shall be chosen for a term of one year. A 

retiring member shall not be eligible for immediate re-

election.

3. Each member of the Security Council shall have one 

representative.

Functions and Powers

	Article 24

1. In order to ensure prompt and effective action by the 

United Nations, its Members confer on the Security Council 

primary responsibility for the maintenance of international 

peace and security, and agree in carrying out its duties under 

This responsibility the Security Council acts on their behalf.

2. In discharging these duties the Security Council shall act 

in accordance with the Purposes and Principles of the United 

Nations. The specific powers granted to the Security Council 

for the discharge of these duties are laid down in Chapters 

VI, VII, VIII, and XII.

3. The Security Council shall submit annual and, when 

necessary, special reports to the General Assembly for its 

consideration.

100

	Article 25

The Members of the United Nations agree to accept and carry 

out the decisions of the Security Council in accordance with 

the present Charter.

	Article 26

In order to promote the establishment and maintenance of 

international peace and security with the least diversion for

armaments of the world's human and economic resources, the 

Security Council shall be responsible for formulating, with 

the assistance of the Military Staff Committee referred to in 

Article 47, plans to be submitted to the Members of the United 

Nations for the establishment of a system for the regulation 

of armaments.

	Voting

	Article 27

1. Each member of the Security Council shall have one vote.

2. Decisions of the Security Council on procedural matters 

shall be made by an affirmative vote of nine members.

3. Decisions of the Security Council on all other matters 

shall be made by an affirmative vote of nine members including 

the concurring votes of the permanent members; provided that, 

101

in decisions under Chapter VI, and under paragraph 3 of 

Article 52, a party to a dispute shall abstain from voting.

	Procedure

	Article 28

1. The Security Council shall be so organized as to be able to

function continuously. Each member of the Security Council 

shall for this purpose be represented at all times at the seat 

of the Organization.

2. The Security Council shall hold periodic meetings at which 

each of its members may, if it so desires, be represented by a 

member of the government or by some other specially designated

representative.

3. The Security Council may hold meetings at such places other

than the seat of the Organization as in its judgment will best 

facilitate its work.

	Article 29

The Security Council may establish such subsidiary organs as 

it deems necessary for the performance of its functions.

	Article 30

The Security Council shall adopt its own rules of procedure,

including the method of selecting its President.

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	Article 31

Any Member of the United Nations which is not a member of the 

Security Council may participate, without vote, in the 

discussion of any question brought before the Security Council 

whenever the latter considers that the interests of that 

Member are specially affected.

	Article 32

Any Member of the United Nations which is not a member of the 

Security Council or any state which is not a Member of the 

United Nations, if it is a party to a dispute under 

consideration by the Security Council, shall be invited to 

participate, without vote, in the discussion relating to the 

dispute. The Security Council shall lay down such conditions 

as it deems just for the participation of a state which is not 

a Member of the United Nations.

	Chapter VI

Pacific Settlement of Disputes

	Article 33

1. The parties to any dispute, the continuance is likely to 

endanger the maintenance of international peace and security, 

shall, first of all, seek a solution by negotiation, enquiry,

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mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement, 

resort to regional agencies or arrangements, or other peaceful 

means of their own choice.

2. The Security Council shall, when it deems necessary, call 

upon the parties to settle their dispute by such means.

	Article 34

The Security Council may investigate any dispute, or any 

situation which might lead to international friction or give 

rise to a dispute, in order to determine whether the 

continuance of the dispute or situation is likely to endanger 

the maintenance of international peace and security.

	Article 35

1. Any Member of the United Nations may bring any dispute, or 

any situation of the nature referred to in Article 34, to the 

attention of the Security Council or of the General Assembly.

2. A state which is not a Member of the United Nations may 

bring to the attention of the Security Council or of the 

General Assembly any dispute to which it is a party if it 

accepts in advance, for the purposes of the dispute, the 

obligations of pacific settlement provided in the present 

Charter.

104

3. The proceedings of the General Assembly in respect of 

matters brought to its attention under this Article will be 

subject to the provisions of Articles 11 and 12.

	Article 36

1. The Security Council may, at any stage of a dispute of the 

nature referred to in Article 33 or of a situation of like

nature, recommend appropriate procedures or methods of 

adjustment.

2. The Security Council should take into consideration any 

procedure for the settlement of the dispute which have already

been adopted by the parties.

3. In making recommendations under this Article the Security

Council should also take into consideration that legal 

disputes should as a general rule be referred by the parties 

to the International Court of Justice in accordance with the 

provisions of the Statute of the Court.

	Article 37

1. Should the parties to a dispute of the nature referred to 

in Article 33 fail to settle it by means indicated in that 

Article, they shall refer it to the Security Council.

105

2. If the Security Council deems that the continuance of the 

dispute is in fact likely to endanger the maintenance of

international peace and security, it shall decide whether to

take action under Article 36 or to recommend such terms of

settlement as it may consider appropriate.

	Article 38

Without prejudice to the provisions of Article 33 to 37, the 

Security Council may, if all the parties to any dispute so 

request, make recommendations to the parties with a view to a 

pacific settlement of the dispute.

Chapter VII

Action with Respect to Threats to the Peace,

Breaches of the Peace, and Acts of Aggression

Article 39

The Security Council shall determine the existence of any 

threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression 

and shall make recommendations, or decide what measures shall 

be taken in accordance with Articles 41 and 42, to maintain or 

restore international peace and security.

106

	Article 40

In order to prevent an aggravation of the situation, the 

Security Council may, before making the recommendations or 

deciding upon the measures provided for in Article 39, call

upon the parties concerned to comply with such provisional 

measures as it deems necessary or desirable. Such provisional 

measures shall be without prejudice to the rights, claims, or

position of the parties concerned. The Security Council shall 

duly take account of failure to comply with such provisional

measures.
						Article 41

The Security Council may decide what measures not involving 

the use of armed force are to be employed to give effect to 

its decisions, and it may call upon the Members of the United 

Nations to apply such measures. These may include complete or

partial interruption of economic relations and of all rail, 

sea, air. Postal, telegraphic, radio, and other means of 

communication, and the severance of diplomatic relations.

	Article 42

Should the Security Council consider that measures provided

for in Article 41 would be inadequate or have proved to be 

inadequate, it may take such action by air, sea, or land 

107

forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore 

international peace and security. Such action may include 

demonstrations, blockade, and other operations by air, sea, or 

land forces of Members of the United Nations.

	Article 43

1. All Members of the United Nations, in order to contribute 

to the maintenance of international peace and security, 

undertake to make available to the Security Council, on its 

call and in accordance with a special agreement or agreements, 

armed forces, assistance, and facilities, including rights of 

passage, necessary for the purpose of maintaining 

international peace and security.

2. Such agreement or agreements shall govern the numbers and 

types of forces, their degree of readiness and general 

location, and the nature of the facilities and assistance to

be provided.

3. The agreement or agreements shall be negotiated as soon as 

possible on the initiative of the Security Council. They shall

be concluded between the Security Council and Members or 

between the Security Council and groups of Members and shall 

108

be subject to ratification by the signatory states in 

accordance with their respective constitutional processes.

	Article 44

When the Security Council has decided to use force it shall, 

before calling upon a Member not represented on it to provide 

armed forces in fulfillment of the obligations assumed under 

Article 43, invite that Member, if the Member so desires, to

participate in the decisions of the Security Council 

concerning the employment of contingents of that Member's 

armed forces.

	Article 45

In order to enable the United Nations to take urgent military 

measures, Members shall hold immediately available national

air-force contingents for combined international enforcement 

action. The strength and degree of readiness of these 

contingents and plans for their combined action shall be 

determined within the limits laid down in the special 

agreement or agreements referred to in Article 43, by the 

Security Council with the assistance of the Military Staff

Committee.

109

	Article 46

Plans for the application of armed force shall be made by the

Security Council with the assistance of the Military Staff 

Committee.

 Article 47

1. There shall be established a Military Staff Committee to 

advise and assist the Security Council on all questions 

relating to the Security Council's military requirements for 

the maintenance of international peace and security, the 

employment and command of forces placed at its disposal, the  

regulation of armaments, and possible disarmament.

2. The Military Staff Committee shall consist of the Chiefs of

Staff of the permanent members of the Security Council or 

their representatives. Any Member of the United Nations not 

permanently represented on the Committee shall be invited by 

the Committee to be associated with it when the efficient 

discharge of the Committee's responsibilities requires the 

participation of that Member in its work.

3. The Military Staff Committee shall be responsible under the 

Security Council for the strategic direction of any armed 

forces placed at the disposal of the Security Council. 

Questions relating to the command of such forces shall be 

worked out subsequently.                            110

4. The Military Staff Committee, with the authorization of 

the Security Council and after consultation with appropriate

regional agencies, may establish regional sub-committees. 

	Article 48

1. The action required to carry out the decisions of the 

Security Council for the maintenance of international peace 

and security shall be taken by all the Members of the United 

Nations or by some of them, as the Security Council may 

determine.

2. Such decisions shall be carried out by the Members of the 

United Nations directly and through their action in the 

appropriate international agencies of which they are 

members.
	Article 49

The Members of the United Nations shall join in affording 

mutual assistance in carrying out the measures decided upon by 

the Security Council.
	Article 50

If preventive or enforcement measures against any state are 

taken by the Security Council, any other state, whether a 

Member of the United Nations or not, which finds itself 

confronted with special economic problems arising from the 

111

carrying out of those measures shall have the right to consult

the Security Council with regard to a solution of those 

problems.
	Article 51

Nothing in the present Charter shall impair the inherent right

of individual or collective self-defence if any armed attack

occurs against a Member of the United Nations, until the 

Security Council has taken measures necessary to maintain 

international peace and security. Measures taken by Members in

the exercise of this right of self-defence shall be

immediately reported to the Security Council and shall not in 

any way affect the authority and responsibility of the 

Security Council under the present Charter to take at any time 

such action as it deems necessary in order to maintain or 

restore international peace and security.

	Chapter VIII

Regional Arrangements

	Article 52

1. Nothing in the present Charter precludes the existence of 

regional arrangements or agencies for dealing with such 

matters relating to the maintenance of international peace and 

security as are appropriate for regional action provided that 

112

such arrangements or agencies and their activities are 

consistent with the Purposes and Principles of the United 

Nations.

2. The Members of the United Nations entering into such 

arrangements or constituting such agencies shall make every 

effort to achieve pacific settlement of local disputes through

such regional arrangements or by such regional agencies before

referring them to the Security Council.

3. The Security Council shall encourage the development of 

pacific settlement of local disputes through such regional 

arrangements or by such regional agencies either on the 

initiative of the states concerned or by reference from the 

Security Council.

4. The Article in no way impairs the application of Articles

34 and 35.

	Article 53

1. The Security Council shall, where appropriate, utilize such

regional arrangements or agencies for enforcement action under 

its authority. But no enforcement action shall be taken under

regional arrangements or by regional agencies without the 

authorization of the Security Council, with the exception of

113

measures against any enemy state, as defined in paragraph 2

of this Article, provided for pursuant to Article 107 or in 

regional arrangements directed against renewal of aggressive

policy on the part of any such state, until such time as the 

Organization may, on request of the Governments concerned,

be charged with the responsibility for preventing further 

aggression by such a state.

2. The term enemy state as used in paragraph 1 of this Article 

applies to any state which during the Second World War has 

been an enemy of any signatory of the present Charter.

	Article 54

The Security Council shall at all times be kept fully informed

of activities undertaken or in contemplation under regional 

arrangements or by regional agencies for the maintenance of 

international peace and security.

Chapter IX

International Economic and Social Co-operation

Article 55

With a view to the creation of conditions of stability and 

well-being which are necessary for peaceful and friendly 

relations among nations based on respect for the principle of 

114

equal rights and self-determination of peoples, the United 

Nations shall promote:

a. Higher standards of living, full employment, and conditions 

of economic and social progress and development;

b. Solutions of international economic, social, health, and 

related problems; and international cultural and educational

cooperation; and

c. Universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and 

fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, 

sex, language, or religion.

	Article 56

All Members pledge themselves to take joint and separate 

action in co-operation with the Organization for the 

achievement of the purposes set forth in Article 55.

	Article 57

1. The various specialized agencies, established by 

intergovernmental agreement and having wide international

responsibilities, as defined in their basic instruments, in

economic, social, cultural, educational, health, and related 

fields, shall be brought into relationship with the United

Nations in accordance with the provisions of Article 63.

115

2. Such agencies thus brought into relationship with the 

United Nations are hereinafter referred to as specialized 

agencies.
	Article 58

The Organization shall make recommendations for the co-

ordination of the policies and activities of the specialized

agencies.
	Article 59

The Organization shall, where appropriate, initiate 

negotiations among the states concerned for the creation of 

any new specialized agencies required for the accomplishment 

of the purposes set forth in Article 55.

	Article 60

Responsibility for the discharge of the functions of the 

Organization set forth in this Chapter shall be vested in the 

General Assembly and, under the authority of the General 

Assembly, in the Economic and Social Council, which shall have

for this purpose the powers set forth in Chapter X.

116

	Chapter X

The Economic and Social Council

	Composition

	Article 61

1. The Economic and Social Council shall consist of fifty-four

Members of the United Nations elected by the General Assembly.

2. Subject to the provisions of paragraph 3, eighteen members 

of the Economic and Social Council shall be elected each year

for a term of three years. A retiring member shall be eligible 

for immediate re-election.

3. At the first election after the increase in the membership

of the Economic and Social Council from twenty-seven to fifty-

four members, in addition to the members elected in place of 

the nine members whose term of office expires at the end of 

that year, twenty-seven additional members shall be elected. 

Of these twenty-seven additional members, the term of office

of nine members so elected shall expire at the end of one 

year, and of nine other members at the end of two years, 

in accordance with arrangements made by the General Assembly.

4. Each member of the Economic and Social Council shall have

one representative.

117

	Functions and Powers

	Article 62

1. The Economic and Social Council may make or initiate 

studies and reports with respect to international economic, 

social, cultural, educational, health, and related matters and 

may make recommendations with respect to any such matters to 

the General Assembly to the Members of the United Nations, and 

to the specialized agencies concerned.

2. It may make recommendations for the purpose of promoting

respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental

freedoms for all.

3. It may prepare draft conventions for submission to the 

General Assembly, with respect to matters falling within its 

competence.

4. It may call, in accordance with the rules prescribed by the

United Nations, international conferences on matters falling 

within its competence.

	Article 63

1. The Economic and Social Council may enter into agreements

with any of the agencies referred to in Article 57, defining 

the terms on which the agency concerned shall be brought into

118

relationship with the United Nations. Such agreements shall be

subject to approval by the General Assembly.

2. It may co-ordinate the activities of the specialized 

agencies through consultation with and recommendations to such 

agencies and through recommendations to the General Assembly 

and to the Members of the United Nations.

	Article 64

1. The Economic and Social Council may take appropriate steps 

to obtain regular reports from the specialized agencies. It 

may make arrangements with the Members of the United Nations 

and with the specialized agencies to obtain reports on the 

steps taken to give effect to its own recommendations and to 

recommendations on matters falling within its competence made

by the General Assembly.

2. It may communicate its observations on these reports to the 

General Assembly.

	Article 65

The Economic and Social Council may furnish information to the

Security Council and shall assist the Security Council upon 

its request.

119

	Article 66

1. The Economic and Social Council shall perform such 

functions as fall within its competence in connexion with the 

carrying out of the recommendations of the General Assembly.

2. It may, with the approval of the General Assembly, perform

services at the request of Members of the United Nations and 

at the request of specialized agencies.

3. It shall perform such other functions as are specified 

elsewhere in the present Charter or as may be assigned to it 

by the General Assembly.

	Voting

	Article 67

1. Each member of the Economic and Social Council shall have 

one vote.

2. Decisions of the Economic and Social Council shall be made 

by a majority of the members present and voting.

	Procedure

	Article 68

The Economic and Social Council shall setup commissions in 

economic and social fields and for the promotion of human 

120

rights, and such other commissions as may be required for the

performance of its functions.

	Article 69

The Economic and Social Council shall invite any Member of the 

United Nations to participate, without vote, in its 

deliberations on any matter of particular concern to that 

Member.

	Article 70

The Economic and Social Council may make arrangements for

representatives of the specialized agencies to participate, 

without vote, in its deliberations and in those of the 

commissions established by it, and for its representatives to

participate in the deliberations of the specialized agencies.

	Article 71

The Economic and Social Council may make suitable arrangements

for consultation with non-governmental organizations which are

concerned with matters within its competence. Such 

arrangements may be made with international organizations and, 

where appropriate, with national organizations after 

consultation with the Member of the United Nations concerned.

121

	Article 72

1. The Economic and Social Council shall adopt its own rules 

of procedure, including the method of selecting its President.

2. The Economic and Social Council shall meet as required in 

accordance with its rules, which shall include provisions for 

the convening of meetings on the request of a majority of its 

members.
Chapter XI

Declaration Regarding Non-Self-Governing Territories

Article 73

Members of the United Nations which have or assume 

responsibilities for the administration of territories whose

peoples have not yet attained a full measure of self-

government recognize the principal that the interests of the 

inhabitants of these territories are paramount, and accept as 

a sacred trust the obligation to promote to the utmost, within 

the system of international peace and security established by 

the present Charter, the well-being of the inhabitants of 

these territories, and, to this end:

a. To ensure, with due respect to the culture of the peoples 

concerned, their political, economic, social, and educational 

122

advancement, their just treatment, and their protection 

against abuses;

b. To develop self-government, to take due account of the 

political aspirations of the peoples, and to assist them in 

the progressive development of their free political 

institutions, according to the particular circumstances of 

each territory and its peoples and their varying stages of 

advancement;

c. To further international peace and security;

d. To promote constructive measures of development, to 

encourage research, and to co-operate with one another and, 

when and where appropriate, with specialized international 

bodies with a view to the practical achievement of the social, 

economic, and scientific purposes set forth in this 

Article; and

e. To transmit regularly to the Secretary-General for 

information purposes, subject to such limitation as security 

and constitutional considerations may require, statistical and

other information of a technical nature relating to economic,

social, and educational conditions in the territories for 

123

which they are respectively responsible other than those 

territories to which Chapters XII and XIII apply.

	Article 74

Members of the United Nations also agree that their policy in 

respect of the territories to which this Chapter applies, no 

less than in respect of their metropolitan areas, must be 

based on the general principle of good-neighbourliness, due 

account being taken of the interests and well-being of the 

rest of the world, in social, economic, and commercial 

matters.

	Chapter XII

International Trusteeship System

	Article 75

The United Nations shall establish under its authority an

international trusteeship system for the administration and

supervision of such territories as may be placed thereunder by

subsequent individual agreements. These territories are 

hereinafter referred to as trust territories.

124

	Article 76

The basic objectives of the trusteeship system, in accordance

with the Purposes of the United Nations laid down in Article 1

of the present Charter, shall be:

a. To further international peace and security;

b. To promote the political, economic, social, and educational

advancement of the inhabitants of the trust territories, and 

their progressive development towards self-government or 

independence as may be appropriate to the particular 

circumstances of each territory and its peoples and the freely

expressed wishes of the peoples concerned, and as may be 

provided by the terms of each trusteeship agreement;

c. To encourage respect for human rights and for fundamental

freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, 

language, or religion, and to encourage recognition of the 

interdependence of the peoples of the world; and

d. To encourage equal treatment in social, economic, and 

commercial matters for all Members of the United Nations and

their nationals, and also equal treatment for the latter in 

the administration of justice, without prejudice to the 

125

attainment of the foregoing objectives and subject to the 

provisions of Article 80.

	Article 77

1. The trusteeship system shall apply to such territories in 

the following categories as may be placed thereunder by means 

of trusteeship agreements:

a. Territories now held under mandate;

b. Territories which may be detached from enemy states as a 

result of the Second World War; and

c. Territories voluntarily placed under the system by states

responsible for their administration.

2. It will be a matter for subsequent agreement as to which

territories in the foregoing categories will be brought under

the trusteeship system and upon what terms.

