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Paul's letter to the Romans is well known as the Magna Carta of the Christian faith, the doctrinal foundation to life in Christ. One of the newer dimensions of this life to be explored by theologians is the arena of the powers in the heavenly realms. This letter to the Romans provides insight into strategic-level spiritual issues that are only beginning to be discussed.
Venturing into New Research
According to C. Peter Wagner, the leading proponent of the theory of strategic-level spiritual warfare, there has not yet been any writing on strategic-level issues in the book of Romans. In fact, his newest book, Confronting the Powers: How the New Testament Church Experienced the Power of Strategic-Level Spiritual Warfare, which is a Biblical rationale for his research and theses in this area, does not have any references to strategic-level issues in Romans! That puts this article in dangerous territory, nonetheless, there is significant material in Romans to warrant an extensive article on the strategic-level spiritual issues found there. This article is only a brief survey of the wealth of material found here.
What is Cosmic-Level Spiritual Warfare?
Several definitions are needed to get us started. Wagner defines cosmic-level spiritual warfare as "confrontation with high-ranking principalities and powers such as Paul writes about in Ephesians 6:12. These enemy forces are frequently called 'territorial spirits' because they attempt to keep large numbers of humans networked through cities, nations, neighborhoods, people groups, religious allegiance, industries or any other form of human society in spiritual captivity." This level of warfare is also called cosmic-level warfare. Romans presents basic issues behind cosmic-level spiritual warfare, as well as assuming that the reader already knows and understands the concept. The first readers of the letter understood it well within their worldview.
Is Cosmic-level Spiritual Warfare Biblical?
Whether Christians should engage in this form of warfare at all is a debate rife with controversy. Mike Wakely in April 1995, criticized the movement, charging that the ideas are "not rooted in historical understanding or scholarship . . . [with] little biblical evidence [for its] worldview, . . . spectacular leaps into imagination and fantasy, . . . [and] owes more to Frank Peretti than to Scripture." He fears that "the movement opens the door to endless varieties of even wilder excess, exaggeration, and extremism . . . [because] the arguments are based on very limited and carefully selected experiences." Wakely adds more: He doesn't see any precedent for praying against principalities but does see a "danger of grasping for quick and easy answers to old problems." He feels that "this teaching gives an inadequate view of the fall of man," . . . "a wholly distorted teaching on the biblical nature of prayer, . . . [and] unhealthy attention to the devil and demonic activity." He's scared of these people!
As critical as he is, though, Wakely does admit that the movement has brought new emphasis to intercession, the 10/40 Window, and a "clear and manageable strategy for evangelization and prayer." He also contradicts himself in charging there is little biblical evidence for the worldview and then says, "There is a lot of excellent research and sound biblical truth" involved in the movement.
Years earlier Wagner had decried staying ignorant on this subject as a real danger. "Such ignorance may be intentional, because of fear. . . . For this reason, we need a lot more research. In fact, I consider this one of our most serious challenges in the days ahead." Dr. Vern Poythress, professor of New Testament interpretation at Westminster Theological Seminary, in an article entitled, "Territorial Spirits," says, "Biblical instruction concerning the spirit world needs to be an integral part of our thinking and praying."
Tom White, director of Frontline Ministries, makes his view known in a Presbyterian and Reformed publication, "We are in the process of observing the emergence of a new paradigm of strategic intercession. There is no question that God intends for us to pray fervently for the penetration of long-standing strongholds of darkness with the superior power of His light."
A Cosmic-level Survey of Romans
While a book should be written on cosmic-level spiritual issues in Romans, following is a brief survey of the letter which will probably create more questions for the reader than anything else.
Romans 1:16-17
16 I am not ashamed of the gospel, because it is the power of God for the salvation of everyone who believes: first for the Jew, then for the Gentile. 17 For in the gospel a righteousness from God is revealed, a righteousness that is by faith from first to last, just as it is written: "The righteous will live by faith."
"Clearly the thematic statement for the entire letter," according to James D.G. Dunn, professor of divinity at the University of Durham, England, here Paul mentions as a main theme the gospel being the power of God--power ministries. He also mentions missiology, "for the salvation of everyone who believes. . . " Our focus is power ministries here, though we will later see that often power ministries must come in a contextualized form in a particular culture in order to be effective in winning people to Christ.
Kittel, in discussing the word dunamis in his solid Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, states,
"By the Gospel, God delivers man from the power of darkness and translates him into the kingdom of His dear Son. The dunamis theou, which is the Gospel, is not an empty word. It is grounded in the divine act of deliverance in the Christ event, which overcomes the rule of Satan and which works itself out in the continued, factual deliverance accomplished by the preaching of the Gospel."
Paul begins his magnum opus with power ministries and missiology, and this form of power ministry extends to the cosmic-level, because Paul speaks of the "salvation of everyone," and includes the culture groups of the Jew and the Gentile. Research thus far on the cosmic-level has found that rulers of darkness influence corporate entities like cultures in order to prevent the spread of the gospel. Paul in the thematic verse of Romans establishes the purpose of God in these cultures: to destroy the strongholds that empower the principalities influencing these people and rescue them from the powers of darkness and bring them into the kingdom of the Son He loves!
Romans 1:20 Cosmic-level Natural Revelation
For since the creation of the world God's invisible qualities--his eternal power and divine nature--have been clearly seen, being understood from what has been made,
In verse 20 the same word dunamij (power) is used to denote his activities in the creation. According to a class lecture by Dr. Isaac Canales, "Paul's theology is a contextual analysis of God's truth in a missionary situation." Here Paul is using Stoic thought with Jewish theology to bridge the gap between the two groups in the congregations at Rome, and he is doing it through speaking of God's power ministries in proclaiming himself through nature.
Romans 2:9 Cosmic-level Covenant Curses and Blessings
9 There will be trouble and distress for every human being who does evil: first for the Jew, then for the Gentile; 10 but glory, honor and peace for everyone who does good: first for the Jew, then for the Gentile.
Dr. Susan Garrett, professor of New Testament at Yale Divinity School, has written much on the demonic in Luke/Acts, and mentions the Deuteronomic covenental curses and blessings. She suggests that Paul alludes to these items of spiritual empowerment in Romans 2:9-10 (cf. Gal. 3:10). Westerners have a hard time understanding the empowerment in a blessing or a curse, even if it is a Biblical one, and therefore pass over them in Scripture without noticing their presence. In the context of cosmic-level spiritual warfare, these covenental curses are used by territorial spirits to affect not just individuals, but whole groups to which individuals belong. The reason they can do this is because these curses are covenental, and therefore touch the whole community. Garrett adds that this curse above is "in the context of condemnation of idolatry (cf. Heb. 12:15)." We who belong to Christ also have the ability to pronounce blessings and also curses, though I would not recommend it. If it were not so, why would Paul command the Romans to bless and not curse (Rom 12:14)?
Romans 6:1-14 The Defeat of a Principality of Death
1 What shall we say, then? Shall we go on sinning, so that grace may increase? 2 By no means! We died to sin; how can we live in it any longer? 3 Or don't you know that all of us who were baptized into Christ Jesus were baptized into his death? 4 We were therefore buried with him through baptism into death in order that, just as Christ was raised from the dead through the glory of the Father, we too may live a new life.
5 If we have been united with him like this in his death, we will certainly also be united with him in his resurrection. 6 For we know that our old self was crucified with him so that the body of sin might be done away with, that we should no longer be slaves to sin-- 7 because anyone who has died has been freed from sin.
8 Now if we died with Christ, we believe that we will also live with him. 9 For we know that since Christ was raised from the dead, he cannot die again; death no longer has mastery over him.
10 The death he died, he died to sin once for all; but the life he lives, he lives to God.
11 In the same way, count yourselves dead to sin but alive to God in Christ Jesus. 12 Therefore do not let sin reign in your mortal body so that you obey its evil desires. 13 Do not offer the parts of your body to sin, as instruments of wickedness, but rather offer yourselves to God, as those who have been brought from death to life; and offer the parts of your body to him as instruments of righteousness. 14 For sin shall not be your master, because you are not under law, but under grace.
Johan Christiaan Beker, professor of New Testament Theology at Princeton Theological Seminary, in his Triumph of God, places a startling meaning on Paul's discussion of sin and death in Romans 5-8. "Sin (hamartia) and death (thanatos) constitute the most formidable powers of the old age, which in turn determine the function of the law (nomos) and flesh (sarx) in the world. Sin and death are closely allied and are portrayed as personified powers." Canales had the following to say about Beker's discussion of these "personified powers."