	Article 78

The trusteeship system shall not apply to territories which 

have become Members of the United Nations, relationship among 

which shall be based on respect for the principle of sovereign

equality.

	

126

Article 79 

The terms of trusteeship for each territory to be placed under 

the trusteeship system, including any alteration or amendment, 

shall be agreed upon by the states directly concerned, 

including the mandatory power in the case of territories held 

under mandate by a Member of the United Nations, and shall be 

approved as provided for in Articles 83 and 85.

	Article 80

1. Except as may be agreed upon in individual trusteeship 

agreements, made under Articles 77, 79, and 81, placing each 

territory under the trusteeship system, and until such 

agreements have been concluded, nothing in this Chapter shall

be construed in or of itself to alter in any manner the rights

whatsoever of any states or any peoples or the terms of 

existing international instruments to which Members of the 

United Nations may respectively be parties.

2. Paragraph 1 of this Article shall not be interpreted as 

giving grounds for delay or postponement of the negotiation 

and conclusion of agreements for placing mandated and other 

territories under the trusteeship system as provided for in 

Article 77.

127

Article 81

The trusteeship agreement shall in each case include the terms 

under which the trust territory will be administered and 

designate the authority which will exercise the administration 

of the trust territory. Such authority, hereinafter called the 

administering authority, may be one or more states or the

Organization itself.

	Article 82

There may be designated, in any trusteeship agreement, a 

strategic area or areas which may include part or all of the 

trust territory to which the agreement applies, without 

prejudice to any special agreement or agreements made under 

Article 43.

	Article 83

1. All functions of the United Nations relating to strategic 

areas, including the approval of the terms of the trusteeship

agreements and of their alteration or amendment, shall be 

exercised by the Security Council.

2. The basic objectives set forth in Article 76 shall be 

applicable to the people of each strategic area.

128

3. The Security Council shall, subject to the provisions of 

the trusteeship agreements and without prejudice to security 

considerations, avail itself of the assistance of the 

Trusteeship Council to perform those functions of the United

Nations under the trusteeship system relating to political,

economic, social, and educational matters in the strategic 

areas.
	Article 84

It shall be the duty of the administering authority to ensure

that the trust territory shall play its part in the 

maintenance of international peace and security. To this end 

the administering authority may make use of volunteer forces, 

facilities, and assistance from the trust territory in 

carrying out the obligations towards the Security Council 

undertaken in this regard by the administering authority, as 

well as for local defence and the maintenance of law and order 

within the trust territory.

	Article 85

1. The functions of the United Nations with regard to 

trusteeship agreements for all areas not designated as 

129

strategic, including the approval of the terms of the 

trusteeship agreements and of their alteration or amendment. 

Shall be exercised by the General Assembly.

2. The Trusteeship Council, operating under the authority of

the General Assembly, shall assist the General Assembly in 

carrying out these functions.

	Chapter XIII

The Trusteeship Council

	Composition

	Article 86

1. The Trusteeship Council shall consist of the following 

Members of the United Nations:

	a. Those Members administering trust territories;

	b. Such of those Members mentioned by name in Article 23

	as are not administering trust territories; and

	c. As many other Members elected for three-year terms by 

	the General Assembly as may be necessary to ensure that 

	the total number of members of the Trusteeship Council is

	equally divided between those Members of the United 

	Nations which administer trust territories and those 

	which do not.

130

2. Each member of the Trusteeship Council shall designate one 

specially qualified person to represent it therein.

Functions and Powers

Article 87

The General Assembly and, under its authority, the Trusteeship 

Council, in carrying out their functions, may:

a. Consider reports submitted by the administering authority;

b. Accept petitions and examine them in consultation with the 

administering authority;

c. Provide for periodic visits to the respective trust 

territories at times agreed upon with the administering 

authority; and

d. Take these and other actions in conformity with the terms

of the trusteeship agreements.

	Article 88

The Trusteeship Council shall formulate a questionnaire on the 

political, economic, social, and educational advancement of 

the inhabitants of each trust territory, and the administering 

authority for each trust territory within the competence of 

the General Assembly shall make an annual report to the 

General Assembly upon the basis of such questionnaire.

131

	Voting

	Article 89

1. Each member of the Trusteeship Council shall have one vote.

2. Decisions of the Trusteeship Council shall be made by a 

majority of the members present and voting.

	Procedure

	Article 90

1. The Trusteeship Council shall adopt its own rules of 

procedure, including the method of selecting its President.

2. The Trusteeship Council shall meet as required in 

accordance with its rules, which shall include provision for 

the convening of meetings on the request of a majority of its 

members.

	Article 91

The Trusteeship Council shall, when appropriate, avail itself 

of the assistance of the Economic and Social Council and the  

specialized agencies in regard to matters with which they are

respectively concerned.

132

Chapter XIV

The International Court of Justice

Article 92

The International Court of Justice shall be the principal 

judicial organ of the United Nations. It shall function in 

accordance with the annexed Statute, which is based upon the 

Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice and 

forms an integral part of the present Charter.

	Article 93

1. All Members of the United Nations are ipso facto parties to 

the Statute of the International Court of Justice.

2. A state which is not a Member of the United Nations may 

become a party to the Statute of the International Court of 

Justice on conditions to be determined in each case by the 

General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security 

Council.

	Article 94

1. Each Member of the United Nations undertakes to comply with

the decision of the International Court of Justice in any case

to which it is a party.

133

2. If any party to a case fails to perform the obligations 

incumbent upon it under a judgment rendered by the Court, the 

other party may have recourse to the Security Council, which

may, if it deems necessary, make recommendations or decide 

upon measures to be taken to give effect to the judgment.

	Article 95

Nothing in the present Charter shall prevent Members of the 

United Nations from entrusting the solution of their 

differences to other tribunals by virtue of agreements already 

in existence or which may be concluded in the future.

	Article 96

1. The General Assembly or the Security Council may request 

the International Court of Justice to give an advisory opinion 

on any legal question.

2. Other organs of the United Nations and specialized 

agencies, which may at any time be so authorized by the 

General Assembly, may also request advisory opinions of the 

Court on legal questions arising within the scope of their 

activities.

	
134

Chapter XV

	The Secretariat

Article 97

The Secretariat shall comprise a Secretary-General and such 

staff as the Organization may require. The Secretary-General 

shall be appointed by the General Assembly upon the 

recommendation of the Security Council. He shall be the chief

administrative officer of the Organization.

	Article 98

The Secretary-General shall act in that capacity in all 

meetings of the General Assembly, of the Security Council, of 

the Economic and Social Council, and of the Trusteeship 

Council, and shall perform such other functions as are 

entrusted to him by these organs. The Secretary-General shall 

make an annual report to the General Assembly on the work of 

the Organization.

	Article 99

The Secretary-General may bring to the attention of the 

Security Council any matter which in his opinion may threaten 

the maintenance of international peace and security.

135

Article 100

1. In the performance of their duties the Secretary-General 

and the staff shall not seek or receive instructions from any

government or from any other authority external to the 

Organization. They shall refrain from any action which might 

reflect on their position as international officials 

responsible only to the Organization.

2. Each Member of the United Nations undertakes to respect the 

exclusively international character of the responsibilities of 

the Secretary-General and the staff and not to seek to 

influence them in the discharge of their responsibilities.

	Article 101

1. The staff shall be appointed by the Secretary-General under 

regulations established by the General Assembly.

2. Appropriate staffs shall be permanently assigned to the 

Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, and, 

as required, to other organs of the United Nations. These 

staffs shall form a part of the Secretariat.

3. The paramount consideration in the employment of the staff

and in the determination of the conditions of service shall be

the necessity of securing the highest standards of efficiency,

136

competence, and integrity. Due regard shall be paid to the 

importance of recruiting the staff on as wide a geographical

basis as possible.

	Chapter XVI

Miscellaneous Provisions

	Article 102

1. Every treaty and every international agreement entered into 

by any Member of the United Nations after the present Charter 

comes into force shall as soon as possible be registered with

the Secretariat and published by it.

2. No party to any such treaty or international agreement 

which has not been registered in accordance with the 

provisions of paragraph 1 of this Article may invoke that 

treaty or agreement before any organ of the United Nations.

	Article 103

In the event of a conflict between the obligations of the 

Members of the United Nations under its present Charter and 

their obligations under any other international agreement,

their obligation under the present Charter shall prevail.

137

Article 104

The Organization shall enjoy in the territory of each of its

Members such legal capacity as may be necessary for the 

exercise of its functions and the fulfillment of its purposes.

	Article 105

1. The Organization shall enjoy in the territory of each of 

its Members such privileges and immunities as are necessary 

for the fulfillment of its purposes.

2. Representatives of the Members of the United Nations and 

officials of the Organization shall similarly enjoy such

privileges and immunities as are necessary for the independent

exercise of their functions in connexion with the 

Organization.

3. The General Assembly may make recommendations with a view 

to determining the details of the application of paragraph 1 

and 2 of this Article or may propose conventions to the 

Members of the United Nations for this purpose.

	

138

Chapter XVII

Transitional Security Arrangements

Article 106

Pending the coming into force of such special agreements 

referred to in Article 43, as in the opinion of the Security 

Council enable it to begin the exercise of its 

responsibilities under Article 42, the parties to the Four-

Nation Declaration, signed at Moscow, 30 October 1943, and 

France, shall, in accordance with the provisions of paragraph 

5 of that Declaration, consult with one another and as 

occasion requires with other Members of the United Nations 

with a view to such joint action on behalf of the Organization 

as may be necessary for the purpose of maintaining 

international peace and security.

	Article 107

Nothing in the present Charter shall invalidate or preclude 

action, in relation to any state which during the Second World

War has been an enemy of any signatory to the present Charter,

taken or authorized as a result of that war by the Governments

having responsibility for such action.

	
139

Chapter XVIII

Amendments

Article 108

Amendments to the present Charter shall come into force for 

all Members of the United Nations when they have been adopted 

by a vote of two-thirds of the members of the General Assembly

and ratified in accordance with their respective 

constitutional processes by two-thirds of the Members of the 

United Nations, including all the permanent members of the 

Security Council.

	Article 109

1. A General Conference of the Members of the United Nations

for the purpose of reviewing the present Charter may be held 

at a date and place to be fixed by a two-thirds vote of the 

members of the General Assembly and by a vote of any nine

members of the Security Council. Each Member of the United 

Nations shall have one vote in the Conference.

2. Any alteration of the present Charter recommended by a two-

thirds vote of the Conference shall take effect when ratified 

in accordance with their respective constitutional processes

by two-thirds of the Members of the United Nations including 

140

all the permanent members of the Security Council.

3. If such a Conference has not been held before the tenth

annual session of the General Assembly following the coming 

into force of the present Charter, the proposal to call such

a Conference shall be placed on the agenda of that session of

the General Assembly, and the Conference shall be held if so

decided by a majority vote of the members of the General 

Assembly and by a vote of any seven members of the Security

Council.

	Chapter XIX

Ratification and Signature

	Article 110

1. The present Charter shall be ratified by the signatory 

states in accordance with their respective constitutional 

processes.

2. The ratification's shall be deposited with the Government 

of the United States of America, which shall notify all the 

signatory states of each deposit as well as the Secretary-

General of the Organization, when he has been appointed.

3. The present Charter shall come into force upon the deposit

of ratification's by the Republic of China, France, the Union

141

of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom of Great

Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of 

America, and by a majority of other signatory states. A 

protocol of the ratification's deposited shall thereupon be 

drawn up by the Government of the United States of America 

which shall communicate copies thereof to all the signatory 

states.

4. The states signatory to the present Charter which ratify 

it after it has come into force will become original Members

of the United Nations on the date of deposit of their 

respective ratification's.

	Article 111

The present Charter, of which the Chinese, French, Russian, 

English, and Spanish texts are equally authentic, shall 

remain deposited in the archives of the Government of the 

United States of America. Duly certified copies thereof shall

be transmitted by that Government to the Governments of the 

other signatory states.

In faith whereof the representatives of the Governments of the 

United Nations have signed the present Charter.

142

Done at the city of San Francisco the twenty-sixth day of 

June, one thousand nine hundred and forty-five.

	Notes

1. Charter came into force on 24 October 1945.

2. Amendments to Articles 23, 27, and 61 were adopted on 17

December 1963 coming into force on 31 August 1965. Article 61

was amended again on 20 December 1971 coming into force on 24

September 1973. Article 109 was amended on 20 December 1965 

coming into force on 12 June 1968.

3. The Article 23 amendment enlarged the Security Council from

eleven to fifteen and provided that decisions on all matters 

be made by an affirmative vote of nine members, including the 

concurring vote of the five permanent members.

4. The first Article 61 amendment enlarged the Economic and 

Social Council from eighteen to twenty-seven. The subsequent 

amendment to that Article further increased the membership to

fifty-four.

5. The Article 109 amendment relates to paragraph 1 and 

altered the Security Council vote from seven to nine members. 

Paragraph 3 was retained in its original version with a vote 

of seven members of the Security Council.

143

Appendix E

American War Library Casualty List

Number of Americans Killed or Wounded by Action

Years			Location		Killed		Wounded		Dollar Cost

1775-1783(1)		Revolutionary War	25,324		8,445
1789			Indian Wars		6,125		2,156
1798-1800		Franco-American
			Naval War		     20		     42
1801-1815		Barbary Wars		     35		     64
1812-1815		War of 1812		2,260		4,505
1814			Marquesas Islands           4		        1
1822-1825		West Indies		       3                       5
1832			Sumatra		       2                     11
1835-1836		Texas War of
			Independence	               704		    138
1846-1848		Mexican War		13,283		      32
1855			Fiji			         1	                    2
1859-1860		Texas Border
			Cortina War		         5	                  18
1861-1865(2)		Civil War (North)     363,020	         281,104
1861-1865(2)		Civil War (South)     199,110	         137,192
1853			Japan			        5	                    6
1867			Formosa		        1	                    0
1870			Mexico		        1                      4
1871			Korea			        4                    10
1898			Spanish-
			American War	 2,893               1,637	
1899-1902   	 	Phillippines War	 4,273	             2,840
1899			Samoa			        4                      5
1900			China Boxer
			Rebellion		      53		    253
1902-1913		Moro Campaigns	    130                  300
1904			Domonican Republic          1                      0
1911-1919		Mexico		       19		       69
1912			Nicaragua		         5                    16
1915-1920		Haiti			     146		       26
1916-1922		Dominican Republic        144                    50
1917-1918		World War I	           116,708           204,002		$33 billion
144

1918-1919		Russia North 
			Expedition		       246	     307
1918-1920		Russia Siberia
			Expedition		       170                   52
1921-1941		China Yangtze Service         5                   80
1927-1932		Nicaragua		       136	        66
1941			North Atlantic Naval War141                   44
1941			Pearl Harbor		    2,388
1941-1945		World War II		408,306	670,846		$360 billion
1942, Jun3/7		Midway		       307		
1944			D-Day			    4,900
1945			Iwo Jima		    6,503
1945-47		Italy Trieste		           6                    14
1945-47		China Civil War	         12                    42
1950			Inchon			       670	
1950-1953		Korean War		  54,246	103,284		$50 billion
1954			Matsu and Quemoy	           3                      0
1957-1975		Vietnam War		  58,219(4)	153,356		$111 million
1958-1984		Lebanon		       268                  169
1962			Cuba			           9                      0
1964			Panama Canal Riots	           4                    85
1965-1966		Dominican Republic	         59	       174
1966-1969		South Korea		         89                  131
1967			Israel Attack/
			USS Liberty		         34                  171
1968			Tet (Vietnam)		    7,040                      0
1980			Iran Operation
			Desert One		           8                      0
1980-1991		Terrorism		         28                      0
1983			Grenada		         19                  100		$76 million
1983-1991		El Salvador		         20                      0
1984-1989		Honduras		           1                    28
1986			Libya			           2                      0
1987 (3)		Persian Gulf		       148	       467
1989-1990		Panama		         40                  240		$163 million		
1990-1991		Persian Gulf Operation
			Desert Shield/Storm         363	       357		$61 billion
1991-1992		Somalia, Operation
			Restore Hope                       8				$.52 billion                                                          145
1993, Feb 26		Terrorism, 
			World Trade Center	          6	    1000+	
1995			Terrorism,
			Oklahoma City	      168	      400+

1995, Nov 13		Terrorism, Riyadh
			Saudia Arabia		          7	        42
1995-2000		Terrorism		         77
1996, Jun 25		Terrorism, Khobar Towers
			Saudia Arabia		        19                  500
2000			Yemen, USS Cole 	        17	      651
2001, Sept 11		Flight 93		        44	
2001			Afghanistan, Operation
			Endure Freedom	          4                     5 (friendly fire)
2002			Philipines, Operation 
			Endure Freedom	         12
2002			Afghanistan Theater
			Operation Endure
			Freedom		         30	        28	

(1) Includes Indian scouts, private militia, civilians fighting with Army or Navy;
(2) Adjusted for post-war related deaths;
(3) 3 combat, 148 terrorist casualties;
(4) To be adjusted yearly with post-combat deaths

146

IRELAND’S HISTORY & BATTLES

Annals of the Four Masters

Author: Unknown

The Annals  

The Annals of the Kingdom of Ireland, Annála Ríoghachta Éireann, or the Annals of the Four Masters as they are commonly known, were compiled in a Franciscan monastery in Donegal by Michael O'Clery, Cucogry (or Peregrine) O'Clery, Fearfasa (or Fergus) O'Mulconry and Cucogry (or Peregrine) O'Duigenan (the Four Masters). Michaels' brother Conary O'Clery, as well as Maurice O'Mulconry, also assisted in the compilation. They began their work in 1632, and completed it in 1636. The Four Masters' names in Gaelic were Mícheál [Tadhg] Ó Cléirigh (chief compiler); Cú Choigcríche Ó Cléirigh (Mícheál's cousin); Fear Feasa O'Maolchonaire; and Cuchoigríche Ó Duibhgheannáin. 

The Annals of the Four Masters were translated by Dr. John O'Donovan in the 19th century. It was published in seven large volumes. For a more complete text of The Annals, see <http://www.ucc.ie/celt/> 

Other early annals include: The Annals of Tigernach, The Annals of Ulster, The Annals of Connacht, Genealogies from Rawlinson B.502, The Annals of Loch Cé, The Annals of Inisfallen, The Annals of Clonmacnoise, The Book Of Leinster, ... 

Note: In the Annals of the Four Masters the Age of the World 5200 is equal to the first year of the age of Christ. 

The Age of the World, 2520 (2680 BC). 

The age of the world when Parthalon came into Ireland, 2520 years. These were the chieftains who were with him: Slainge, Laighlinne, and Rudhraidhe, his three sons; Dealgnat, Nerbha, Ciochbha, and Cerbnad, their four wives. 

The Age of the World, 2530 (2670 BC). 

In this year the first battle was fought in Ireland; i.e. Cical Grigenchosach, son of Goll, son of Garbh, of the Fomorians, and his mother, came into Ireland, eight hundred in number, so that a battle was fought between them and Parthalon's people at Sleamhnai Maighe Ithe, where the Fomorians were defeated by Parthalon, so that they were all slain. This is called the battle of Magh Ithe. 
                                                                     147 
The Age of the World, 2820 (2380 BC). 

Nine thousand of Parthalon's people died in one week on Sean Mhagh Ealta Edair, namely, five thousand men, and four thousand women. Whence is named Taimhleacht Muintire Parthaloin. They had passed three hundred years in Ireland. 

The Age of the World, 2850 (2350 BC). 

Neimhidh [Nemed] came to Ireland. On the twelfth day after the arrival of Neimhidh with his people, Macha, the wife of Neimhidh, died. These were the four chieftains who were with him: Sdarn, Iarbhainel the Prophet, Fearghus Leithdheirg, and Ainninn. 

The Age of the World, 3266 (1934 BC). 

The Firbolgs took possession of Ireland at the end of this year. Slainghe, Gann, Genann, Seangann, and Rudhraighe, were their five chieftains. These were the five sons of Deala, son of Loich. The other four and the Firbolgs in general elected Slainge as king over them. 