J. Christiaan Beker in his book The Triumph of God says there are three lords: Lord Sin, Lord Death, and Lord Law. Humanity lives under the dominion of this triumvirate of despots--dark lords all. Lord Sin exercises dominion (see 6:6-23) where Paul sees Sin as a real power with real slaves under his sway. Death no longer has dominion over Christ. Dominion is a key word. Underline that word. Paul sees sin as a dark power ruling over a castle with dominion over the countryside and with slaves that do its bidding and realize its demands. In verse 11, you should personify [Sin and Death] as Paul does; he looks at it as a being that controls--not Satan--just Lord Sin with slaves. In Christ we are released from that dominion. In v.12, Sin again is a ruler, and our bodies are his domain. Don't let Lord Sin rule in you any longer. We see Sin as an evil Lord then, who doesn't even pay well.
Canales' interpretation of Romans 6 and Beker clearly holds open the door for a foundational understanding of principalities and powers. However, more could be said. Lord Death seems to be the real enemy in Chapter 6 behind the front of Sin. Further, I do not believe Paul would call Law an evil lord because he spends a significant portion of Romans defending the integrity of the Law as an apologetic to the Jews. Instead, based on the result of the Law's work (Rom 7:7-9), i.e., condemnation, I would offer Lord Condemnation as a replacement to Lord Law since Rom 8:1 signals Christ's destruction of Condemnation as an enemy our souls.
The Real Enemy Is a Principality
The world, the flesh, and the devil can thus be paralleled by Lord Condemnation, Lord Sin, and Lord Death. Lord Condemnation (the world) and Lord Sin (the flesh) are enemies within which (who may actually point to ground-level demonic forces within persons as characterized in the Gospels) are animated and manipulated by Lord Death (the devil). After all, Jesus himself said that the purpose of the evil one is "only to steal and kill and destroy," providing good evidence that Lord Death could actually be a principality assigned to help keep people from the Kingdom of Jesus Christ. Revelation 6:8 gives a principality the name Death, and Beker adds, "In any case, death is actually the primal power; it is 'the last enemy' (1 Cor 15:26) in the network of interconnected apocalyptic forces. The antithesis between the two ages can be summed up as the opposition between 'the reign of death' and 'the reign of life' (Rom. 5:17,21). . . The death of Christ shatters the alliance of the apocalyptic powers and signals the imminent overthrow of death, 'the last enemy' (cf. Rom. 6:7-10; 7:4-6; 8:35-39; 1 Cor 2:6-8; 15:26)."
Cosmic-level Missiological Considerations
Canales said in class lecture, "Paul's theology is a contextual analysis of God's truth in a missionary situation." In Romans 6 we see contextualization of the gospel message to the former pagan Gentiles who live in the capital city of the world. Douglas Pennoyer, director of the Intercultural Institute of Missions at Seattle Pacific University and two-time Fullbright scholar counsels that
cultural systems are not inherently evil, but the combined activity of demonized individuals, leading others in traditionally demonic focused activities, creates collective captivity. Individuals sit in collective captivity in their dungeons in the common societal prison surrounded by the collective darkness created by this demonic permeation of their cultural systems.
Many of the converts who had moved into leadership in the house congregations in Rome during Jewish expulsion (Acts 18:1-2) were pagan Gentiles and undoubtedly were quite familiar with Hellenistic mystery religions. The way Paul explains the gospel in Romans is genius, for he synthesizes Jewish religious ideas (to keep the Jews happy) with redemptive analogies and bridges from the Hellenistic mysteries (to satisfy the Gentiles). Much work has been done on the Jewish side including Dunn and Canales. I will focus here on Paul's contextualization of the gospel ("the dunamij of God") for Hellenistic ears. Modern forms of the Hellenistic mysteries are freemasonry and/or witchcraft, still the same forms of vile idolatry that they were in Paul's day. A study of freemasonry and/or witchcraft gives further insights into Paul's contextualization. N.T. Wright, fellow, tutor in theology, and chaplain of Worcester College, Oxford, and University lecturer in New Testament Studies, argues that "the pagan pantheon cannot simply be dismissed as metaphysically nonexistent and therefore morally irrelevant. It signals an actual phenomenon within the surrounding culture that must be faced and dealt with, not simply sidestepped" (1 Cor. 8:5: "indeed there are many 'gods' and many 'lords.")
Contextualization of Cosmic-level Hellenistic Mysteries
Romans 6:3 Or don't you know that all of us who were baptized into Christ Jesus were baptized into his death?
4 We were therefore buried with him through baptism into death in order that, just as Christ was raised from the dead through the glory of the Father, we too may live a new life.
5 If we have been united with him like this in his death, we will certainly also be united with him in his resurrection.
The Mysteries of Isis and Osiris were one of the most prominent of the Hellenistic pagan forms. For this reason and two more, I will use this mystery as an example: (1) the strong connection with modern freemasonry, and (2) the boasts of the principalities themselves.
The Egyptian God of the Dead (Spirit of Death cf. Rom 6) Osiris calls himself "a god of all peoples in common," and the feminine principality Isis boasts herself "chief of the powers divine," "queen of all that are in hell," and "principal of them that dwell in heaven." These powers remarkably fit into the consorting relationship that Lord Death and Lord Sin have in Romans 5-8. We do not have enough information to draw a solid conclusion, but the correlation is quite intriguing, especially given the fact that Beker cannot reconcile Paul's apparent contradictions in the relationship of Sin and Death in Romans 5-6 (see "The Dilemma of Sin and Death: Equal or Disparate Powers?" in The Triumph of God.
The ritual in freemasonry is blatant in covenental cursings of death on an initiate. The Grand Master personifies the incarnate God of the Dead Osiris in raising the initiate from the dead into the Light of the secrets of freemasonry. This "light" according to their own books of instruction is the "truth" that Lucifer is God.
Apuleius tells much of the secret initiation into Isis. First an initiate had to be invited to be a devotee through a dream, then baptized and clothed in a new linen robe after a ten day fast and taken to the most secret and holy of holies of Isis' Temple. There, another vision would occur in which Apuleius describes for the initiation of Lucius into divinity below.
"I approached near unto hell, even to the gates of Proserpine [Persephone], and after that I was ravished throughout all the elements, I returned to my proper place: about midnight I saw the sun brightly shine, I saw likewise the gods celestial and the gods infernal, before whom I presented myself and worshipped them" (Metamorphoses, XI, 23). Through this "voluntary death and a difficult recovery to health," (Met. XI, 21), the initiate finally was freed from the "maze of miserable wanderings" in which he had been entangled by fortune. . .
Likewise, Paul explains the gospel through the spectacles of the Hellenistic mysteries, thus doing a form of cosmic-level spiritual warfare that missiologists call contextualization. "We were therefore buried with him in baptism into death in order that, just as Christ was raised from the dead through the glory of the Father, we too may live a new life" (6:4) Through the Osiris myth of death and resurrection, Christ now is contextualized as the antithesis of Osiris, the God of Life defeating the God of Death, the Spirit of Life defeating the spirit of Death. Allow this rendering of Romans 6:9-10 as an echo of what the pagan mystery converts heard when they heard Paul's letter to them:
For we know that since Christ-Life was raised from even the power of the Spirit of Death, Osiris, he cannot submit as a full human again to a god of Death; Osiris no longer has mastery over him. The spirit of Death that Life killed through His Death, He killed to sin once for all (for "all peoples in common" that Osiris claimed to rule over); but the Life He lives, He lives to the true God, the God of Life.
Walter Wink mentions Paul's use of baptism which parallels the mysteries, and adds, "Dying to the Powers is only the downside of rebirth, however. Rebirth is coming home to the universe, the rediscovery of beauty and of delight in the creation, the recovery of the capacity to love." You may notice a strong connection in Wink with the land, with which many of the mysteries dealt in agricultural terms (see 1 Cor. 15:36). The land is the subject of the next section.
Romans 8:19-27 The Land in Cosmic-level Issues
19 The creation waits in eager expectation for the sons of God to be revealed. 20 For the creation was subjected to frustration, not by its own choice, but by the will of the one who subjected it, in hope 21 that the creation itself will be liberated from its bondage to decay and brought into the glorious freedom of the children of God.