The Age of the World, 3303 (1897 BC). 

The tenth year of the reign of Eochaidh, son of Erc; and this was the last year of his reign, for the Tuatha De Dananns came to invade Ireland against the Firbolgs... The aforesaid Eochaidh was the last king of the Firbolgs. Nine of them had assumed kingship, and thirty seven years was the length of their sway over Ireland. 

The Age of the World, 3500 (1700 BC). 

The fleet of the sons of Milidh came to Ireland at the end of this year, to take it from the Tuatha De Dananns; and they fought the battle of Sliabh Mis with them on the third day after landing. In this battle fell Scota, the daughter of Pharaoh, wife of Milidh... After this the sons of Milidh fought a battle at Tailtinn, against the three kings of the Tuatha De Dananns, Mac Cuill, Mac Ceacht, and Mac Greine. The battle lasted for a long time, until Mac Ceacht fell by Eiremhon, Mac Cuill by Eimhear, and Mac Greine by Amhergin. 

The Age of the World, 3502 (1698 BC). 

The first year of the reign of Eremhon over Ireland; and the second year after the arrival of the sons of Milidh, Eremhon divided Ireland. He gave the province of Ulster to Emhear, son of Ir; Munster to the four sons of EmhearFinn; the province of Connaught to Un and Eadan; and the province of Leinster to Crimhthann Sciathbhel of the Damnonians. 

                                                                     148

1st - 8th Century: Irish History & Battles   

Legend has it that... some of Ireland's greatest legendary kings were in power about the time of the close of the 1st century. Tuathal Teachtmhar had ruled 30 years as king and was claimed to have annexed the territory around Tara to make Midhe (Meath) the Royal Province. Tuathal's palace was said to be at Uisneach, a position near the central point of the island. Next came Cathaeir Mor, from whom descend many of the notable tribes of Laigin [Leinster], who ruled only 3 years before being subdued by the infamous Conn Cead-Cathach [of the Hundred Battles]. Conn would rule for 35 years and was so named for his prolific tendency to wage war, not only in Ireland but, some claim, in other parts of the British Isles. From Conn descended the 'Connachta' which later included the prominent northern tribes of the Northern and Southern Ui Neill, the Ui Briuin and the Ui Fiachra. 

About the year 123 A.D. at Maynooth, Eoghan Mor, also called Mogha Nuadhad, fought a battle with Conn of the Hundred Battles, Monarch of Ireland. Resulting from this battle, Mogha forced Conn to divide Ireland with him into two equal parts by the boundry of Esker Riada, a long ridge of hills from Dublin to Galway, the south part he termed his and called it after his own name, Leath Mogha, or "Mogha's Half of Ireland". The northern part was called Leath Cuinn, or Conn's Half, further requiring Conn to give his daughter in marriage to Eoghan's son, Olioll Olum. From Olioll descended the prominent southern tribes of the Eoghanchta (from Eoghan Mor II), the Dal gCais (from Cormac Cas) and the Ciannachta (from Cian). 

In the fourth century the major provinces in Ireland were said to be Uladh in the north, with Eamhain Macha as its royal site; Cruachain in the west, with its capitol at Cruachu; Breagh (or Brega) in the east, with its royal site at Teamhair (Tara); Laigin in the southeast with its royal site at Dun Ailinne; and Caisil in the southwest, centered on the royal site of Caiseal (Cashel). Another province, known as Mide or Midhe, in the center of Ireland is also referred to in Irish folklore. The "province" of Mide (or Meath) is later connected with the rise of the Southern Ui Niaill (Neill), and eventually includes Breagh within its borders. 

One of the significant events in the folklore of Ireland to occur around the 4th century was the ousting, and return, of the Three Collas, grandsons of King Cairbre Liffeachair. One of these, Colla Uais, was king of Ireland for four years before being deposed by Muireadhach Tireach. Upon the return of the Three Collas, they carved a large new territory called Airgialla from the northern territory of the Uladh. 

Another event to have occured during this century was the migration of the Deisi Brega (or Deisi Mide) into what is now Waterford County, and probably as well into County Clare (In Deis Tuascirt). The kings of Deisi tribe(s) had apparently committed crimes against the kings of Tara who were normally considered over-kings of the other territorial kings. 
                                                                     149

Toward the middle of the 4th century the breakup of the kingdom of the Ulaidh (Ulster) began as an attack on Emain Macha, the capital of the kingdom for hundreds of years, by the three Collas who were nephews of the the High King of Ireland Muiredeach Tireach. They established a new kingdom known as Orghialla (Oirgialla, later Oriel), forcing the Ulaidh into east Ulster. 

Some of the Belgic tribes of Munster and Leinster began to migrate to south Wales and Cornwall around 375 AD, at the twilight of the Roman Empire's rule in parts of Britain. It is often quoted that the Romans thought about invading Ireland but never did, a fact which played an important part in the island's later 'Golden Age'. 

Shortly after Niall of the Nine hostages death about 405 AD, two sons of Niall, Eoghan (Owen) and Conall marched northwards, conquered North-West Ulster, and founded there a new state with its capital at Aileach, a prehistoric stone-built fortress on a hill near Derry, at the root of the Inishowen peninsula. 

Toward the middle of the 5th century important Christian missionaries began to arrive in Ireland, most notably St. Patrick around 432 AD. The impact these missionaries were to bring to Irish culture and religion was a major turning point in the history of the island. 

It is cited by the historian Bede that Angles or Saxons came to the island of Britain in the middle of the 5th century at the invitation of Vortigern, to help to repel attacks by Picts and Scots (Irish colonizers in Scotland). As Ireland was untouched by the Roman conquest, the Saxons also do not seem to have had any influence upon her destinies. 

Gaulish (French) and British missionaries arriving in the 5th and 6th centuries, such as St, Patrick, Palladius, St. Secundinus, St. Iserninus, St. Finnian, St. Enda and St. Auxilius, were to have a dramatic influence on the religious and cultural future of Ireland. They established and gradually strengthened Christianity in Ireland, and helped to establish a 'monastic' hierarchy which played a important role in the creation of churches and monastic schools of learning which were to later have far-ranging impact throughout Europe in the later centuries. 

The dominence of the Gaelic septs was continued throughout the 5th and 6th centuries as evidenced in the Ard Ri (high kingship) of Ireland. Eochu Mugmedón, the Ard Ri in the middle 4th century and great-great-great-great- grandson of Conn of the Hundred Battles, had fostered a continued line of Kings for Ireland. From his sons sprang the powerful Ui Niall (Ui Neill), Ui Briuin and Ui Fiachra line of kings of Ireland, Ulster, Midhe and Connacht. His great-grandson Oilill Molt ruled as High King for twenty years, followed by another great-grandson, Lughaidh, who ruled for twenty five years. The high kingship was next held for twenty-four years by Muircheartach, a great-great-grandson of Eochu Mugmedón. The high kingship was to remain in this family for another 500 years. 

                                                                     150

The ancestors of Oilioll Olum, a 3rd century king of Caisil (Munster), were beginning to show their dominance in southwest Ireland. His ancestors formed a federation of dynasties known as the Eoghanachta, who were to eclipse the Erainn peoples in Munster by the 7th century. Meanwhile the Dal Riata, who had earlier moved out of Munster into the northeast corner of Ireland, extended their kingdom into what is now Argyll in Scotland. At about the same time the Southern Ui Niaill, descendants of Niall of the Nine Hostages in Connacht, were making their moves into northern Laigin (Leinster province) as well as into other parts of Connacht. The A.D. battle of Druim Derge was a pivotal Ui Niaill victory which was to push back the northern boundaries of Leinster until the arrival of the Cambro-Normans in 1169.

Ireland's 'golden age' began in the sixth century and lasted well into the ninth century. Ireland was known as an 'Island of Saints and Scholars' whose wandering missionaries and teachers were a beacon for the rest of Europe when the continental countries were said to languish in their 'Dark Ages'. Did the Irish carry the torch of learning to Europe during these centuries? The documentary evidence places the scholars of Irish monastic schools at an academic pinnacle, and there seems to be little doubt of the contributions made by the scribes and monks in preserving the West's written heritage. The flowering of literature and learning in early Ireland is firmly linked with the rise of Christian monastic schools which came into prominence in the latter half of the sixth century. From these monastic centers Irish missionaries were to establish religious centers of learning in other parts of Europe. 

Who were some of the early missionaries? Colum Cille (Columba) went to Iona, off the coast of Scotland, around 563 to convert the Picts. Columbanus went to Gaul (France) around 591, and later into other parts of Europe, to establish monastic schools. Fursa went to East Anglia (England) and Gaul around 633 to establish Irish foundations of learning. Aidan became the first bishop of Lindisfarne in Northumbria about 635. 

By the beginning of the 7th century the dominant power in Ulster were the Dal Fiatach, over their rivals the Cruithin, i.e. the Dal nAraide of south Co. Antrim and the Ui Eachach Cobo of west Co. Down. At the same time the Northern Ui Neill began to extend their territory further into Co. Derry and Tyrone. 

The Southern Ui Neill, represented in particular by Clann Cholmain and Sill nAedo Slaine, established dominance in northern Leinster province with their new territories on the plains of Meath/Westmeath (Midhe and Brega). They eclipse the power of (probably) the Dal Messin Corb, Ui Failge and Ui Enechglaiss of Leinster. 

In Connacht, the Ui Briuin and Ui Fiachrach become dominant. By the 630s the Ui Dunlainge emerged as the most powerful in northern Leinster, whose borders have been taken further south by the Southern Ui Neill. The Ui Dunlainge began to eclipse the former power held by the Dal Messin Corb, represented principally by the Ui Garrchon. 

                                                                     151

In southern Leinster the Ui Cennselaig began their dominance, while the Ui Bairrche were strong in the eastern part of the province. 

In Munster the Eoghanachta begin their push into Co. Cork and eastern Co. Kerry pushing aside the wide population groups of the Mairtine and Erainn. 

The Northern Ui Neill were divided into two main branches, Cenel Conaill and Cenel nEoghain. Cenel Conaill were the more powerful from the late sixth to the middle seventh century, with Flaithbertach mac Loingsig abdocating the overkingship of the Ui Neill in 734 A.D. The Cenel nEoghain next dominated and by the late eighth century had expanded southwards and eastwards from Inishowen and Derry across the mid-Ulster plain and slowly brought the minor kingdoms ruled by the Airgialla under their control. The Ulaid in the east and Cenel Conaill in the west remained bitterly hostile to the dominant Cenel nEogain. 

The Southern Ui Neill were divided into two major rival branches, the Sil nAeda Slaine and Clann Cholmain, and they dominated the lands of Meath, Westmeath and other parts of surrounding counties. The Sil nAeda Slaine were very powerful in the seventh century. The annals record the slaying of Finsnechta Fledach macDunchada, king of the Sil nAedo Slane, by his rivals the Fir Chul of the Luigne of Brega (Tara). Clann Cholmain managed to take the overlordship of the Ui Neill in 743. In the mid-ninth century their king claimed to be king of Ireland. 

In the eighth century Leinster (Laigin) was ruled by the Ui Dunlainge. They had other rivals to the south of them, the Ui Chennselaig. The Ui Neill pursued a long struggle with the Laigin and by 800 came to dominate northern Leinster. East Leinster was ruled by the Ui Cellaig Cualann in the seventh and eighth centuries. 

The Eoganacht ruled Munster from the seventh to the mid-tenth century. Prior to that the Erainn or their descendants, the Corca Loigde, ruled in Munster. The eastern branches of the Eoganacht, located at Cashel and Glanworth, began to dominate from about 700 A.D. Eoganacht power began to crumble in the late ninth and early tenth centuries and their place was taken by the Dal Cais, whose power rose from north Munster (Thomond) in the mid-tenth century. 

The two dominant Connacht dynasties were the Ui Fiachrach and Ui Briuin, and both claimed to be cousins of the Ui Neill. Ui Fiachrach had two main branches, one in the north (Muaide) and the other in the south (Aidne). The southern branch dominated Connacht and much of north Munster in the seventh century. Ui Briuin emerged in the seventh century, and their expansion in the eighth century was fast, Ui Fiachrach lost ground rapidly, and by about 725 Ui Briuin were the dominant dynasty in Connacht. A branch pushed north and east to establish the kingdom of Ui Briuin Breifne around 766 on the frontiers of the Ui Neill in the territory of the Conmaicne Rein, eventually driving a wedge between their two great branches. In the twelfth century the Ui Briuin were dominant in Ireland.                                     
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In the late eighth and early ninth centuries, raids by the Vikings began. These Vikings were mainly Norwegians and by the mid ninth century had established a foothold in Dublin. Other Viking raiding camps included Waterford, Youghal, Wexford, Cork and Limerick. A second period of intensified Viking raids began in the early-mid tenth century as settlements began to bbe established. 

By the 780's the Ui Briuin had consolidated their power in Connacht to become the natural heirs to the kingship of Connacht. The Eoghanachta dynasties continue to alternate as kings of Munster, while the 'In Deis Tuaiscirt' (Dal Cais) begin to establish influence in parts of Tipperary and Limerick. The powerful Northern Ui Neill of Ulster and Southern Ui Neill of Midhe (Meath/Westmeath) vie for the title of Ard Ri and continue to alternate as high-kings of Ireland. In Leinster the Ui Dunlainge dynasties of the north continue their dominance of the provincial kingship, while the Ui Chennselaig of the south dominate the political scene there. 
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56 AD - Fiacha Finnfolaidh, high King of Ireland is killed. The provincial kings of the time were Elim, son of Conra, King of Ulster; Sanbh, son of Ceat Mac Magach, King of Connaught; Foirbre, son of Fin, King of Munster; and Eochaidh Aincheann, King of Leinster. Elim then ruled until 76 AD. 

76 AD - Elim, son of Conra, after having been twenty years in the sovereignty of Ireland, was slain in the battle of Aichill, by Tuathal Teachtmhar. 

106 AD - Tuathal Teachtmhar, after having been thirty years in the sovereignty of Ireland, was slain by Mal, son of Rochraidhe, King of Ulster, in Magh Line, at  Moin An Chatha, in Dal Araidhe, where the two rivers, Ollar and Ollarbha, spring. 

110 AD - After Mal, son of Rochraidhe, had been four years king over Ireland, he was slain by Feidhlimidh Rechtmhar, son of Tuathal Teachtmhar. Feidhlimidh's 	    mother was later interred in Oirghialla. 

119 AD - Feidhlimidh Reachtmhar, after having been nine years in the sovereignty of Ireland, died. 

120 AD - The first year of Cathaeir Mor, son of Feidhlimidh Firurghlais, in the sovereignty of Ireland. 

122 AD - Cathaeir Mor, after having been three years king over Ireland, was slain by Conn, and the Luaighni of Teamhair, in the battle of Magh hAgha. 

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123 AD - The first year of Conn of the Hundred Battles as king over Ireland. The division of Ireland into two parts, between Conn and Eoghan Mor. 

157 AD - Conn of the Hundred Battles, after having been thirty five years in the sovereignty of Ireland, was slain by Tibraite Tireach, son of Mal, son of Rochraidhe, 	    King of Ulster, at Tuath Amrois. 

158 AD - After the 35 year reign of Conn of the Hundred Battles, this was the first year of Conaire, son of Modh Lamha, in sovereignty over Ireland. Conaire was also a son-in-law of Conn. 

165 AD - Conairee, son of Mogh Lamha, after having been eight years in the sovereignty of Ireland, fell by Neimhidh, son of Sruibhgheann. This Conaire had three sons, Cairbre Musc, from whom the Muscraighe are called; Cairbre Baschaein, from whom are the Baiscnigh, in Corca Baiscinn; and Cairbre Riadal, from whom are the Dal Riada. Saraid, daughter of Conn of the Hundred Battles, was the mother of these sons of Conaire, son of Modh Lamha. [Cairbre Riadal, following a famine in the South, led his people to the extreme Northeast of Ireland, and some of them across to the nearest part of Scotland, 	    where they settled, forming the first important colony of Scots (Irish) in Alba.] 

166 AD - The first year of the reign of Art [Art Aonfhir, "the lonely"], son of Conn of the Hundred Battles. 

186 AD - The twenty first year of Art, son of Conn of the Hundred Battles, in the sovereignty of Ireland. The battle of Ceannfeabhrat by the sons of Oilioll Olum and the three Cairbres, i.e. Cairbre Musc, Cairbre Riada, and Cairbre Bascainn, against Dadera, the Druid; Neimhidh, son of Sroibhcinn; and the south of Ireland; where fell Neimhidh, son of Sroibhcinn, King of the Ernai of Munster; and Dadera, the Druid of the Dairinni. Dadera was slain by Eoghain, son of Oilioll; Neimhidh, son of Sroibhcinn, by Cairbre Rioghfhoda, son of Conaire, in revenge of his own father, i.e. Conaire. 

195 AD - After Art, the son of Conn of the Hundred Battles, had been thirty years in the sovereignty of Ireland, he fell in the battle of Magh Mucruimhe, by Maccon and his foreigners. In the same battle, along with Art, fell also the sons of his sister, Sadhbh, daughter of Conn, namely, the seven sons of Oilioll Olum, who had come with him against Maccon, their brother. Eoghan Mor, Dubhmerchon, Mughcorb, Lughaidh, Eochaidh, Diochorb, and Tadhg, were their names; and Beinne Brit, King of Britain, was he who laid violent hands upon them. Beinne was slain by Lughaidh Lagha, in revenge of his relatives. Lioghairne of the Long Cheeks, son of Aenghus Balbh, son of Eochaidh Finn Fuathairt, was he who laid violent hands upon Art in this battle of Magh 	    Mucruimhe, after he had joined the forces of Maccon. 

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225 AD - After Lughaidh, i.e. Maccon, son of Macniadh, had been thirty years in the sovereignty of Ireland, he fell by the hand of Feircis, son of Coman Eces, after he had been expelled from Teamhair Tara by Cormac, the grandson of Conn. 

226 AD - The battle of Crinna (in Co. Meath) was fought between Cormac mac Airt, king of Ireland, and the Ulstermen under Fergus, son of Imchadh. Cormac defeated the Ulster forces with the assistance of Tadg (or Teige), son of Cian and for this service the king bestowed on Tadg a large territory which extended from the Liffey (in Dublin) northwards to Drumskin in Co. Louth. Tadg's descendants were called Cianachta i.e. "the race of Cian", from his  father and the territory was afterwards known by this name. 

226 AD - Fearghus Duibhdeadach, son of Imchadh, was king over Ireland for the space of a year, when he fell in the battle of Crinna, by Cormac, grandson of Conn, by the hand of Lughaidh Lagha. There fell by him also, in the rout across Breagh, his two brothers, Fearghus the Long Haired and Fearghus the Fiery, who was called Fearghus Caisfhiaclach of the Crooked Teeth. In the army of Cormac came Tadhg, son of Cian, and Lughaidh, to that battle; and it was as a territorial reward for the battle that Cormac gave to Tadhg the land on which are the Ciannachta, in Magh Breagh, as is celebrated in other books. 

234 AD - Oilioll Olum, son of Mogh Nuadhat, King of Munster, died. 

236 AD - A battle at Eu, in Magh Aei, against Aedh, son of Eochaidh, son of Conall, King of Connaught. 

240 AD - The battle of Magh Techt, and the fleet of Cormac sailed across Magh Rein (i.e. across the sea), this year, so that it was on that occasion he obtained the sovereignty of Alba Scotland. 

241 AD - These are the battles of Cormac fought against Munster this year: the battle of Berre; the battle of Loch Lein; the battle of Luimneach; the battle of Grian; the battle of Classach; the battle of Muiresc; the battle of Fearta, in which fell Eochaidh Taebhfada of the Long Side, son of Oilioll Olum; the battle of Samhain, in which fell Cian, son of Oilioll Olum; and the battle of Ard Cam. 

241 AD - The massacre of the girls at Cleanfearta, at Teamhair, by Dunlang, son of Enna Niadh, King of Leinster. Thirty royal girls was the number, and a hundred maids with each of them. Twelve princes of the Leinstermen did Cormac put to death together, in revenge of that massacre, together with the exaction of the Borumha with an increase after Tuathal. 