22 We know that the whole creation has been groaning as in the pains of childbirth right up to the present time. 23 Not only so, but we ourselves, who have the firstfruits of the Spirit, groan inwardly as we wait eagerly for our adoption as sons, the redemption of our bodies. 24 For in this hope we were saved. But hope that is seen is no hope at all. Who hopes for what he already has? 25 But if we hope for what we do not yet have, we wait for it patiently.
26 In the same way, the Spirit helps us in our weakness. We do not know what we ought to pray for, but the Spirit himself intercedes for us with groans that words cannot express. 27 And he who searches our hearts knows the mind of the Spirit, because the Spirit intercedes for the saints in accordance with God's will.
In a passage strange to Western worldviews, Paul writes of the groaning of the land and its standing on tiptoes ("eager expectation") as it waits for redemption. In the sense of being sown perishable and raised imperishable, sown in dishonor and raised in glory, sown in weakness and raised in power; or sown naturally and raised supernaturally, so the annual mystery events contained the meaning that "the annual sprouting of the new crop is taken as a symbol of eternal life."
Currently the foremost authority on land issues as far as practitioners are concerned, is Bob Beckett, pastor of The Dwelling Place Family Church in Hemet, California. In his forthcoming book with Rebecca Wagner Sytsema called Commitment to Conquer: The Local Church in Spiritual Warfare, he presents an idea only now being recovered among Westerners: viz., God loves the land and wants to see it redeemed and used for His glory (Rom. 1:20), because in the cosmological order and cosmic-level spiritual issues, the land plays an important role in the missiological success of the gospel's advance.
Paul refers to the barriers which hinder the gospel in the land as strongholds (2 Cor. 10:3-5.) Ken Shay says that the word stronghold is a military term for "a fortified place, and adds, "In today's spiritual warfare terminology stronghold has also sometimes been extended to denote the place or geographical location where these behaviors or lifestyles are prominent and well established. For example, Taiwan has been described as a stronghold for Buddhism, Taoism, and Folk Religions. West Hollywood, CA, is known as a stronghold of homosexuality." Shay says this all started in the Garden, another place associated with territory or land issues on the cosmic-level.
Bob Beckett places heavy emphasis on the breaking of the Edenic covenant in connection with cosmic-level land issues: "Before there was an Adamic covenant there was an Edenic covenant--that is, a covenant God made with Adam including Adam's responsibility to the land." Beker says that our mortal bodies are linked to the whole mortal body of creation, "and thus we groan in the Spirit along with the groaning of the creation for the future glory of God," the cosmic redemption of all. Walter Wink writes,
We are inundated by the cries of an entire creation: the millions now starving to death each year, the tortured, the victims of sexual abuse or battering, the ill. But that is not all: we also bear inexpressible sorrow for all the species that have become extinct and those on the verge of extinction, the plants and trees and fish dying of pollution, the living beings dislocated or killed by forest fires, hurricanes, volcanic eruptions, and the like. We are so interconnected with all of life that we cannot help being touched by the pain of all that suffers. The more highly developed our consciousness becomes, the more terribly the knowledge and anguish of that suffering weighs on us, till we risk being crushed by it."
Beckett points out that when the first Adam sinned, the consequences went far beyond humankind, "a part of his punishment entailed a curse upon the land (Gen. 3:17B-19). Echoes of Romans 5 can be heard when we read in Genesis as the first Adam in disobedience took forbidden fruit from a tree and the land was cursed, but the second Adam in obedience placed himself, the holy fruit onto a tree and the land was redeemed, i.e., Jesus made it possible to destroy the strongholds and barriers in the land to the advance of God's kingdom in the earth.
Romans 8:38-39 The Cosmic-level Spiritual Warfare Command
38 For I am convinced that neither death nor life, neither angels nor demons, neither the present nor the future, nor any powers, 39 neither height nor depth, nor anything else in all creation, will be able to separate us from the love of God that is in Christ Jesus our Lord.
These verses contain unequivocal evidence of Paul's doctrine of cosmic-level spiritual issues. Dunn mentions that Lord Death appropriately heads the list, because Death has been the great hostile power since Ch. 5. Arcai (NIV-demons) is the word Paul uses most for angelic/demonic powers. The NIV rendering demons is poor. The words angeloi and arcai appear only here in Romans. Angeloi can be used for good or bad angels, and because of the context, it may be better to take the meaning of bad angels. Here is the reason.