262 AD - The battle of Crionna Fregabhail was fought by Cormac against the Ulstermen, where fell Aenghus Finn, son of Fearghus Duibhdeadach i.e. the Black Toothed, King of Ulster, with the slaughter of the Ulstermen about him. 
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265 AD - Ceallach, son of Cormac, and Cormac's lawgiver, were mortally wounded, and the eye of Cormac himself was destroyed with one thrust of a lance by Aenghus Gaibhuaibhtheach, son of Fiacha Suighdhe, son of Feidhlimidh the Lawgiver. Cormac 	    afterwards fought and gained seven battles over the Déisi, in revenge of that deed, and he expelled them from their territory, so that they are now in Munster. 

266 AD - Forty years was Cormac, son of Art, son of Conn, in the sovereignty of Ireland, when he died at Cleiteach, the bone of a salmon sticking in his throat, on account of the siabhradh genii which Maelgenn, the Druid, incited at him, after Cormac had turned against the Druids, on account of his adoration of God in preference to them. 

267 AD - Eochaidh Gonnat in the sovereignty of Ireland, when he fell by Lughaidh Meann, son of Aenghus, one of the Ulstermen. 

268 Ad - The first year of Cairbre Liffeachair, son of Cormac, son of Art, in the sovereignty of Ireland. 

276 AD - Aenghus Gaibuaibhtheach was killed this year by the sons of Cairbre Liffechair, namely, Fiacha Sraibhtine and Eochaidh Doimhlen. 

283 AD - Finn, grandson of Baisgne, fell by Aichleach, son of Duibhdreann, and the sons of Uirgreann of the Luaighni Teamhrach, at Ath Brea, upon the Boinn Boyne. 

284 AD - After Cairbre Liffeachair had been seventeen years in the sovereignty of Ireland, he fell in the battle of Gabhra Aichle, by the hand of Semeon, son of 	    Cearb, one of the Fotharta; Fearcorb, the son of Cormac Cas, having brought the Fiana with him, against the king, to defend Leath Mhogha against him. 

285 AD - Fothadh was one year over Ireland, when Fothadh Cairptheach was slain by Fothadh Airgtheach. Fothadh Airgtheach was afterwards slain in the battle of 	    Ollarba, in Magh Line, by Caeilte. 

286 AD - The first year of the reign of Fiacha Sraibhtine over Ireland. 

322 AD - Fiacha Sraibhtine, after having been thirty seven years as king over Ireland, was slain by the Collas, in the battle of Dubhchomar, in Crioch Rois, in Breagh. 

323 AD - The first year of Colla Uais, son of Eochaidh Doimhlen, as king over Ireland. 

326 AD - The fourth year of Colla Uais, in the sovereignty of Ireland, when Muireadhach Tireach expelled him and his brothers into Alba Scotland with three hundred along with them. 

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327 AD - The first year of Muireadhach Tireach in the sovereignty of Ireland. At the end of this year the three Collas came to Ireland; and there lived not of their forces but thrice nine persons only. They then went to Muireadhach, having been instructed by a druid. And they scolded at him, and expressed evil words, that he might kill them, and that it might be on him the curse of the finghal should alight. As he did not oppose them, they tarried with him, and were faithful to him. 

331 AD - The battle of Achadh Leithdheirg, in Fearnmhagh, was fought by the three Collas against the Ulstermen, in which fell Fearghus Fogha, son of Fraechar 	     Foirtriun, the last king of Ulster, who resided at Eamhain. They afterwards burned Eamhain, and the Ulstermen did not dwell therein since. They also took from the Ulstermen that part of the province extending from the Righe and Loch nEathach westwards. Colla Meann fell in this battle. 

356 AD - After Muireadhach Tireach had been thirty years in the sovereignty of Ireland, he was slain by Caelbhadh, son of Crunn, King of Uladh, at Portrigh, over Dabhall. 

357 AD - After Caelbhadh, son of Crunn Badhrai, had been one year in the sovereignty of Ireland, he was slain by Eochaidh Muighmheadhoin. 

365 AD - The eighth year of Eochaidh Muighmheadhoin, son of Muireadhach Tireach, over Ireland, when he died at Teamhair. 

366 AD - The first year of Crimhthann, son of Fidhach, son of Daire Cearb, over Ireland. 

378 AD - After Crimhthann, son of Fidhach, had been thirteen years as king over Ireland, he died of a poisonous drink which his own sister gave him. 

405 AD - After Niall of the Nine Hostages, son of Eochaidh Muighmheadhoin, had been twenty seven years in the sovereignty of Ireland, he was slain by Eochaidh, son of Enna Ceinnseallach, at Muir nIcht, i.e. the sea between France and England. 

428 AD - After Dathi, son of Fiachra, son of Eochaidh Muighmheadhoin, had been, twenty three years in the sovereignty of Ireland, he was killed by a flash of lightning, at Sliabh Ealpa. 

429 AD - The first year of Laeghaire, son of Niall, in the sovereignty of Ireland. 

430 AD - In this year Pope Celestinus the First sent Palladius to Ireland, to propagate the faith among the Irish, and he landed in the country of Leinster with a company of twelve men. Nathi, son of Garchu, refused to admit him; but, however, he baptized a few persons in Ireland, and three wooden churches were erected by him, namely, Cell Fhine, Teach Na Romhan, and Domhnach Arta. At Cell Fhine he left his books, and a shrine with the relics of Paul and Peter, and many martyrs besides. He left these four in these churches:                                      
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	    Augustinus, Benedictus, Silvester, and Solinus. Palladius, on his returning back to Rome (as he did not receive respect in Ireland), contracted a disease in the country of the Cruithnigh, and died thereof. 

431 AD - Saint Patrick was ordained bishop by the holy Pope, Celestine the First, who ordered him to go to Ireland, to preach and teach faith and piety to the Gaeidhil, and also to baptize them. 

432 AD - Patrick came to Ireland this year, and proceeded to baptize and bless the Irish, men, women, sons, and daughters, except a few who did not consent to receive faith or baptism from him, as his Life relates. Ath Truim was founded by Patrick, it having been granted by Fedhlim, son of Laeghaire, son of Niall, to God and to him, Loman, and Fortchern. 

	    Patrick's method of carrying the new faith to the Gaelic Celts was to meet them on the familiar ground of their own culture, the sacred groves, wells, and  mounds, and making those places centers of worship for the new faith. He used the same holy places designated by the Druids of Ireland to establish his Christian churches and holy places. 

	    The abbeys became centers of learning as well as churches, teaching his followers the essentials of reading and writing Greek and Latin, laying the foundation of Irish scholasticism that would make the Church in Ireland a repository of learning during the Dark Ages that were to come. 

	     The new faith spread rapidly and by the 6th century, Ireland was a stronghold of the new faith, with newly built monasteries and abbeys. 

	     St. Patrick died around 461 A.D. and for many years after his death, various kings of Ireland refused to accept the new religion and made attempts to continue their pagan beliefs. This finally ended when the last of the pagan kings was killed in battle in 561. 
	    The final dissenting Irish churches were brought by sword point into the Roman Church at the Synod of Cashels in 1171 AD, by the invading Anglo-Norman armies. 

435 AD - Breasal Bealach, son of Fiacha Aiceadh, son of Cathaeir Mor (King of Leinster), died. 

449 AD - Amhalghaidh, son of Fiachra, son of Eochaidh Muighmheadhoin, died. From him Tir Amhalghaidh is named. 

457 AD - The battle of Ath Dara was fought against the Leinstermen by Laeghaire, son of Niall. Laeghaire was taken in that battle; and Laeghaire took oaths by the Sun and the Wind, and all the elements, to the Leinstermen, that he would never come against them, after setting him at liberty. 
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458 AD - After Laeghaire, the son of Niall of the Nine Hostages, had been thirty years in the sovereignty of Ireland, he died by the side of Caissi, between Eire and Alba, i.e. two hills which are in Ui Faelain; and it was the Sun and the Wind that killed him, because he had violated them. 

459 AD - The first year of Oilioll Molt, son of Dathi, son of Fiachra, in the sovereignty of Ireland. 

464 AD - Conall Gulban, son of Niall of the Nine Hostages (from whom are descended the Cinel Conaill), was slain by the old tribes of Magh Slecht, he having been found unprotected, and was buried at Fidhnach Maighe Rein, by Saint Caillin, as the Life of the aforesaid saint relates. 

465 AD - Eoghan, son of Niall of the Nine Hostages (from whom are descended the Cinel Eoghain), died of grief for Conall Gulban, son of Niall of the Nine Hostages, and was buried at Uisce Chain, in Inis Eoghain 

465 AD - Crimhthann, son of Enda Censelach, King of Leinster, was killed by the son of his own daughter, i.e. Eochaidh Guineach, one of the Ui Bairrche. 

472 AD - Toca, son of Aedh, son of Senach, chief of Crioch Cualann, in Leinster, died. 

475 AD - Conall Cremhthoinn, son of Niall of the Nine Hostages, from whom are sprung the Clann Colmain, and race of Aedh Slaine, died. 

476 AD - The battle of Granard by Eochaidh, son of Cairbre, son of Oilioll, son of Dunlaing, son of Enda Niadh, against the King of Leinster, Fraech, son of Finuchadh, son of Garchu, son of Fothadh, son of Eochaidh Lamhdoidh, son of Mesincorb; and Fraech fell therein. 

478 AD - After Oilioll Molt, son of Dathi, son of Fiachra, had been twenty years in the sovereignty of Ireland, he was slain in the battle of Ocha, by Lughaidh, son of 	    Laeghaire, Muircheartach Mac Earca, Fearghus Cerrbhel, son of Conall Cremththainne, Fiachra, son of Laeghaire, King of Dal Araidhe, and Cremhthann, son of Enna Cennsealach, King of Leinster. It was on this occasion that the Lee and Cairloegh were given to Fiachra as a territorial reward for the battle. 

479 AD - The first year of Lughaidh, son of Laeghaire, in sovereignty over Ireland. 

480 AD - The battle of Granard, in the land of Leinster, between the Leinstermen themselves, wherein Finnchadh, Lord of Ui Cennsealaigh, was slain by Cairbre. 

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489 AD - Aenghus, son of Nadfraech, King of Munster, fell in the battle of Cell Osnadha fought against him by Muircheartach Mac Earca, by Illann, son of Dunlaing, by Ailill, son of Dunlaing, and by Eochaidh Guineach. 

493 AD- St. Patrick, son of Calphurn, son of Potaide, archbishop, first primate, and chief apostle of Ireland, whom Pope Celestine the First had sent to preach the Gospel and disseminate religion and piety among the Irish, was the person who separated them from the worship of idols and spectres, who conquered and destroyed the idols which they had for worshipping... died at age 122 (?) 

496 AD - The battle of Druim Lochmaighe was gained by the Leinstermen over the Ui Neill. 

497 AD - The battle of Inde Mor, in Crioch Ua nGabhla, was gained over the Leinstermen and Illann, son of Dunlaing, by Muircheartach mac Earca. 

498 AD - Fearghus Mor, son of Erc, son of Eochaidh Muinreamhair, with his brothers, went to Alba Scotland. 

499 AD - The battle of Seaghais was fought by Muircheartach mac Earca against Duach Teangumha, King of Connaught. The cause of the battle was this, viz.: 	    Muircheartach was a guarantee between the King and Eochaidh Tirmcharna, his brother, and Eochaidh was taken prisoner against the protection of Muircheartach. Against the Connaughtmen these battles were gained. 

501 AD - The battle of Freamhain, in Meath, was gained against Fiacha, son of Niall, by Failge Berraidhe. 

503 AD - After Lughaidh, son of Laeghaire, had been twenty five years in the sovereignty of Ireland, he was killed at Achadh Farcha, being struck by a flash of lightning, by the miracles of God, on account of the insult which he had offered to Patrick. Eochaidh, son of Muireadhach Muindearg, King of Uladh, also died in this year. 

504 AD - The first year of Muircheartach, son of Muireadhach, son of Eoghan, son of Niall, as king over Ireland. 

506 AD - Illann, son of Dunlaing, King of Leinster, died. 

507 AD - The Cinel Fiachach assume control of Uisneach from the Ui Failge. The battle of Druim Deargaighe was gained against Foilghe Berraidhe, by Fiacha, son of Niall. From that time forward the land extending from Cluain In Dibhair to Uisneach belongs to the Cinel Fiachach. 

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513 AD - The battle of Dedna, in Droma Breagh, by Muircheartach mac Earca, and by Colga, son of Loite, son of Crunn, son of Feidhlimidh, son of Colla Dachrich, chief of Airghialla, where Ardghal, son of Conall Creamhthainne, son of Niall, was slain. 

523 AD - Eochaidh, son of Aenghus, King of Munster, died. 

525 AD - Ailill, Bishop of Armagh, who was of the Ui Breasail, died. 

526 AD - Cairell, son of Muireadhach Muindearg, King of Ulidia, died. Oilill, son of Dunlaing, King of Leinster, died. 

527 AD - After Muircheartach, son of Muireadhach, son of Eoghan, son of Niall of the Nine Hostages, had been twenty four years in the sovereignty of Ireland, he was burned in the house of Cleiteach, over the Boyne, on the night of Samhain the first of November, after being drowned in wine. 

528 AD - The first year of Tuathal Maelgarbh, son of Cormac Caech, son of Cairbre, son of Niall, in the sovereignty of Ireland. In this year was the battle of Luachair Mor between the two Invers, which is called the battle of Ailbhe, in Breagh, by Tuathal Maelgarbh, against the Cianachta of Meath. 

531 AD - The battle of Claenloch, in Cinel Aedh, by Goibhneann, chief of Ui Fiachrach Aidhne, where Maine, son of Cearbhall, was killed, in defending the hostages of Ui Maine of Connaught. 

535 AD - The church of Doire Calgaigh was founded by Colum Cille, the place having been granted to him by his own tribe, i.e. the race of Conall Gulban, son of Niall. In this year Cormac, son of Ailill, King of Leinster, died. In this year Oilill, Bishop of Armagh, died. He was also of the Ui Breasail. 

537 AD - The battle of Sligeach by Fearghus and Domhnall, the two sons of Muircheartach mac Earca; by Ainmire, son of Sedna; and Ainnidh, son of Duach, 	    against Eoghan Bel, King of Connaught. They routed the forces before them, and Eoghan Bel was slain. 

538 AD - After Tuathal Maelgarbh, son of Cormac Caech, son of Cairbre, son of Niall, had been eleven years in the sovereignty of Ireland, he was slain, at Greallach Eillte, by Maelmor, son of Airgeadan, who was the tutor of Diarmaid mac Cearbhaill; and Maelmor fell in revenge of it thereof immediately. 

539 AD - The first year of Diarmaid, son of Fearghus Ceirrbheoil, in the sovereignty of Ireland. 

                                                                     
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543 AD - There was an extraordinary universal plague through the world, which swept away the noblest third part of the human race. 

544 AD - The battle of Cuil Conaire, in Ceara, was fought by Fearghus and Domhnall, two sons of Muircheartach mac Earca, against Ailill Inbhanda, King of Connaught, and Aedh Fortamhail; and Ailill and Aedh were slain. 

546 AD - The battle of Cuilne, in which many of the Corcoiche were slain through the prayers of St. Ida, of Cluain Creadhail. In this year also died Cairbre, son of 	    Cormac, King of Leinster. 

547 AD - The King of Ulidia, Eochaidh, son of Connla, son of Caelbhadh, son of Crunn Badhrai, died. The chief of Teathbha, Crimhthann, son of Brian, died. St. Dubhthach, Abbot of Ard Macha Armagh, died. He was of the race of Colla Uais. 

548 AD - The death of Eochaidh, son of Connlo, King of Ulidia, from whom are the Ui Eathach Uladh.---Tighernach. 

551 AD - The death of Eochaidh, son of Connlo, King of Ulidia, from whom are the Ui Eathach Uladh.---Tighernach. 

552 AD - The killing of Colman Mor, son of Diarmaid, in his chariot, by Dubhshlat Ua Treana, one of the Cruithni. 

554 AD - Curnan, son of Aedh, son of Eochaidh Tirmcharna, i. e. the son of the King of Connaught, was put to death by Diarmaid, son of Cearbhall, in violation of the guarantee and protection of Colum Cille, having been forcibly torn from his hands, which was the cause of the battle of Cul Dreimhne. 

555 AD - The battle of Cul Dreimhne was gained against Diarmaid, son of Cearbhall, by Fearghus and Domhnall, the two sons of Muircheartach, son of Earca; by Ainmire, son of Sedna; and by Ainnidh, son of Duach; and by Aedh, son of Eochaidh Tirmcharna, King of Connaught. It was in revenge of the killing of Curnan, son of Aedh, son of Eochaidh Tirmcharna, while under the protection of Colum Cille, the Clanna Neill of the North and the Connaughtmen gave this battle of Cul Dreimhne to King Diarmaid. 

556 AD - The battle of Cuil Uinnsenn, in Teathbha, was fought against Diarmaid, by Aedh, son of Breanainn, chief of Teathbha; and Diarmaid was routed from the field of battle. 

557 AD - The battle of Moin Doire Lothair was gained over the Cruithnigh, by the Ui Neill of the North, i. e. by the Cinel Conaill and Cinel Eoghain, wherein fell seven chieftains of the Cruithnigh, together with Aedh Breac; and it was on this occasion that the Lee and Carn Eolairg were forfeited to the Clanna Neill of the North. 
             
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558 AD - After Diarmaid, the son of Fearghus Cerrbheoil, had been twenty years in sovereignty over Ireland, he was slain by Aedh Dubh, son of Suibhne, King of Dal Araidhe, at Rath Beag, in Magh Line. His head was brought to Cluain Mic Nois, and interred there, and his body was interred at Connor. 

559 AD - The first year of the two sons of Muircheartach, son of Muireadhach, in the kingdom of Ireland, i.e. Domhnall and Fearghus. 

560 AD - Daimhin Damhairgitr, i.e. Cairbre, died. From him are the Airghialla. 

561 AD - After Domhnall and Fearghus, the two sons of Muircheartach, son of Muireadhach, son of Eoghan, son of Niall, had been three years in the sovereignty of 	    Ireland, they both died. 

562 AD - The first year of Eochaidh, son of Domhnall, son of Muircheartach, and of Baedan, son of Muircheartach, son of Muireadhach, in the sovereignty of Ireland. 

563 AD - After Eochaidh and Baedan had been two years in the sovereignty of Ireland, they were slain by Cronan, chief of Cianachta Glinne Gemhin. 

564 AD - The first year of Ainmire, son of Sedna, son of Fearghus Ceannfhoda, in the sovereignty of Ireland. 

565 AD - Deman, son of Cairell, King of Ulidia, son of Muireadhach Muindearg, was killed by the shepherds of Boirenn. Also in this year A sea fleet was brought by Colman Beg, son of Diarmaid, son of Fearghus Cerrbheoil, and by Conall, son of Comhgall, chief of Dal Riada, to Sol and Ile, and they carried off many spoils from them. 

566 AD - After Ainmire, son of Sedna, was three years in the sovereignty of Ireland, he was slain by Fearghus, son of Nellin. 

567 AD - After Baedan, son of Ninnidh, son of Fearghus Ceannfhoda, had been one year in the sovereignty of Ireland, he was slain at Leim An Eich, in a battle, by the two Comains; i.e. Comain, son of Colman Beg, son of Cearbhall, and Comain, son of Libren, son of Illadhan, son of Cearbhall. It was at the instance of Colman Beg they perpetrated this deed. 

568 AD - The first year of Aedh, son of Ainmire, over Ireland. 

571 AD - The battle of Tola, by Fiachna, son of Baedan, son of Cairell, against the people of Osraighe and Eile; and they were defeated. Tola is the name of a plain situated between Cluain Fearta Molua and Saighir. Also in this year was the battle of Feimhin, by Cairbre, son of Creamhthann, King of Munster, against Colman Beg, son of Diarmaid; and Colman was defeated. 
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572 AD - The battle of Doete, which is called Bealach Feadha, by Aedh, son of Ainmire, against the men of Meath, where fell Colman Beg, son of Diarmaid. 

574 AD - The killing of Aedh, son of Eochaidh Tirmcharna, by the Ui Briuin. 

576 AD - Colman, son of Cairbre, King of Leinster, died at Sliabh Mairge. 

579 AD - The battle of Druim Mic Earca, was gained by Aedh, son of Ainmire, over the Cinel Eogain, where was slain Colga, son of Domhnall, son of Muircheartach, son of Muireadhach. 

580 AD - Fearghus Scannal, King of Munster, was slain. 

581 AD - Aedh, son of Suibhne, chief of Maenmagh, died. 

582 AD - Fearadhach, son of Duach, Lord of Osraighe, was slain by his own people. 

585 AD - Breanainn, son of Brian, chief of Teathbha Teffia, died. It was he that had, some time before, granted Dearmhagh to God and to Colum Cille. Also in this year Baetan, son of Cairell, King of Ulidia, died. 

586 AD - Feidhlimidh, son of Tighernach, King of Munster, died. Also in this year the battle of Magh Ochtair was gained by Bran Dubh, son of Eochaidh, over the Ui Neill, at the hill over Cluain Conaire, to the south. 

590 AD - The battle of Eadan Mor was gained by Fiachna, son of Baedan, son of Cairell, son of Muireadhach Muindearg, over Gerthidhe, son of Ronan, Lord of Cianachta. 

591 AD - Aedh Cerr, son of Colman, son of Cairbre, King of Leinster, died. 

592 AD - Aedh Dubh, son of Suibhne, King of Ulidia, was slain by Fiachna, son of Baedan. It was by this Aedh Dubh Diarmaid Mac Cearbhaill had been slain. 

594 AD - After Aedh, son of Ainmire, son of Sedna, had been twenty seven years in the sovereignty of Ireland, he was slain by Bran Dubh, son of Eochaidh, in the battle of Dun Bolg, in Leinster, after Aedh had gone to exact the Borumha, and to avenge his son Comusgach upon them. Some nobles fell in this battle of Bealach Duin Bolg, together with Beg, son of Cuanach, Lord of Oirghialla. 

595 AD - The first year of both Aedh Slaine, son of the son of Diarmaid, son of Fearghus Cerrbheoil; and of Colman Rimidh, in the sovereignty of Ireland. 

596 AD - Suibhne, son of Colman Beg, Lord of Meath, was slain by Aedh Slaine, at Bridamh. 
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597 AD - The battle of Sleamhain, in Meath, was fought by Colman Rimidh against Conall Cu, son of Aedh, son of Ainmire; and Conall was defeated. Also in this year Brenainn, son of Cairbre, son of Fechine, Lord of Ui Maine, died. Also in this year Uata, son of Aedh, son of Eochaidh Tirmcharna, King of Connaught, died. 

598 AD - The battle of Eachros, in Muirisc, by Colman, chief of Cinel Cairbre, against Maelcothaigh, chief of Cinel Fiachrach, of Muirisc; and the battle was gained 	     over Maelcothaigh. 

600 AD - After Aedh Slaine, son of Diarmaid, and Colman Rimidh, son of Baedan, son of Muircheartach, son of Muireadhach, son of Eoghan, son of Niall, had been six years in the sovereignty of Ireland, Colman Rimidh was slain by Lochan Dilmana, and Aedh Slaine was slain by Conall Guithbhinn, son of Suibhne, son of Colman Mor, or Beg, son of Diarmaid, son of Cearthall, at Loch Semhedidhe. Aedh Gustan, the foster brother of Conall, and Baethghal Bile, wounded him. 

600 AD - Conall, son of Suibhne, slew Aedh Roin, chief of Ui Failghe, at Faithche Mic Mencnain, and Aedh Buidhe, chief of Ui Maine, on the same day on which Aedh Slaine was slain by him. Also in this year Cui Gan Mathair, King of Munster, died - and Conall Cu, son of Aedh, son of Ainmire, died. 

601 AD - The first year of Aedh Uairidhnach, son of Domhnall Ilchealgach, son of Muircheartach, son of Muireadhach, son of Eoghan, in the sovereignty of Ireland. 

601 AD - The battle of Slaibhre was gained by the Ui Neill over Bran Dubh, son Eochaidh, King of Leinster; and Bran Dubh, i.e. son of Eochaidh, was killed by the 	    Airchinneach of Senboithe Sine, and his own tribe. Also in this year Colman, son of Fearadhach, chief of Osraighe Ossory, died. 

605 AD - Seachnasach, son of Garbhan, chief of Cinel Boghaine, was slain by Domhnall, son of Aedh, son of Ainmire. Also, Conall of the Red Dart, son of Daimhin, was killed by the Ui Meith Macha. 

606 AD - Aedh, son of Colgan, chief of Oirghialla and of all the Airtheara, died on his pilgrimage, at Cluain Mic Nois (Clonmacnoise). Also, Maelduin, son of Ailen, chief of Mughdorn Maighean, died. 

607 AD - After Aedh Uairidhnach had been seven years in the sovereignty of Ireland, he died at Ath Da Fearta. He was succeeded by Maelcobha, son of Aedh, son of Ainmire, in the sovereignty of Ireland. 

610 AD - After Maelcobha, son of Aedh, son of Ainmire, had been three years in the sovereignty of Ireland, he was slain by Suibhne Meann, in the battle of Sliabh Toadh. He was succeeded by Suibhne Meann, son of Fiachna, son of Fearadhach, in sovereignty over Ireland. 
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610 AD - Ronan, son of Colman, King of Leinster, died - and Gorman, one of the Mughdhorna, from whom are the Mac Cuinns, and who was a year living on the 	    water of Tibraid Fingin, on his pilgrimage at Cluain Mic Nois, died. 

613 AD - Fearghus, son of Colman Mor, Prince of Meath, was slain by Anfartach Ua Meascain, of Muintir Blaitine. In the following year Aedh Beannan, King of 	    West Munster, died. 

616 AD - Aenghus, son of Colman Mor, chief of the Southern Ui Neill, died. 

620 AD - Ronan, son of Tuathal, Lord of the Airtheara, died. And Cathal, son of Aedh, King of Munster, died. 

622 AD - The battle of Carn Fearadhaigh was gained by Failbhe Flann over the Connaughtmen, wherein were slain Conall, chief of Ui Maine, Maeldubh, Maelduin, Maelruain, Maelcalgaigh, and Maelbreasail, and other nobles and plebeians besides them; and Guaire Aidhne was routed from the battle field. 

622 AD - The battle of Lethed Midinn, at Drung, was fought by Fiachna, son of Deman, Lord of Dal Fiatach, against Fiachna, son of Baedan, King of Ulidia. The battle was gained over Fiachna, son of Baedan, and he fell therein. 

623 AD - After Suibhne Meann had been thirteen years in the sovereignty of Ireland, he was slain at Traigh Brena, by Congal Claen. He was succeeded by Domhnall, son of Aedh, son of Ainmire, in the sovereignty of Ireland. 

624 AD - The battle of Ard Corainn was gained by Connadh Cerr, Lord of Dal Riada, where Fiachna, son of Deman, King of Ulidia, was slain. 

626 AD - The battle of Leathairbhe between Maelfithrigh, chief of Cinel Mic Earca, and Ernaine, son of Fiachra, chief of Cinel Fearadhaigh, where Maelfithrigh, son of Aedh Uairidhnach, was slain. 

628 AD - The battle of Ath Goan, in Iarthar Liffe, by Faelan, son of Colman; by Conall, son of Suibhne, chief of Meath; and by Failge, or Failbhe Flann, King of Munster, wherein was slain Crimhthann, son of Aedh, son of Seanach, King of Leinster, with many others along with him. 

630 AD - The two sons of Aedh Slaine were slain by Conall, son of Suibhne, at Loch Trethin, at Freamhain, namely, Congal, chief of Breagh, ancestor of the Ui Conaing, and Ailill Cruitire i.e. the Harper, ancestor of the Sil Dluthaigh. 

630 AD - Conall, son of Suibhne, chief of Meath, and Maelumha, son of Forannan, were slain by Diarmaid, son of Aedh Slaine. 
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634 AD - The battle of Magh Rath was gained by Domhnall, son of Aedh, and the sons of Aedh Slaine, over Congal Claen, son of Scannlan, King of Ulidia, where fell Congal, and the Ulidians and foreigners along with him. 

634 AD - The battle of Saeltire was gained by Conall Cael, son of Maelcobha, over the Cinel Eoghain. 

636 AD - Maelodhar Macha, chief of Oirghialla, died. 

639 AD - After Domhnall, son of Aedh, son of Ainmire, had been sixteen years in the sovereignty of Ireland, he died at Ard Fothadh, in Tir Aedha, after the victory of penance, for he was a year in his mortal sickness; and he used to receive the body of Christ every Sunday. He was succeeded by Conall Cael and Ceallach, two sons of Maelcobha, son of Aedh, son of Ainmire, over Ireland, in joint sovereignty. 

639 AD - Oilill, son of Colman, chief of Cinel Laeghaire, died. 

640 AD - Scannlan Mor, son of Ceannfaeladh, chief of Osraighe (Ossory), died. Also, Cuana, son of Ailcen, chief of Feara Maighe Fermoy, died. 

641 AD - Maelbreasail and Maelanfaidh died; and Flann Enaigh was mortally wounded. These were of the Cinel Conaill Gulban. 

642 AD - Furadhran, son of Bec, son of Cuanach, chief of Ui Mic Uais, died. 

644 AD - Bolgluatha, Lord of Ui Ceinnsealaigh, died. 

645 AD - Raghallach, son of Uatach, King of Connaught, was killed by Maelbrighde, son of Mothlachan. 

645 AD - The battle of Carn Conaill was gained by Diarmaid, son of Aedh Slaine against Guaire, wherein were slain the two Cuans, namely, Cuan, son of Enda, King of Munster, and Cuan, son of Conall, chief of Ui Fidhgeinte; and Tolamhnach, chief of Ui Liathain; and Guaire was routed from the battle field. Diarmaid, on his way to this battle, went first through Cluain Mic Nois (Clonmacnoise). 

647 AD - Dunchadh and Conall, two sons of Blathmac, son of Aedh Slaine, were slain by the Leinstermen, in the mill race of the mill of Maelodhran, son of Dima Cron. Marcan and Maelodhran mortally wounded the two. 

648 AD - The battle of Cuil Corra, by Aeldeith and Onchu, where Cillene, son of Forannan, chief of Ui Failghe Offaly, was slain. 

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649 AD - The battle of Airther Seola, in Connaught, by Ceannfaeladh, son of Colgan and Maenach, son of Baeithin, chief of Ui Briuin, in which was slain Marcan, son of Toimen, chief of Ui Maine. 

649 AD - Fearghus, son of Domhnall, and Fearghus, son of Raghallach, and Aedh Beathra, son of Cuimin, were killed by the Ui Fiachrach Aidhne. Also Maeldoid, son of Suibhne, chief of Meath, died. 

650 AD - The battle of Fleascach, by Crunnmael, son of Suibhne, chief of Cinel Eoghain, in which was slain Cumascach, son of Oilioll, chief of Ui Cremhthainn. 

650 AD - Crunnmael Erbuilg, son of Ronan, chief of South Leinster, died. 

656 AD - After Conall and Ceallach, the two sons of Maelcobha, son of Aedh, son of Ainmire, had been seventeen years over Ireland, Conall was slain by Diarmaid, son of Aedh Slaine; and Ceallach died at Brugh Mic An Og. Also Blathmac, son of Maelcobha, King of Ulidia, died. 

657 AD - The first year of Diarmaid and Blathmac, two sons of Aedh Slaine, son of Diarmaid, son of Fearghus Cerrbheoil, in the sovereignty of Ireland. 

660 AD - A battle was gained at Ogamhain, at Ceann Corbadain, by the people of Diarmaid, son of Aedh Slaine, namely, Onchu, son of Saran, Maelmilchon, and 	    Cathasach, son of Eimhin, over Blathmac, son of Aedh Slaine, in which were slain Conaing, son of Conall, son of Aedh Slaine; Ulltan, son of Ernaine, chief of Cianachta; Ceannfaeladh, son of Geirtidi, chief of Cianachta Arda; and Faelchu, son of Maelumha. 

660 AD - Maenach, son of Finghin, King of Munster, died. Maelduin, son of Furadhran, chief of Durlas, died. Maelfuataigh, son of Ernaine, chief of Cianachta, was slain. 

664 AD - After Diarmaid and Blathmac, the two sons of Aedh Slaine, had been eight years in the sovereignty of Ireland, they died of the same plague, called the Buidhe Connail, which killed a number of venerable saints and thousands of people. Seachnasach, son of Blathmac, became the new sovereign of Ireland. 

665 AD - Maelcaeich, son of Scannal, chief of the Cruithne of Dal Araidhe of the race of Ir, died; Eochaidh Iarlaidh, King of the Cruithne, also died! Maelduin, son of Scannal, chief of Cinel Coirbre, died. Duibhinnreacht, son of Dunchadh, chief of Ui Briuin, died. Faelan, son of Colman, King of Leinster, died. 

666 AD - The battle of Aine, between the Aradha and Ui Fidhgeinte, where Eoghan, son of Crunnmael, was slain. In this year Bran Finn, son of Maelochtraigh, chief of the Deisi of Munster, was slain. 

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668 AD - Maelfothartaigh, son of Suibhne, chief of Cinel Tuirtre, died. In the following year Bran Finn, son of Maelochtraigh, chief of Deisi Mumhan died. 

669 AD - After Seachnasach, son of Blathmac, had been five years in sovereignty over Ireland, he was slain by Dubhduin, chief of Cinel Cairbre. He was succeeded by Ceannfaeladh, son of Blathmac, in the sovereignty of Ireland. 

670 AD - Dungal, son of Maeltuile, chief of Cinel Boghaine, was slain by Loingseach, son of Aenghus, chief of Cinel Conaill. Two year later Scannlan, son of Fingin, chief of Ui Meith, died. 

673 AD - After Ceannfaeladh, son of Blathmac, son of Diarmaid, had been four years in the sovereignty of Ireland, he was slain by Finnachta Fleadhach, in the battle of Aircealtair, at Tigh Ua Maine. He was succeeded by Finnachta Fleadhach, son of Dunchadh, in sovereignty over Ireland. 

678 AD - Fianamhail, son of Maeltuile, King of Leinster, was mortally wounded by Foicseachan, one of his own people, at the instigation of Finshneachta Fleadhach. 

679 AD - Dunghal, son of Scannal, chief of the Cruithni, and Ceannfaeladh, son of Suibhne, chief of Cianachta Glinne Geimhin, were burned by Maelduin, son of 	    Maelfithrigh, at Dun Ceithirn. 

680 AD - Ceannfaeladh, son of Colgan, King of Connaught, was slain. Ulcha Dearg Redbeard Ua Caillidhe, one of the Conmaicne Cuile, was the person that killed him. The battle of Rath Mor Maighe Line was gained over the Britons, wherein were slain Cathasach, son of Maelduin, chief of the Cruithni Dal Araidhe, and Ultan, son of Dicolla. 

683 AD - The devastation of Magh Breagh, both churches and territories, by the North Saxons, in the month of June precisely; and they carried off with them many hostages from every place which they left, throughout Magh Breagh, together with many other spoils, and afterwards went to their ships. 

683 AD - Breasal, son of Fearghus, chief of Cobha, died. 

686 AD - The battle of Imleach Phich was fought by Niall, son of Cearnach Sotal, against Congalach, son of Conaing, wherein were slain Dubhdainbher, chief of Ard Cianachta, and Uaircridhe Ua Oisene, chief of Conaille Muirtheimhne; and the battle was afterwards gained over Congalach. 

689 AD - Fearghus, son of Lodan, King of Ulidia, was slain by the Ui Eachdhach people of Iveagh. 

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693 AD - After Finachta Fleadhach, son of Dunchadh, had been twenty years in the sovereignty of Ireland, he was slain by Aedh, son of Dluthach, son of Ailill, son of Aedh Slaine, chief of Feara Cul, and Congalach, son of Conaing, son of Congal, son of Aedh Slaine, in a battle at Greallach Dollaith. Breasal, son of Finachta, also fell in this battle along with his father. Finachta was succeeded by Loingseach, son of Aenghus, in the sovereignty of Ireland. 

694 AD - Fearghal Aidhne, King of Connaught, died; he was the son of Guaire Aidhne. 

695 AD - The devastation of Magh Muirtheimhne by the Britons and Ulidians. 

696 AD - A battle was fought at Tulach Garraisg, in Fearnmhagh, wherein were slain Conchobhar Macha, son of Maelduin, chief of the Airtheara Oriors, and Aedh 	    Aired, chief of Dal Araidhe. 

698 AD - Fianamhail Ua Dunchadha, chief of Dal Riada, and Flann, son of Ceannfaeladh, son of Suibhne, chief of Cinel Eoghain, were slain. Aurthuile Ua Crunnmaeil, chief of Cinel Eoghain, was driven from his chieftainry into Britain. 

700 AD - Muireadhach of Magh Aei, King of Connaught, son of Fearghus, from whom are the Sil Muireadhaigh, died. 

701 AD - After Loingseach, son of Aenghus, son of Domhnall, had been eight years in the sovereignty of Ireland, he was slain in the battle of Corann, by Ceallach of Loch Cime, the son of Raghallach. There were slain also his three sons along with him, Artghal, Connachtach, and Flann Gearg. There were also slain there the two sons of Colcen, and Dubhdibhearg, son of Dunghal, and Fearghus Forcraith, and Conall Gabhra, and other noblemen besides them. Loingseach was succeeded by Congal of Ceann Maghair, son of Fearghus of Fanaid, in sovereignty over Ireland. 

702 AD - A battle was fought at Claen Ath by Ceallach Cualann, against Fogartach Ua Cearnaigh, who was afiterwards King of Ireland, wherein Bodhbhchadh of Meath, son of Diarmaid, was slain, and Fogartach was defeated. 

705 AD - Inreachtach, son of Dunchadh Muirisce, King of the tripartite Connaught, was slain by Fearghal, son of Maelduin, and Fearghal, son of Loingseach, son of Aenghus, and Conall Meann, chief of Cinel Cairbre. 

705 AD - The battle of Leathairbhe was gained by Congal, son of Fearghus Fanad, over the Cinel Eoghain, where Maelduin, son of Maelfithrigh, Lord of the Cinel oghain, was slain. 

706  AD - Cucuaran, King of the Cruithni and of Ulidia, was killed by Finnchu hUa Ronain. 
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708 AD - After Congal of Ceann Maghair, son of Fearghus Fanad, had been seven years in the sovereignty of Ireland, he died of one hour's sickness. He was succeeded by Fearghal, son of Maelduin, son of Maelfithrigh, in sovereignty over Ireland. 

710 AD - The battle of Carn Fearadhaigh by the northern Des, wherein Cormac, son of Finghin, King of Munster, was slain. 

712 AD - A battle was fought between the two sons of Beg Boirche and the sons of Breasal, chiefs of Ui Eathach Uladh Iveagh; and the victory was gained over the sons of Breasal. 

713 AD - Murchadh, son of Diarmaid, son of Airmeadhach Caech, chief of Ui Neill of Clann Colmain, was slain by Conall Grant Ua Cearnaigh. 

717 AD - A battle was fought between the Connaughtmen and the Corca Baiscinn, wherein the son of Talamhnaigh was slain. 

718 AD - After Fearghal, son of Maelduin, son of Maelfithrigh, had been ten years in sovereignty over Ireland, he was slain in the battle of Almhain, by Dunchadh, son of Murchadh, and Aedh, son of Colgan, an heir presumptive to the sovereignty. The number which the race of Conn brought to this battle was twenty one thousand, and the number brought by the Leinstermen was nine thousand. 