Paul probably has in mind particularly the idea of angels as inhabiting the lower reaches of heaven (or lower heavens; cf. 2 Cor. 12:2; Eph 6:12), and therefore as a potential barrier between God and his people on earth; but also perhaps the idea of angels as rulers of the nations (Deut 32:8; Dan 10:13; Sir 17:17; Job 15:31-32) and therefore potential opponents to God's extending his direct rule over the Gentiles as well as the Jewish nation.
If Dunn is right, and I believe he is, then this passage takes on a whole new meaning for most Western evangelicals. These famous verses are not just talking about the love of God being inseparable from us, they are without a doubt laying down the cosmic-level authority and power of Jesus in controlling warfare against major rulers of darkness, principalities, and powers!
God: "Do Cosmic-level Spiritual Warfare!"
Verse 37 in the NIV reads, "No, in all these things we are more than conquerors through him who loved us." The word translated more than conquerors is hyperkinau, "a heightened form of nikau, hence something like 'win a glorious victory, win more than a victory.'" Wagner teaches the meaning of nikau is a military term involved in Luke 11:21-22 in which the biblical strategy is to bind the strong man and take his precious goods, i.e., human souls. It would follow then that in order to win more than a victory, one would need in the very least to win souls into the kingdom of Christ. Winning souls is what Paul says is the purpose of the gospel in 1:16-17, the thematic verses of the letter. It does not take a nuclear physicist, then to figure out that cosmic-level spiritual warfare is not just something that is permissible. It is a military command straight from the Commander-in-Chief!
Let us look at it from another direction. Verse 34 speaks of Christ Jesus who "is at the right hand of God and is also interceding for us." Since the result of this intercession is that no high-ranking demonic reality can separate us from Christ's love, then it follows that Jesus himself, still in human form but at the right hand of the Father is doing cosmic-level intercession, engaging and continually defeating the forces of darkness. Since verses 37-39 come just below v.34, (Christ Jesus "is at the right hand of God and is also interceding for us"), and since this cosmic-level intercession is a mark of His love for us by which He makes us, his co-heirs, more than conquerors (hyperkinau), and since we are commissioned to imitate Jesus in all things, then it does not take a fantastic leap of imagination to realize that we are to be involved in cosmic-level intercession for the peoples, cities, nations, and other corporate entities under the influence of territorial spirits. These verses put in serious jeopardy the arguments of those who hold that cosmic-level spiritual warfare is out of the purview of the Church's work.
Cranfield in his shorter Romans commentary comments:
With 'nor angels nor principalities' Paul is concerned to say that there is no spiritual cosmic power, whether benevolent or malevolent, which will be able to separate us from God's love in Christ. And this he can say with confidence, because he knows that Christ has once and for all won the decisive battle against rebellious powers. . . . The word 'powers' stands by itself. It is probably another angelic designation like 'angels' and 'principalities' (it appears in angelic lists in 1 Cor 15:24; Eph 1:21; and 1 Pet 3:22).
Cranfield detracts from the proposal by some that the phrase oute uthoma oute bathos refers to powers above and below based on their use as technical terms in astrology and astronomy. He does admit, however, that such an interpretation is not to be ruled out. Walter Wink, professor of Biblical interpretation at Auburn Theological Seminary, adds, "It would appear likely, that the archai here are evil spiritual powers."
Romans 10:7 Christ's Defeat of the Powers in Hell
6 But the righteousness that is by faith says: "Do not say in your heart, `Who will ascend into heaven?'" (that is, to bring Christ down)
7 "or `Who will descend into the deep?'" (that is, to bring Christ up from the dead).
Dr. Susan Garrett's research has led her to propose that Luke believed Jesus descended into Hades (Acts 2:27, 31; Ps 17:5-6), but notes that the idea antedated Luke, mentioning Romans 10:7. She argues that the idea portrays God's demonstration "that the resurrection was the logical and definitive culmination of Jesus' earthly ministry, the essence of which had been the conquering of the reign of death and Satan."
Romans 16:20 The Immanent End of the Powers
The God of Peace will soon crush Satan underneath your feet.
In an eschatological and cosmological sense, Jesus death and resurrection have completely annihilated the powers of darkness from Satan on down to the weakest ground-level demon. Let us rejoice and be glad in this truth, and praise the ever loving God who more than conquers the enemy and then raises our arm in the boxing ring, declaring us more than victors.
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