	    The following were the chieftains and leaders of Leath Chuinn who fell in this battle together with Fearghal: Conall Menn, chief of Cinel Cairbre; Forbasach, chief of Cinel Boghaine; Fearghal Ua Aitheachdae; Fearghal, son of Eochaidh Leamhna, chief of Tamhnach; Connalach, son of Conaing; and Egnech, son of Colgan, chief of the Airthera (the Oriors); Coibhdeanach, son of Fiachra; Muirghius, son of Conall; Leathaitheach, son of Concarat; Anmchaidh, son of Concharat; Aedhgen Ua Mathghamhnae; Nuada, son of Eirc, chief of Gull and Irgull; and ten of the race of Maelfithrigh. These were the losses of the chieftains and leaders of the North. The losses of the South were: Flann, son of Raghallach; Aileall, son of Fearadhach; Suibhne, son of Congalach; Aedh Laighean Ua Cearnaigh; Nia, son of Cormac; Dubhdachrich, son of Dubhdainbher; Aileall, son of Conall Grant; Flaitheamhail, son of  Dluthach; Fearghus Ua Eoghain. One hundred and sixty of Fearghal's satellites, and numbers of others, were slain besides these nobles. Nine was the number of persons that died with panic and lunacy from this battle. Seven thousand was the number that fell on both sides between them. Inrachtach, son of Dunchadh Muirisce, King of Connaught, died in that battle of Almhain, if true. 

719 AD - Fogartach, son of Niall, son of Cearnach Sotal, was in the sovereignty of Ireland this year, until he fell in the battle of Delgean, by Cinaeth, son of Irgalach. He was succeeded by Cinaeth, son of Irgalach, son of Conaing Cuirri, in the sovereignty of Ireland. The next year Ulidia was taken possession of by Cinaeth, son of Congalach. 

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721 AD - The battle of Druim Fornocht was fought by Flaithbheartach, son of Loingseach, and the Cinel Conaill, against Aedh Allan, son of Fearghal, and the Cinel 	    Eoghain. Aedh Allan was defeated. These chieftains were slain on the side of Aedh, namely Flann, son of Erthaile, and Snedgus Dearg Ua Brachaidhe. 

722 AD - After Cinaeth, son of Irgalach, had been three years in sovereignty over Ireland, he fell in the battle of Druim Corcrain, by Flaithbheartach, son of Loingseach. Flaithbheartach, son of Loingseach, son of Aenghus, succeeded in sovereignty over Ireland. 

727 AD - A battle was fought between Aedh, son of Fearghal, and the Cinel Conaill, at Magh Itha, where Conaing, son of Congal, son of Fearghus, and many others of the Cinel Eoghain, were slain. The following year a battle was fought in Magh Itha, between the sons of Loingseach, son of Aenghus, and the sons of Fearghal, son of Maelduin, where numbers of the Cinel Eoghain were slain. 

728 AD - Flaithbheartach sent for a marine fleet of Dal Riada to Ireland, and on their arrival they made no delay till they arrived in Inis hOinae; and there was a battle fought between Flaithbheartach with his guards and the Cianachta, and others of the Ulidians and the Cinel Eoghain; and a countless number of the Ulidians, Cinel Eoghain, and Cianachta, were cut off, together with Conchubhar, son of Loichene, and Branchu, son of Bran; and a countless number of  them was drowned in the Banna, after their having been defeated. 

728 AD - Taichleach son of Cenn Faeladh, Lord of Luigne, died. And Reachtabhra grandson of Cathasach, Lord of Ui Thuirtre, died. 

729 AD - After Flaithbheartach, son of Loingseach, son of Aenghus, had been seven years in the sovereignty of Ireland, he died at Ard Macha Armagh, having resigned his kingdom for a monastic life. He was succeeded by Aedh Allan, son of Fearghal, son of Maelduin, over Ireland. 

730 AD - The battle of Bealach Ele was fought between Cathal, son of Finguine, King of Munster, and the Leinstermen, where many of the Leinstermen were slain. There fell of the Munstermen here Ceallach, son of Faelchair, chief of Osraighe (Ossory), and the two sons of Cormac, son of Rossa, chief of the Deisi, with three thousand along with them. 

730 AD - Airechtach, grandson of Dunchadh Muirsce, chief of Ui Fiachrach, died. 

732 AD - A battle was fought between two parties of the race of Aedh Slaine, wherein Cathal, son of Aedh was slain, on the east side of Lic Ailbhe, by Conaing, son of Amhalgaidh. 

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732 AD - The battle of Fochart, in Magh Muirtheimhne was fought by Aedh Allan and the Clanna Neill of the North, against the Ulidians, where Aedh Roin, King of Ulidia, was slain; and his head was cut off on Cloch An Chommaigh, in the doorway of the church of Fochard; and Conchadh, son of Cuanach, chief of Cobha, was also slain, and many others along with him. The cause of this battle was the profanation of Cill Cunna by Ua Seghain, one of the people of Aedh Roin, of which Aedh Roin himself said: `I will not take its Conn from Tairr,' for Ceall Cunna and Ceall Tairre are side by side. 

732 AD - Fiangalach, son of Murchadh, chief of Ui Mail, died. 

733 AD - Aedh Allan, King of Ireland, assembled the forces of Leath Chuinn, to proceed into Leinster; and he arrived at Ath Seanaith. The Leinstermen collected the greatest number they were able, to defend his right against him. A fierce battle was fought between them. The king, Aedh Allan himself; went into the battle, and the chieftains of the North along with him. The chieftains of Leinster came with their kings into the battle; and bloodily and heroically was the battle fought between them both. Heroes were slaughtered, and bodies were mutilated. Aedh Allan, and Aedh, son of Colgan, King of Leinster, met each other in single combat; and Aedh, son of Colgan, was slain by Aedh Allan. The Leinstermen were killed, slaughtered, cut off, and dreadfully exterminated, 	    in this battle, so that there escaped of them but a small remnant, and a few fugitives. 

	    The following were the leaders and chieftains of the Leinstermen who fell, namely: Aedh, son of Colgan, King of Ui Ceinnsealaigh; Bran Beg, son of Murchadh, the second king who was over the Leinstermen; Fearghus, son of Maenach, and Dubhdacrich, two lords of Fotharta; the son of Ua Ceallaigh; the son of Trian; Fiangalach Ua Maeleaithgin; Conall Ua Aithechdai; the four sons of Flann Ua Conghaile; Eladhach Ua Maeluidhir; and many others, whom it would be tedious to enumerate. The people of Leath Chuinn were joyous after this victory, for they had wreaked their vengeance and their animosity upon the Leinstermen. Nine thousand was the number of them that was slain. 

734 AD - Ailill, son of Tuathal, Lord of Ui Crimhthainn, died. 

737 AD - The devastation of Cinel Fiachach and of Dealbhna by the Osraighe. In the same year Flann Feorna, Lord of Corc Modhruadh, died. Also, Artrach, son of Aitheachda, Lord of Ui Meith, died. 

738 AD - Aedh Allan, son of Maelduin, fell in the battle of Magh Seirigh (i.e. Ceanannus), between the two Teabhthas, by Domhnall, son of Murchadh, after having 	    been nine years in the sovereignty of Ireland. There were also slain in the same battle Cumascach, son of Conchubhar, Lord of the Airtheara (the Oriors); Maenach, son of Connalach, Lord of Ui Creamhthainn; and Muireadhach, son of Fearghus Forcraidh, Lord of Ui Tuirtre. 

738 AD - Dubhdothra, Lord of Ui Briuin Cualann, was mortally wounded. 
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739 AD - The first year of Domhnall, son of Murchadh, son of Diarmaid, over Ireland; he was the first king of the Clann Colmain. 

742 AD - Aedh Muindearg, son of Flaithbheartach, lord of Tuaisceart, died. Also Seachnasach, son of Colgan, King of South Leinster, died. Also Dunlaing, son of 
Dunchu, lord of Cinel Ardghail, died. A year later Congal, son of Eigneach, lord of the Airtheara (the Oriors), was slain at Rath Esclair, by Donnboo, son of Cubreatan. 

745 AD - Cathal Maenmaighe, Lord of Ui Maine, died. Blathmhac, son of Coibhdeanach, Lord of Muscraighe, died. Dubhdabhoireann, Lord of Ui Fidhgeinte, died. Anmchaidh, chief of Ui Liathain, died. Fiachra, son of Ailene, lord of Mughdhorna, was killed. 

746 AD - Flann grandson of Conghal, Lord of Ui Foilge, died. Fearghus son of Fogartach, Lord of Southern Brega, died. Muirghius son of Fearghus, Lord of the Deisi, died. Flann Foirtrea, Lord of Corco Laigde, died. 

747 AD - Conaing Ua Duibhduin, lord of Cairbre Teabhtha, died. Foidmeann, son of Fallach, chief of Conaille Muirtheimhne, died. Flaithbheartach, son of Conall Meann, chief of Cinel Cairbre, died. Flann, son of Ceallach, lord of Muscraighe (Muskerry), died. 

749 AD - The battle of Ard Naescan, between the Ui Briuin and Cinel Cairbre, wherein many were slain. Also in this year Flann, son of Conchubhar, lord of Magh Ai, died. The devastation of Fotharta Fea by the men of Osraighe (Ossory). Cathasach, son of Ailell, King of Ulidia, was slain at Rath Bethech. 

751 AD - The battle of Bealach Cro was gained by Crimhthann over the Dealbhna of Ui Maine, in which was slain Finn, son of Arbh, Lord of Dealbhna, at Tibra Finn, and the Dealbhna were slaughtered about him. From this are named Lochan Bealaigh Cro, and Tibra Finn. The Ui Maine were contending with them for the cantred between the Suca (the River Suck) and the Sinainn (the River Shannon), for this was called the cantred of Dealbhna. 

758 AD - After Domhnall, son of Murchadh, son of Diarmaid, had been twenty years in sovereignty over Ireland, he died. He was the first king of Ireland of the Clann Colmain, and he was buried at Dearmhagh (Durrow) with honour and veneration. He was succeeded by Niall Frosach, son of Fearghal, in sovereignty over Ireland. 

765 AD - Niall Frosach, son of Fearghal, was seven years king over Ireland when he resigned; and he died at I Coluim Cille, on his pilgrimage eight years afterwards. He was succeeded by Donnchadh, son of Domhnall, in sovereignty over Ireland. 

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792 AD - Donnchadh, i.e. the son of Domhnall, son of Murchadh, reigned twenty seven years, when he died, after the victory of penance, in the sixty fourth year of his age. He was succeeded by Aedh Oirdnidhe, son of Niall Frosach, in sovereignty over Ireland. 

The Viking Era: 9th - 10th Century Irish History & Battles 

The Viking era in Ireland is commonly divided into two periods: an early era beginning in 795 AD and ending by the mid 9th century, and a second period beginning around 914 AD and ending around the middle of the 10th century. The 'first period of the Viking Wars' consisted of raids on island and coastal monasteries, the initial raids occuring around 795 at the island monasteries at Rathlin, Inishmurray and Insbofin on the northern and western coasts. Irish monasteries provided important economic and political focal points to the Vikings for provisions, precious goods, livestock, and captives. This was also the reason that monasteries were a favorite raiding spot for Irish leaders both before and after the arrival of the Vikings. The early Vikings in Ireland were Norwegian ("Fingall") and were followed later by competing Danish Vikings ("Dubhgall"). The superior technology of their long boats allowed them to traverse the open seas and yet navigate the major river channels in Ireland, England and the European continent. Their surprise raids were quick and efficient. 

During the first half of the ninth century, Viking raids occured quickly and infrequently (on average once every year or two). The Vikings eventually established raiding base camps at Dublin, Limerick, Cork, Wexford, Waterford, Carlingford, Strangford, Lough Foyle, Annagassan, Arklow, Youghal, Lough Foyle and even into Lough Ree. The Irish responded by building round towers to preserve life and cultural heritage during the turbulent times of the Viking raiders. 

By the mid-ninth century, the Vikings began more permanent settlements at some of their base camps, notably Dublin in 841, Cork about 846 and Waterford around 850 (and again in 914). At this time the Norwegian and Danish contingent of Vikings began competing heavily for power over the Irish enclaves. What followed was a period where the Irish were able to strike back at some of these settlements, as well as a 40-60 year lull in Viking raiding activity in Ireland. By 902 the Vikings were driven from Dublin. 

A second period of intensified Viking activity began with the return of large Viking fleets to Waterford in 914 and to Dublin in 917, regaining control of these important trading ports. Settlements were further established at Limerick and Wexford as the Viking wars continued until the middle part of the tenth century. Over time the Vikings settled into Irish life as merchants and seamen, and the Irish formed alliances with them in their own continued internal struggles. 

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Some of the more prominent Viking activity recorded in the annals included: 

795 AD - Raids on the monasteries of Rathlin, Inishmurray and Inishbofin. 
797 AD - Viking attack on Lambay Island, northeast of Dublin City. 
798 AD - Burning of the monastery of St. Patrick's Island. 
807 AD - Burning of Inishmurray. Attack on Roscam in Co. Galway. 
811 AD - Viking defeat by the Ulaid of northeastern Ireland. 
812 AD - Viking defeat by the Umall of Co. Mayo. 
812 AD - The Eoghanacht Locha Lein defeat a band of Vikings in Kerry. 
819 AD - Vikings raid the Wexford area and later set up a trading post. 
820 AD - The Vikings raid the Abbey of St. Finbarr's at Cork and set up a base camp. 
824 AD - Attack on the monastery of Sceilg, 8 miles off the coast of Kerry. 
825 AD - Monastery at St. Mullins is plundered. 
831 AD - Vikings attack the area around Annagassan in Co. Louth. 
832 AD - Vikings raid the monastery of Clonmore. 
836 AD - First recorded inland attacks against the Southern Ui Neill in Meath. 
837 AD - More raids, 60 ships appear both on the rivers Liffey and the Boyne. 
839 AD - More raids - Viking fleet at Lough Neagh and over-winter in 840/41. 
839 AD - Attacks are reported at Ferns, Co. Wexford and at Cork. 
841 AD - Turgeis and a big Viking fleet take Dublin and begin their first settlement in Ireland. 
841 AD - Vikings erect a longfort at Linn Duachaill near Annagassan. 
842 AD - The Vikings complete there first "over-winter" at Dublin. 
842 AD - The first recorded Irish-Viking alliance. 
844 AD - Turgeis is killed by the Irish, drowned in Loch Nair. 
845 AD - Forannan, abbot of Armagh, is captured in Munster. 
845 AD - Viking victory at Dunamase. 
846 AD - The Vikings make a settlement on islands at Cork. 
848 AD - Maelseachlann I defeates the Vikings of Dublin at Skryne 
848 AD - Olchobar, the king of Cashel, attacks the Viking base at Cork. 
850 AD - Waterford is settled by the Vikings around this time. 
851 AD - Battle at Dundalk bay between the "Fingall" (Norwegian) and "Dubhgall" (Danish) Vikings. 
852 AD - Vikings devastate Armagh from their base at Annagassan. 
853 AD - Olaf the White of Norway defeat the Danes in a great sea battle. 
860 AD - Ossory is attacked from the Viking base at Vedrafjord (Waterford). 
864 AD - The Deise destroy the Norse fort in Waterford. 
866 AD - Aed Finnliath (Northern Ui Neill) clears the North coast of Viking bases. 
869 AD - Norwegian Vikings suffer a defeat by Conor, king of Connaught, near Drogheda. 
879 AD - Vikings attack Armagh from a base at Carlingford. 
898 AD - Vikings attack Armagh from a base at Lough Foyle. 
900 AD - Viking fleet moor at Lough Neagh. 
902 AD - The Irish drive the Vikings from Dublin into North Wales. 
908 AD - Eirík Bloodaxe, son of King Haraldr Harfagra of Norway, is a noted Viking raider.                                                          176      
914 AD - A second round of intensified Viking raids begin. 
914 AD - A great sea fleet arrives at Waterford and more in 915. 
917 AD - Vikings defeat the Irish at Dublin and regain control. 
917 AD - The Leinstermen suffer defeat at the hands of the Vikings. 
919 AD - Niall Glundub and the cream of the Ui Neill fall at the Battle of Dublin. 
922 AD - Vikings establish a colony on an island at what is now Limerick. 
926 AD - Muirchertach MacNeill defeats Alptham's Viking forces near Annagassan. 
952 AD - St. Mullins monastery is plundered by a fleet under Lairic. 
955 AD - The second and final period of Viking raids ends. An estimated total of about 43 raids are recorded during the entire Viking period in Ireland. 
968 AD - Ívarr of Limerick is driven out of Ireland by King Mathgamhain of Munster. 
969 AD - Ívarr returns to Limerick and re-establishes his rule on the larger islands of the Shannon. 

817 AD - After Aedh Oirdnidhe, the son of Niall Frasach, had been twenty five years in the sovereignty of Ireland, he died at Ath Da Fhearta, in Magh Conaille, 	    after the victory of penance. He was succeeded by Conchobhar, son of Donnchadh, son of Domhnall, in sovereignty over Ireland. 

831 AD - After Conchobhar, son of Donnchadh, had been fourteen years in the monarchy of Ireland, he died, after the victory of penance. He was succeeded by 	    Niall Caille, son of Aedh Oirdnidhe, in sovereignty over Ireland. 

844 AD - After Niall Caille, son of Aedh Oirdnidhe, had been thirteen years in the sovereignty of Ireland, he was drowned in the Callainn, in the fifty fifth year of his 	    age. He was succeeded by Maelseachlainn, son of Maelruanaidh, over Ireland. 

860 AD - Maelseachlainn, son of Maelruanaidh, son of Donnchadh, Monarch of Ireland, died on the thirteenth day of November precisely, on Tuesday, after he 	    had been sixteen years in the sovereignty. He was succeeded by Aedh Finnliath, son of Niall Caille, in sovereignty over Ireland. 

860 AD - Maelseachlainn [of the Southern Ui Niaill], son of Maelruanaidh, son of Donnchadh, Monarch of Ireland, died on the thirteenth day of November 	    precisely, on Tuesday, after he had been sixteen years in the sovereignty. He was succeeded by Aedh Finnliath [of the Northern Ui Niaill], son of Niall 	    Caille, in sovereignty over Ireland. 

In the period between c. 870 and 914, the Vikings appear to have directed their activities in Britain and there was a relative peace in Ireland. The following 25 years beginning in 914 AD were perhaps a highpoint of Viking agression. More permanent Viking settlement began in this period. Initially the Irish were unable to counter these threats, and Niall Glundub, the Cenel nEogain king of Tara, was killed in battle at Dublin in 919. Yet the threat gradually receded by 940's and the Viking rulers were drawn into the Irish political order, so that their military power usually served Irish political ends. 
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By the middle of the tenth century Norse and Danish Viking coastal settlements and trading ports had been established at Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, Cork and Limerick. These Viking trading towns and their populations were gradually absorbed into the social and political system that surrounded them. The annals frequently make reference to Irish intermarriages and military alliances with the Vikings, as echoed in the famous Battle of Clontarf in 1014 AD with Viking constituents on both sides. By the late 10th century the 'Foreigners' in Dublin [and elsewhere] were not seen as an enemy to be driven back into the sea but as a potential source of wealth and tribute for the Irish chieftains. Claimants to the High Kingship of Ireland soon came to understand that their power would often be gauged by their ability to control the important port of Dublin. 

Although the early Vikings, or 'Ostmen', were well-known for their raids on the Irish and the Irish Church, their contributions to Ireland were to have a greater positive impact, This included the establishment of Ireland's first towns, the expansion of its seafaring trade, and the influence on its art. 

Within the Irish political scene the power control of the kings of Tara (Ireland) alternated between the Northern and Southern Ui Niaill (Neill) clans. In the 9th century Maelsechnaill (I) of Clann Cholmain began to make forays into Munster attempting to strengthen the Southern Ui Niaill influence, creating enemies rather than allies of the Munstermen. This policy led to a disastrous reaction from Munster by the end of the 10th century, viz. Brian Borumha. 

876 AD - After Aedh Finnliath, the son of Niall Caille, had been sixteen years in the sovereignty of Ireland, he died at Druim Inesclainn, in the territory of Conaille, 	    on the 20th day of November. He was succeeded by Flann Sinna, the son of Maelsechlainn, in sovereignty over Ireland. 

876 AD - After Aedh Finnliath, the son of Niall Caille, had been sixteen years in the sovereignty of Ireland, he died at Druim Inesclainn, in the territory of Conaille, 	    on the 20th day of November. He was succeeded by Flann Sinna [of the Southern Ui Niaill], the son of Maelsechlainn, in sovereignty over Ireland. He 	    was still king in 902. 

916 AD - After Flann Sionna had been forty years in the sovereignty of Ireland he was succeeded by Niall Glundubh ("Black Knee"), son of Aedh Finnliath. 

919 AD - After Niall Glundubh, son of Aedh Finnliath had been three years in the sovereignty of Ireland he was succeeded by Donnchadh, son of Flann Sinna of the 	    Southern Ui Neill. Niall was slain fighting the Danes at the Battle of Dublin in 919. 

944 AD - After Donnchadh had been twenty five years in the sovereignty of Ireland he was succeeded by Congalach Cnogba, son of Máel Mithig. 

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956 AD - After Congalach had been twelve years in the sovereignty of Ireland he was succeeded by Domhnall Ardmacha Ua Niall, son of Muircheartach "na G-	    Cochaill Criceann" Ua Niall. 

10th - 19th Century: Irish History & Battles   

In Southwest Ireland the Eoghnacht were pushed aside as kings of Munster in the mid-tenth century by the Dál gCais of North Munster. This was aided by the attacks of the Ui Neill on the Eoghanact and by the dynastic wars which were soon to keep the Southern and Northern Ui Neill busy. On his death notice in 951 Cennetig, king of the Dál gCais, is called king of North Munster. His son Brian Boruma, or Brian Boru (ancestor of the O'Briens, et al), who succeeded in 976, was to make himself an overking of most of Ireland and a rival of the powerful Ui Neill dynasties. 

Domnall ua Neill, king of the Northern Ui Neill, was overking of the Ui Neill dynasties from 956-980, and held the title of 'Ard Ri' (high-king of Ireland). He reigned at the time when Brian Boru began his rise to power in Ireland. About 978 Brian had a major success against the Ostmen (Vikings) of Limerick and their Eoghanacht allies. It was the Limerick king, Imar, and his sons, who had a couple of years before, assassinated Brian's brother. Through aggressive raids over the next three years Brian had the province of Munster in his hands. Brian came into conflict with the Ui Neill when he took his armies East and tried to conquer Ossory (Osraighe) about the year 980. This was at the time that Domnall ua Neill was succeeded by Mael Sechnaill II (of the southern Ui Neill) as 'Ard Ri'. However, by 984, Brian was in control of the south of Ireland. Allied with the Ostmen of Waterford, Brian later pushed his armies into the provinces of Connacht, Leinster and Meath (Midhe), gradually extending his power base further. Mael Sechnaill's attempts to contain Brian were not successful, and in 997/998 Brian and Mael Sechnaill met at Clonfert and divided Ireland between them. 

Late in 999 Brian brought the Ostmen king of Dublin, Sitric Silkenbeard, into submission. By 1002 Mael Sechnaill recognized Brian as high king of Ireland by right of conquest. By 1011 Brian dominated most of Ireland. He had shattered the Ui Neill monopoly and had made the kingship of Ireland a prize to be fought for. About 1012, relations between Brian and Leinster became strained and he was killed at the battle of Clontarf on Good Friday in the year 1014. Although he won the battle, Brian was stopped short just when he seemed about to make the kingship of Ireland a reality, and the possession of his dynasty (Dalcassian). The death of Brian and the subsequent weakness of his Dalcassian successors allowed Mael Sechnaill II to be titled 'high-king' of Ireland until his death in 1022. The Annals appear to go slient on the term 'Ard Ri' for the next 66 years, likely because it was contested among provincial kings. Among the contenders during this time was, Donchadh, son of Brian Bóruma (Dal gCais of Munster); Diarmait, son of Donchadh Máel na mBó (Ui Cheinnselaig of Leinster); and Toirrdelbach, grandson of Brian Bóruma. 
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The high kingship never again saw the same power that Brian Boru held. Beginning in 1087 the last six 'Ard Ri' of Ireland appear to have alternated between provincial candidates, with periods where there are no clear high king; these included kings from Aileach (Cenel Eoghain), next from Munster (Dal gCais), then Connacht (Ui Briuin), then Tír Conaill (Cenel Eoghain), and ending with Ruaidrí O'Connor of Connacht (Ui Briuin) in 1186. 

From 1086 to 1114 the most powerful king in Ireland was Muirchertach O'Brien. He had dealings with the Anglo-Normans and the Norwegian king, and dominated most of the country. However, Domnaill Mac Lochlainn, king of the Ui Neill, was able to hold him in check until the dynamic Turlough O'Connor, king of Connacht (1106-1156) came onto the scene. Between 1115 and 1131, Turlough destroyed the power of Munster and from 1140 threw his energies into making himself king of Ireland. With his death in 1156, supreme power passed to the king of the Ui Neill, Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn. 

Mac Lochlainn allied himself with Dermot MacMurrough (Diarmait Mac Murchadha), king of Leinster, against his main opponent, Rory O'Connor (Ruaidhri O Conchobhair), king of Connacht. Mac Lochlainn held the upper hand in Ireland until his death in 1166. O'Connor along with his allies, particularly Tiernan O'Rourke, king of Breifne, as well as the Dubliners, then drove MacMurrough from Ireland. MacMurrough appealed for help to King Henry II of England and changed the course of history by doing so. This opened the door for the Norman invasion of Ireland beginning in 1169. 

One area that is sometimes omitted in the history of Ireland includes the connections between the Irish, Norse and Welsh prior to the arrival of the Normans of 1169. From the 11th century onwards political refugees from Britain gravitated toward Leinster in Ireland, and who sought mercenary fleets from the Hiberno-Norse towns of Dublin, Waterford, and Wexford. Some of these refugees included: 1039 - King Iago of Gwynned (Wales) was killed by the intruder Gruffydd ap Llewelyn and his family took refuge in Dublin from where his son Cynan mounted two unsuccesful campaigns to regain the kingdom of Gwynned. Cynan has a son, Gruffydd, born about 1054, whose mother was Ragnailt, daughter of Amlaib, son of Sitric, king of Dublin. After a few unsuccessful attempts, Gruffydd (ap Cynan) sailed from Waterford to South Wales in 1081, and with the help of Rhys ap Tewdwr, king of Deheubarth (Wales), he succeeded in restoring the title of king of Gwynedd to his family (for a short period). In 1099 Gruffydd returned once more from Ireland in a successful attempt to regain Gwynedd which he retained until his death in 1137. 1044 - Hywel ap Edwin, king of Deheubarth (Wales), was expelled by Gruffydd ap Llewelyn, and he sought refuge in Ireland. He raised a fleet there and attempted to retake Deheubarth, but he and a large number of his Irish mercenaries were slain in battle by Gruffydd. 1051 -Godwin, Earl of Essex, and his sons, formidable rivals of King Edward the Confessor, were banished from England and sought the aid of Diarmait mac Máel na mBó, king of Uí Chennselaig and of Leinster (1042-1072), who was grandfather of Diarmat Mac Murchada (above). The next year they raised a fleet to launch attacks on the Devonshire, Somersetshire and Kentish coasts. 1055 - Aelfgar, earl of Anglia, son of Leofric, earl of Mercia, was banished for treason from England by Edward the Confessor.    180

He went to Ireland where he raised a fleet, formed an alliance with Gruffydd ap Llewelyn, king of Gwynedd, and led their combined forces in an attack on the city of Hereford. As a result King Edward was obliged to restore him to the earldom of East Anglia. 1066 - After the battle of Hastings in 1066, the sons of the slain King Harold, son of Earl Godwin, sought aid from Diarmait mac Máel na mBó, and launched attacks on Britain over the next several years. 1088 - Rhys ap Tewdwr, king of Deheubarth (Wales), was expelled by Cadwgan, Madog, and Rhiryd, sons of Bleddyn, king of Powys (Wales), and he fled to Ireland, raised a fleet in Dublin and returned to defeat them and retake his kingdom. Gruffydd, son of Rhys ap Tewdwr, was fostered in Ireland, and it was from Ireland that he returned to Wales about 1113 in a bid to regain the kingdom of Deheubarth. He managed to obtain a portion of Cantref Mawr (Wales) with the permission of King Henry I, but in 1127 he was obliged to seek temporary asylum in Ireland again. 1097 - Cadwgan ap Bleddyn, prince of Powys (Wales), fled to Ireland after the Norman victory of Mon in 1097. He returned in 1099 to reach an accommodation with the Normans. Cadwgan's son, Owain, was forced to flee to Ireland in 1109. On his return from Ireland Owain mounted a number of plundering expeditions into Dyfed (Wales) and seized Norman captives, whom he shipped as slaves to Ireland. 1102 - Arnulf de Montgomery, who had been granted the lordship of Pembroke (Wales) by King William Rufus about 1093, revolted against Henry I in 1102. In consequence he sought a marriage alliance with Muirchertach Ua Briain, king of Munster (1086-1119) and high-king of Ireland. Despite his Irish alliance Arnulf forfeited the lordship of Pembroke, and sought temporary haven in Ireland. 1144 - Gruffydd ap Cynan's sons, Cadwalladr and Owain, begin feuding in Wales. Cadwalladr treacherously killed Owain's nephew Anarawd of Deheubarth. Owain was incensed, and sent his son Hywel to invade Cadwalladr's territory. Cadwalladr sent to Ireland for help, resulting in a Norse fleet sailing to Abermenai, led by Þórkell, brother of King Ragnall of Dublin. 1165 - Henry II hired a fleet from Dublin in his Welsh campaign of 1165. The fleet can only have been made available to Henry with the consent of Diarmait Mac Murchada as overlord of Dublin. The following year Diarmait was ousted from his kingship in Ireland and sought aid from Henry II and the Cambro-Normans in Wales. 

After being ousted from his kingship in Leinster, and seeking help from King Henry II of England, Dermot MacMurrough enlisted the assistance of Richard fitz Gilbert de Clare, would-be earl of Pembroke (Wales), and a group of Cambro-Norman barons including the half-brothers Maurice FitzGerald and Robert FitzStephen, both sons of the Welsh princess Nesta. Maurice and Robert were promised Wexford town and two adjoining cantreds for their services, while de Clare, also known as Strongbow, was offered Dermot's daughter Aoife in marriage and promised the whole province of Leinster on Dermot's death. Between 1168 and 1171 the Cambro-Normans not only reconquered all of Leinster with Dermot MacMurrough, including Dublin, but invaded the neighboring province of Meath and harried Tighernan O'Rourke's kingdom of Breifne. 

                                    
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Dermot MacMurrough died in May 1171, and Strongbow established himself as lord of Leinster, after crushing a general revolt of the Leinster Irish and Ostmen. Fearing Stongbow's new found power in southwestern Ireland, King Henry II (of England) landed with a large army near Waterford on October 17, 1171. In his Irish campaign Henry received recognition and hostages from the Ostmen (Vikings) of Wexford, who had captured Robert FitzStephen, as well as from many other kings in Ireland. Among those was said to include Dermot McCarthy (Diarmait MacCarthaigh), king of Cork; Donal Mor O'Brien (Domhnall Mor O Briain), king of Limerick; Murchadh O'Carroll (O Cearbhaill), king of Airgialla; Tighearnan O'Rourke (O Ruairc), king of Breifne; and Donn Sleibhe MacDunleavy (MacDuinnshleibhe), king of Ulaid. Henry made a formal grant to Strongbow of Leinster in return for homage, fealty, and the service of 100 knights, reserving to himself the city and kingdom of Dublin and all seaports and fortresses. 

Henry granted the kingdom of Meath, from the Shannon to the sea, to his own follower Hugh de Lacy. By 1177 John de Courcy conquered Ulaid in northeastern Ireland. Two Irish kingdoms in Munster, considered to be in rebellion, were speculatively granted away. Parts of Cork went to Robert FitzStephen and Miles de Cogan, who took possession of seven cantreds and exacted tribute from McCarthy for the remaining twenty-four. Limerick went to Philip de Braose and others, who failed to conquer any land at all from O'Brien. Following Strongbow's death in 1176 William Marshall, his son in law, was placed in lordship of Leinster. In 1185 Theobald Walter, Philip of Worcester and William de Burgh were introduced into the northeast portion of O'Brien's kingdom of Limerick (Thomond). In 1189 the kingdom of Airgialla was divided between Gilbert Pipard and Bertram de Verdon following the death of King Murchadh O'Carroll. By 1200 the roots of the Cambro-Norman influence in Ireland had been firmly planted by Henry II and his son and successor, John. What followed was a period of both Norman and Irish provincial lords and kings. 

Some of the men claimed to have joined Strongbow and Henry II during the Cambro-Norman invasion of Ireland included Robert FitzStephen, Maurice Fitzgerald, Maurice de Pendergast, Raymond le Gros Fitzgerald de Carew, Hervey de Montmaurice, Philip and Robert and William de Barri, Giraldus Cambrensis, Milo and Richard de Cogan, Hugh de Lacey, Philip de Braose, John de Courcy, Adam de Hereford, Robert le Poer, David and Philip Brenach (Walsh), William FitzAdelm de Burgo, Meyler FitzHenry, Walter de Ridelsford, David and Adam and Henry de la Roche, Redmund FitzHugh, William de Wall, William and Phillipe le Hore, Walter Fitzgerald, Theobald FitzWalter le Boutiller (Butler), Robert de Bermingham, Miles FitzDavid, Roger de Gernon, Philip de Hastings, Gilbert d'Angulo, ... 

Following the initial invasion of the Cambro-Normans in the late twelfth century the installation of foreign-born lords and earls in Ireland, by King Henry II and his son John, continued throughout the thirteenth century. This in turn gave rise to some of the greater dynasties of Anglo-Norman families such as the Geraldines of Leinster (Kildare) and Munster (Desmond), the Burkes of Connacht and north Munster, and the Butlers of Tipperary and Kilkenny.                           182

By the beginning of the fourteenth century the territorial extent of the Irish lordship was at its height. Every native ruler, even Maguire (Mag Uidhir) and O'Donnell in the extreme northwest, was legally the tenant of some earl or baron, or of the English king directly. However power struggles between the Irish lords and the Anglo barons, as well as rivalries among the various Irish chieftains, continued to change the landscape of political power within Ireland over the next century. 

Between 1315 and 1318, the Scottish war in Great Britain spilled into Ireland. Edward Bruce of Scotland in alliance with Domhnall O Neill, king of Tir Eoghain, carried on a three year campaign against the Anglo-Norman barons before Edward was defeated at the Battle of Faughart in Louth. At the Battle of Athenry in 1316, five Irish kings were killed along with many chieftains from Connacht, Thomond and Westmeath. In conjunction with the Famine of 1315-1317, the Bruce campaign devastated much of the land in the colony. In Thomond the death of Richard de Clare at the Battle of Dysert O'Dea leaves a gap which allow the O'Brien chiefs de facto independence for the rest of the Middle Ages. 

For the rest of the fourteenth century the Anglo-Irish parliament in Ireland complain of decaying defenses and incompetent administration in the lands of the English lords, many of whom were living in England. The Statutes of Kilkenny were passed in 1366 as a fultile attempt to stem the increasing cooperation between the 'Gaelicized' English and the Irish chiefs. A Gaelic resurgance was in the wind, as the most significant gain for the native Irish chiefs was not necessarily territory, but liberty. In Leinster the chieftains had freedom of action as the royal government inadequately filled the gap left by the former lords of Leinster, a role later filled by the increasing power of the earls of Ormond and Kildare. In Connacht and Desmond (southern Munster) the O'Connor and McCarthy chiefs were partially restrained by the presence of the Burkes and the earls of Desmond. 

In Thomond and Ulster this liberty was almost absolute, By the turn of the fourteenth century the territorial extent of the Irish lordship was at its height. The O'Brien's regained power in northern Munster (Thomond). The O'Donnell and O'Neill clans were still extant in northern Ireland. Among the Irish chiefs also included McCarthy (Cork), O'Connor (Sligo), O'Rourke (Leitrim), O'Reilly (Cavan), MacCartan (Down), MacMahon (Monaghan), Maguire (Fermanagh), and O'Hanlon (Armagh). 

Around the time of the Scottish campaign into Ireland (1315-1318) headed by Edward and Robert Bruce, earldoms, liberties and counties began to be created in Ireland. Roger Mortimer held the lordship of the liberty of Trim in Meath. The head of the Leinster Geraldines, John fitz Thomas of Offaly, was created earl of Kildare in 1316. John de Bermingham, the victor at the Battle of Faughart over Edward Bruce, was created earl of Louth in 1319. In 1328 James Butler was created earl of Ormond, with jurisdiction over the new liberty of Tipperary. In 1329 the head of the Munster Geraldines, Maurice fitz Thomas, was made earl of Desmond with jurisdiction over the new liberty of Kerry. 
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Following a forty year period of time and money spent by the English crown to assist the position of the colonists in Ireland, King Richard the II, was deposed in 1399. It was during this time, in 1366, that the Statutes of Kilkenny were passed in a futile attempt to reverse the trend of English colonists from speaking Irish and marrying Irish partners. The 15th century successors in Ireland were no longer interested in pouring more money into Ireland, and expected the great magnate families, the Butlers in Ormond and the Fitzgeralds in Desmond and Kildare, to represent the crown's interests and defend the settlements. However the independent nature of the Anglo-Irish lords and the Irish Parliament came to be a major problem for the English crown toward the end of the 15th century. 

Ultimately, the winners in later medieval Ireland were neither the English Crown nor the native Irish rulers, but the Anglo-Irish lords and earls. During the fifteenth century the area controlled by the Crown shrank to an area around Dublin which was fortified by an earthen rampart, known as the Pale. Intra-rivalries between the Irish rulers diffused much of their overall power, although Gaelic liberty and culture had been on the rise since the 14th century. The increasing political influence of the Anglo-Irish Earls of Kildare, Ormond and Desmond  was at its height in the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. 

Irish lordships were a very prominent feature in the later fifteenth century, including the McCarthy of southwest Ireland, the O'Donnell and O'Neill of north Ireland, the O'Connor/O'Conor, O'Kelly and Gaelicized Burkes of Connacht, and the O'Brien of north Munster. Some territory previously colonized had been regained by the native Irish rulers: the southeast coastline of Clare, the Inishowen peninsula, the Sligo lordship, the barony of Farney in Monaghan, the arable lands bordering the bogs and mountains of Leinster. 

The native Irish lords held sway in much of their traditional territories: In Ulster, the O'Cahan, MacQuillan, Magennis, MacMahon, Maguire, O'Reilly and Magauran; In Connacht, the MacDermot, O'Rourke, MacRannell, O'Flaherty, O'Malley and O'Madden; In Leinster, the O'Connor Faly, the MacMurrough, O'Ferrall, O'More, O'Toole, O'Byrne, O'Morchoe, and the Irish of Westmeath; and in Munster the O'Sullivan and O'Connor Kerry. 

The independent nature of the Anglo-Irish lords and parliament, as well as the Gaelic chieftains, were a problem for late 15th century England. The power of local lords was the dominant political influence in Ireland, and most of the country was under the rule of Gaelic or Gaelicized lords. The real political clout in Ireland was in the hands of the Earls of Kildare ever since the Ormonds backed the losing Lancastrian side of England's War of Roses, and after the rebellion of the Desmonds around 1468. In 1494 king Henry VII sent Sir Edward Poyning to help bring the settlers more into step and legislation was passed at Drogheda which restated categorically the subordinate position of the Irish parliament to the English parliament. 

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In 1534, Henry VIII tried to regain England's influence in Ireland. He took all power away from the 'rebelling' Earls of Kildare, Norman-Irish noblemen who had long controlled English interests in Ireland, and Henry set up more direct control. In 1541, Henry succeeded in having Ireland's Parliament declare him king of Ireland. He established English laws in Ireland and tried, with little success, to introduce Protestantism in the country. When Henry broke with the Catholic Church, he instigated the Protestant Reformation which would eventually set the deeply Catholic Irish on a collision course with the zealously Protestant English. What followed was, at first, a gradual replacement of Anglo-Irish politicians, landowners and clergy with those more 'sympathetic' to the Crown. In 1536-37 Irish monastic property was declared confiscate to the Crown and the Anglicized Church of Ireland became the sole legal religion in the lordship of Ireland. In 1553 to 1558, the plantation of English and Scottish settlers began in counties Antrim, Monaghan, Limerick, and in Queen's county. Plantations were soon started in portions of central Kerry, eastern King's county, northest Down, western Waterford and sections of counties Cork and Tipperary. The introduction of plantations was to dominate Irish politics down to 1641.

When Henry VIII's daughter Elizabeth became Queen in 1558 England's control over Ireland was at low ebb. Just the year before, the first in a long series of rebellions against English rule had broken out in Ulster. Although not successful, this rebellion confirmed for Elizabeth that more stringent measures would have to be taken to stabilize English domination in Ireland once and for all. First she imposed the Anglican faith upon the hostile Catholic populace and then she began steadily expanding the previously unsuccessful plantation system (as shown on the map above). 

As the Irish responded in 1593, Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, took the 'illegal' Gaelic title of "The O'Neill" and prepared to lead the Ulster chiefs in defence of territory and religion. Seeing their days numbered by forces destined to completely erode their power, the Irish continued the struggle in 1594, spearheaded by Red Hugh O'Donnell of Tyrconnell, who defeated an English army at the 'Ford of the Biscuits'. The Irish in Ulster, led by Hugh O'Neill, Ulster's "principle chieftain," succeeded among other places, at the Battle of Yellow Ford, County Armagh, in 1598. With the arrival and successes of Lord Mountjoy as English governor in 1600, the Irish campaign appeared to be undermined. In 1601 a Spanish fleet, backed by King Philip III, arrived at Kinsale with 3,800 troops to assist the Irish. The rebellion however suffered a crushing blow at the seige and Battle of Kinsale of December 1601, ending in an English victory. O'Neill later signed a peace treaty at Mellifont in March, 1603, retaining his lands and earldom. Thus ended the Nine Year's War in Ireland lasting from 1594 to 1603. 

When James I succeeded Queen Elizabeth in 1603, he resumed the plantation of English and Scottish settlers with a vengeance, especially in the part of Ireland which had been the center of the uprising: Ulster. Threatened by all the newcomers, O'Neill and about one hundred of the most important people in Ulster fled the country from Rathmullan,
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County Donegal in 1607. This 'flight of the earls' is generally agreed by historians to be the real end of the Gaelic civilization as a political entity in Ireland. Following this event dramatic changes were in store for the Irish.

In 1610, the settlement in County Coleraine (Derry) by a group of London livery companies caused the name of the county to be changed to Londonderry. In 1622 little more than 13,000 Protestants lived in Ulster, yet by 1641 their population was over 100,000. Within 30 years of the arrival of James’ first settlers, only slightly more than 10 per cent of Ulster still belonged to the Catholic native Irish. In a generation the social structure of Ulster had been re-engineered in a fashion that would have painful consequences for both the newly installed, privileged Protestant majority and the disenfranchised, soon to be impoverished Catholic minority. 

During Plantation most of the Irish remained on their lands because the planters needed their labor, but they remained as tenants rather than owners of their own land. By 1641, the Irish revolted again, establishing a national parliament in Kilkenny which stood not only for independence but for full liberty of religion and conscience. When Oliver Cromwell landed with his zealously Protestant troops at Dublin on August 15, 1649, the fate of the Catholic Irish was sealed. This national revolt of the Irish people was brutally crushed by Oliver Cromwell in 1649-1650, its people murdered by the tens of thousands, the Catholic religion outlawed, and the rights of its native people reduced to little more than livestock. By 1653 the English had completely subjugated the entire island, by the combination of massacres, pestilence, and starvation which was estimated to have killed between half and two-thirds of the Irish people; while untold thousands of others were shipped off into slavery in the American colonies and the West Indies. Those who could began to flee to the European Continent, reminiscent of the flight of the earls earlier in the century. 

Worse followed when the English Parliament declared that after May 1, 1654, under penalty of death, no Irish could live east of the River Shannon and only those who could prove they had not been rebels could own land west of the Shannon. All the land east of the Shannon was divided among Protestant settlers. In 1641 when The Rising began, nearly eighty percent of the land in Ireland belonged to Catholics. By the year 1665 only 20 percent remained in Catholic hands. By 1703, less than 5 per cent of the land of Ulster was still in the hands of the Catholic Irish. 

Extinction of the Geraldine Earldoms 

John Fitzthomas, Lord of Offaly, who was created Earl of Kildare in 1316, received a grant of land and established Maynooth as a family seat. The Fitzgeralds steadily increased their wealth and influence with a combination of political cunning and expedient marriages. The power of the House of Kildare reached its zenith during the time of Garret Mór, the 8th Earl, henceforth known as the "Great Earl". He established a sovereignty which lasted until 1534 and the rebellion of his grandson, Silken Thomas, 
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10th (and last) Earl of Kildare. Thomas, along with his five uncles, was executed in London, at Tyburn Hill in 1537. Thus ended the power of the House of Kildare, never again to recover its former eminence and influence. 
                                                                          
The Tudor monarchs in England, wishing to centralize all power in their own hands, sought to curb the power of the Desmond Geraldines. They also sought to promote the tenets of the Reformation on Geraldine lands and to establish colonies of English on them. In 1571, the Geraldines, under their leader, James Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald, revolted against English rule. The uprising sparked off a savage war in Munster, during which the province was laid waste. It ended with the destruction of the house of Desmond in 1583 and the confiscation of the vast Geraldine estates. 

Following the massacres and confiscations of property by Cromwell in 1653, the landed gentry of Ireland had rapidly converted from that of the Irish and Old English (Anglo-Irish) to that of the Protestant New English. Lands in the provinces of Leinster, Munster and Ulster were given to veterans of the Parliamentary Army and adventurers under Cromwell and Ireton. For those who would accept transplantation, Irish lands were reserved in the province of Connacht, excluding coastal lands and most of County Sligo and Leitrim. 

Following the collapse of the Cromwellian regime in December 1659, Charles II was proclaimed King after restoration of the Monarchy in England. His policies in Ireland resulted in further land settlement during the 1660's. 

By 1685 James II ascended the throne. James was a Roman Catholic and during his reign, a more pro-Catholic policy was enacted in Ireland. As a result of Protestant nervousness, the English removed James from the throne in 1688. The Irish prepared to rebel and invited the ousted King James to lead them. James borrowed troops from France and landed in Ireland in 1689, the year that William (III) and Mary ascend to the throne in England. The Catholic Irish, comprising the vast majority of the population, had supported the Jacobite (King James) cause. In June, 1690 William III of England landed at Carrickfergus to face the Jacobite forces under James II and the Irish. 

The English defeated James on the banks of the Boyne on July 11, 1690, and he fled to France to his benefactor, Louis XIV of France. James's forces suffered further defeat the following year at the Battle of Aughrim. The war ended with the Treaty of Limerick in 1691. The terms of the Treaty were satisfactory to the Irish, but were subsequently dishonoured and Limerick became known as the city of the violated treaty. The Treaty of Limerick was not ungenerous to the defeated Catholics, but they were soon to suffer from penal laws designed to reinforce Protestant ascendancy throughout Irish life. The Battle of the Boyne marked the beginning of Protestant control over Catholics in Ireland. Its anniversary is celebrated by Protestants in Northern Ireland. The Treaty of Limerick marked the "flight of the Wild Geese" where many of the old Irish and Old English military and gentry seek their fortune in other European countries. 
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In 1695 the beginning of penal legislation is enacted against the Irish Catholics and Dissenters in Ireland. Between 1695 and 1728 a series of acts is passed which forbade Irish Catholics from practicing their faith and the vast majority of wealthy Catholics were stripped of their wealth, their positions, their estates and their homes, leaving them virtually paupers. The penal acts prevent Catholics from bearing arms and owning horses worth more than £5. They restricted their rights to education, stop them from buying land, and on death, Catholic property must be divided among all sons. Catholics are banned from serving in the army, holding public office, entering the legal profession, becoming MPs or voting. In 1720 an Act declared the right of the British Parliament to pass laws for Ireland. 

As a little known event to add to the troubles in Ireland in the middle of the eighteenth century, a famine occured in 1739-40 which was said to have caused nearly 400,000 deaths to occur in Ireland. 

Later in the century revolutionary fervor, ignited by rebellions in France and the newly formed United States of America, spurred new rebellions in the 1790s aimed at undermining the Protestant conquest of Ireland. 

The influence of the Protestant ascendancy in Ireland reached its peak in the 18th century, politically due to the loss of voting and office-holding privileges of the Catholic majority. By 1778 the continued persecution of native Catholics resulted in their ownership of a meager 5% of Irish land. All was not negative during for Ireland during the 18th century because there were dramatic improvements to Ireland's infrastructure including the construction of road and canal networks to help facilitate a growing agricultural economy. 

In the latter part of 18th century Ireland, rural protest movements were a common reaction to laws imposing new taxes, payment of tithes, enclosure of lands, high rents, etc. These movements became the precursors of more organized political movements in later years. In 1761 the Whiteboy movement began in the south. The Oakboys started in the north in 1763. In 1769 the Steelboy disturbances began in Antrim, and in 1785 the Rightboy movement started in Munster. 

After France declared war on England in 1778, a Volunteer corps was set up to help defend Ireland (and ulitmately England) from possible invasion. The 'Volunteers' soon began to wield their organized military power to win political and economic concessions from England. The extra-parliamentary lobbying of the 'Volunteers'  was instrumental in securing Free Trade for Ireland in 1780 and legislative independence in 1782. 

As the political climate changed in the 1780's more political factions came on the scene with the emergence of the Catholic 'Defenders' in Armagh, formed to resist disarming raids carried on by Protestant groups such as the Peep O’Day Boys (making their raids in early morning). 

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The outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789 encouraged the Protestant and Presbyterian middle-class to campaign for reform of the represeentative system under the banner of the 'United Irishmen' in the mid 1790's. Theobald Wolfe Tone, one of its notable leaders, publishes a pamphlet entitled "An argument on behalf of the Catholics of Ireland". The United Irishmen tried to unite Dissenters and Catholics, as well as all Irishmen, against Anglican rule. 

As a result of fears of revolution sweeping Europe (and having lost America), the Act for the Relief of 1793 was passed in an effort to appease the large Irish population persecuted by the earlier Penal Laws; mainly Catholics, Presbyterians and Dissenters. Although not granting full civil rights, the Act lifted restrictions on Catholics to buy and sell land, and to educate their children. It also allowed the right to practice at the bar, to marry Protestants, and the right to vote for the 'forty-shilling freeholder cottiers'. They could vote only for Protestant candidates. 

As a reaction to movements such as the United Irishmen and the Catholic Defenders, the Protestent-based Orange Boys formed in 1795. They became the Orange Order, named for the victor at the Battle of the Boyne, William of Orange. 

The alliance of the Catholic 'Defenders' and 'United Irishmen' along revolutionary lines, as well as the new-found alliance with France, resulted in attempted invasion. In 1796 the French under Admiral Hoche, persuaded by Wolfe Tone, sailed to Bantry Bay only to be turned back by bad weather. 

As troubles continued to brew the English, fearing an Irish uprising, had many of the leaders of the United Irishmen arrested in March, 1798. A valiant yet poorly coordinated uprising soon followed. 

The Rising of 1798 

Rebellion begins in Co. Wexford - May 23, 1798 
Rebellion breaks out in Dublin - May 24, 1798 
defeat at Kilcullen, Co. Kildare - May 24, 1798 
defeat at Naas, Co. Kildare - May 24, 1798 
defeat at Prosperous, Co. Kildare - May 24, 1798 
defeat at Carlow, Co. Carlow - May 25, 1789 
defeat at Tara Hill, Co. Meath - May 26, 1798 
Battle of the Harrow, Co. Wexford - May 26, 1798 
engagement at Clane, Co. Kildare - May 24/27, 1798 
engagement at Monasterevin, Co. Kildare - May 24/27, 1798 
engagement at Lucan, Co. Dublin - May 24/27, 1798 
engagement at Rathfarnham, Co. Dublin - May 24/27, 1798 
engagement at Tallaght, Co. Dublin - May 24/27, 1798 
engagement at Dunboyne, Co. Meath - May 26/27, 1798 
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victory at Oulart Hill, Gorey, Co. Wexford - May 27, 1798 
defeat at The Curragh, Co. Kildare - May 29, 1798 
victory at Enniscorthy, Co. Wexford - May 29, 1798 
victory at Wexford, Co. Wexford - May 30, 1798 
Battle of Bunclody - June 1, 1798 
Battle of Tubberneering - June 4, 1798 
defeat at New Ross, Co. Wexford - June 5, 1798 
Protestant losses at Scullabogue, Co. Wexford - June 5, 1798 
defeat at Antrim, Co. Antrim - June 7, 1798 
victory at Saintfield, Co. Down - June, 1798 
victory at Newtownards, Co. Down - June, 1798 
defeat at Arklow, Co. Wexford - June 9, 1798 
defeat at Ballynahinch, Co. Down - June 12/13, 1798 
Battle at Kilcavan Hill, near Carnew, Co. Wicklow - June 18, 1798 
Battle of Foulksmills, Co. Wexford - June 20, 1798 
defeat at Vinegar Hill, Enniscorthy, Co. Wexford - June 21, 1798 
defeat at Baltinglass, Co. Wicklow - June, 1798 
defeat at Kilconnell Hill, Co. Wicklow - June, 1798 
defeat at Kilbeggan, Co. Meath - June, 1798 
Wexford march and battle at Killedmond, Co. Carlow - June 22, 1798 
Battle at Goresbridge, Co. Kilkenny - June 23, 1798 
Humbert Invasion at Killala Bay, Co. Mayo - August 22, 1798 
Humbert victory at Ballina, Co. Mayo - August 24, 1798 
Humbert victory at Castlebar, Co. Mayo - August 27, 1798 
Humbert defeat at Ballinamuck Co. Longford - September 8, 1798 
French force under Tandy makes brief landing at Rutland Island, Co Donegal - September 16, 1798 

Remaining Irish forces at Killala defeated - September 23, 1798 
Defeat of small French invasion fleet under Bombard at Lough Swilly, Co. Donegal - October 20, 1798 

The rebellion had failed due to a lack of participation, coordination, and because of superior English firepower (e.g. cannons). Support from the French was too little, too late and in the wrong place. Perhaps 25,000 rebels and civilians died in the fighting, with far fewer casualties on the side of the Irish Loyalists. 

As a consequence of the 1798 rebellion the British passed the Act of Union in 1800, which abolished the Irish Parliament and laid the foundations for Anglo-Irish relations for the next century. ‘A United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland’ became official in 1801. 

With efforts at Catholic reform continuing, the Catholic Association was founded by Daniel O'Connell in 1823. Their efforts resulted in 1829 in the granting of Catholic rights to hold office in parliament.                       190

Population growth in the latter 18th and early 19th century had expanded the population of Ireland to nearly 7 million by 1820. With a down-turn in the economy large-scale emigration began, which resulted in an estimated one million people emigrating from Ireland to North America between 1815 and 1845. Another 500,000 moved to Britain in the early 19th century. 

The growing dependence on a single agricultural crop, to largely meet economic and nutritional needs of the Irish, sets the stage for a calamity beyond all expectations beginning in the mid-1840's. 

In 1800, some four and one-half million people lived in Ireland. By the autumn of 1845, when the Great Famine struck Ireland, there were more than eight million. This was the largest increase in the population of Ireland in its history, an increase estimated at 172%. By the time of the Famine Ireland's population of poor was very high, and its population of landlords was very low (est. 5000). 

The "white" potato, known today as the Irish potato, originated in the Andean Mountains. In 1532 the Spanish arrived in north Peru and it is speculated that they brought the potato to Europe in the second half of the 16th century. By 1800, the potato had taken root and ninety percent of the Irish population was dependent on the potato as their primary means of caloric intake and as an export. 

In September of 1845, a fungus called Phytophthora infestans was infecting Ireland's potato crops, devastating the potato population. About half the Irish potato crop failed in 1845. This event is what began The Great Famine in Ireland. 

The next year, 1846, the crop was destroyed again. By 1847 (Black '47) the impact of the famine spelled doom for Ireland. A large proportion of the population died from disease or starvation, while a great number of the people fled the country, largely occuring in a five year period between 1846 to 1851. This event is well noted as one of the greatest catastrophes of the 19th century. 

While the blight provided the catalyst for the famine, the calamity was essentially man-made, a poison of blind politics, scientific ignorance, rural suppression, and enforced poverty. 

Many Irish landlords sent badly needed grain to England for profit, instead of retaining it for the poorer classes (cottiers and labourers). Without crops or employment the tenants could no longer pay rent, so many lost the lands they may have rented while their landlords exported grain ans cattle to offset their losses. The effect of this was multiplied by the fact that the English parliament was reluctant to send any food to Ireland. One official declared in 1846, "It is not the intention at all to import food for the use of the people of Ireland." 
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Although the net export of food out of Ireland actually decreased over the Famine period, shipping records indicate that 9,992 Irish calves were exported to England during Black '47, a 33 percent increase from the previous year. Irish grain was exported, while cheap Indian meal was (sometimes) imported to feed the poor population. What was not known at the time, however, was the Indian meal contained little or no nutrients and only contributed further to the spread of disease. A majority of Famine victims died from malnutrition-related diseases such as dropsy, dysentery, typhus, scurvy and cholera, rather than directly from starvation. 

For many the only alternative to disease and starvation, and the only option to eviction from their tenant lands, was emigration. The Passenger Act of 1847 was passed and it granted each [eligible] emigrant 10 cubic feet and a supply of food and water. Realistically captains didn't obey this act and many people starved or died of disease in cramped quarters aboard the emigrant ships. An estimated one and one-half million Irish emigrated from 1845 to 11851, upwards of 20-45% dying in the "coffin ships" on their journey or shortly after their arrival in their new home. 

The overall impacts of the Famine included:
 
·	the decline of the Irish language and customs (in 1835, the number of native Irish speakers was estimated at four million -- in 1851, only 2 million spoke Irish as their first language) 
·	the devastation of the landless laborer class and small tenant farmer. 
·	a treeless landscape in many parts of Ireland. 
·	the shells of homes and "mud" cabins that were rendered uninhabitable. 
·	a massive decrease in farms of 15 acres and less. The 1841 census showed that 45% of land holdings were less than five acres. In 1851 this was 15%. 
·	Irish emigrants scattered around the globe. 

Today there are over 5 million people in Ireland, while it is estimated there are upwards of 70 million people of Irish descent throughout the world. 

In a statement by British Prime Minister Tony Blair on the eve of the 150th Famine commemoration in 1997, he said, "The famine was a defining event in the history of Ireland and of Britain. It has left deep scars. That one million people should have died in what was then part of the richest and most powerful nation in the world is something that still causes pain as we reflect on it today. Those who governed in London at the time failed their people through standing by while a crop failure turned into a massive human tragedy. We must not forget such a dreadful event. Britain in particular has benefited immeasurably from the skills and talents of Irish people, not only in areas such as music, the arts and the caring professions, but across the whole spectrum of our political, economic and social life." 

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The famine is still a highly sensitive issue in Ireland and has left a bitter legacy in Anglo-Irish relations. Historians agree that the  British Government could not be held solely responsible for the calamity. When the potato crop failed through blight every year between 1845 and 1850, food was shipped to Ireland by the Government and charities but the profitable export of grain and cattle was allowed to continue. As wealthy farmers and landowners profited, their tenants starved to death and London was widely accused of doing too little too late by way of relief. Ireland lost a quarter of its eight million population in six years. In addition to those who perished in Ireland, a million fled abroad to North America, Australia and New Zealand. Thousands died in horrific conditions on the Famine Ships. 

The above information provided by IRELAND’S HISTORY IN MAPS: 
http://www.rootsweb.com/~irlkik/ihm/iremaps.htm.

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