Did you know that the study of management has
been around for at least 2500 years?
About 2500 years ago, a Chinese general named
Sun Tzu, wrote an astounding piece of work "The Art of War." In his
book, Sun Tzu acknowledged the need for inter-organizational communications,
hierarchy and staff planning.
A little later, between 400-360 BC, Socrates and
Aristotle, two Greek philosophers, wrote about the principles of management and
the nature of executive power.
In the Middle East, around 1300 AD, ibn
Taymiyyah outlined an approach to administration using the scientific method in
"The Principles of Religious Government."
In North America, for thousands of years, First
Nations and Native Americans used management principles and concepts in ma
Because First Nations had oral cultures, their
management principles were passed down from generation to generation orally and
through socialization, such as by the use of ceremonies.
Later, in 1532, Machiavelli, an Italian, wrote
"The Prince" a bold piece of work that discussed the practical use of
power. The term "Machiavellian" is used today to describe a ruthless
way of getting and keeping power.
In the 1700s, the Industrial Revolution started.
With the explosion of industry came a wave of new management writers, mostly
from Europe and the United States. The basis for their works is largely rooted
in ancient Western thinking. Generally speaking, Western thought assumes that we
can control the world through reasoning and science. This is known as the "
By the 1900s, people started seeing the
limitations of "classic" management thinking. Management based solely
on reasoning and science was missing a critical ingredient: the human factor.
Thus, by the 1950s, management concepts like MaslowÕs hierarchy of basic human
needs were popping up.
By the 1980s, Americans started examining JapanÕs
approach to management. Japan is a fascinating case study in "how to build
an economy." After being totally devastated by World War II, Japan
recovered and quickly grew into a leading industrial power. By the late 1980s,
53 of the top 100 companies in the world were Japanese.
The Americans learned very quickly that Japanese
management has a "different way" of doing things. Specifically, the
Japanese emphasize teamwork, employee development, and giving workers an
environment to do quality work.
Since the 1980s, many North American companies
have tried to incorporate various Japanese management principles. However, one
challenge to this approach is that Japanese and Western cultures are, in many
respects, fundamentally different. The 1980s movie Gung-Ho dramatized the
challenges of blending Eastern and Western cultures into a single company.
In comparing Eastern, Western and Native
American thought, it is clear that Eastern concepts are much more compatible
with First Nations principles. For example, Eastern principles emphasize the
importance of relationships and the interconnectedness of all things.
Interestingly, many of todays leading
Western writers are pushing for a more non-Western approach to management. For
example, in his bestseller "The Fifth Discipline," Peter Senge
advocates for a complete change in Wester
Historical Context of Management
Social forces are the
norms and values that characterize a culture. Early social forces allowed
workers to be treated poorly; however, more recent social forces have provided
for more acceptable working conditions for workers. Social forces have
influenced management theory in areas such as motivation and leadership.
Economic forces are the ideas behind the
concept of a market economy such as private ownership of property, economic
freedom, competitive markets, and a limited role for government.
Political forces such as govemmental
regulations play a significant role in how organizations choose to manage
themselves. Political forces have influenced management theory in the areas of
environmental analysis, planning, control, organization design, and employee
rights.
While the practice of
management can be traced back to 3000 B.C., it was not given serious attention
until the 1 800s when large organizations emerged.
The early pioneers
include:
Scientific management focuses
on ways to improve the performance of individual workers. Some of the major
contributors are:
Administrative management
focuses on managing the total organization.
and
he developed guidelines for managers to follow. These guidelines form fourteen
principles for effective management.
The Hawthorne studies were
held at Western Electric and sponsored by General Electric. Elton Mayo and his
colleagues controlled the lighting in one room of workers but not in another.
When the illumination was increased in the
experimental group, productivity increased in both groups. The increase in
productivity was attributed to the fact that the workers were having extra
attention paid to them, maybe for the first time.
Other studies found that employees will not work
as fast as they can when being paid piece-rate wages. Instead, they will perform
to the level informally set by the group in order to be accepted by the group.
These two studies, and others, led Mayo to the
conclusion that individual and social processes played a major role in shaping
workers attitudes and behavior at work.
The human relations movement,
which stemmed from the Hawthorne studies, is based on the idea that a manager's
concern for workers will lead to their increased satisfaction and improved
performance.
The movement includes the need theories of
motivation, such as Maslow's hierarchy of needs, and McGregor's Theory X and
Theory Y.
The emergence of
organizational behavior occurred because of the too simplistic descriptions of
work behavior by the human relationists. Organizational behavior takes aholistic
view of behavior by addressing individual, group, and organization processes.
Management
science focuses specifically on the development of mathematical models. These
models help organizations to try out various activities with the use of a
computer. Modeling can help managers locate the best way to do things and save
money and time.
Operations management
is an applied form of management science that helps organizations develop
techniques to produce their products and services more efficiently.
A system is an
interrelated set of elements functioning as a hole. An organization as a system
is composed of four elements:
Open systems are
systems that interact with their environment. Subsystems are systems within a
broader system. Synergy are units that are more successful working together than
working alone. Entropy is the process that leads to decline.
Appropriate managerial
behavior depends on the elements of the situation. Universal perspectives tried
to identify the "one best way" to manage organizations. Contingency
perspective argues that universal theories cannot be applied to organizations
because each is unique.
Managers need to include the parts from each perspective that are relevant to their situation and apply them using both a systems and contingency approach.
Type Z model
organizations attempt to integrate parts of the Japanese model of management
(collective decision making, slow evaluation and promotion, and holistic concem),
individual responsibility from the U.S. model of management, and variations of
other aspects of management models to create a hybrid model of management.
The concem for excellence is an approach used by firms who have a basic set of characteristics that leads them to excel. These characteristics include getting things done on time, staying close to the customer, using hands-on management, and doing what the company knows best among others.
Presented by: Castro, Kareen Faith
Lagunzad, Bea Socorro
Munoz, Jessie Vie
Simborio, Marchie
BSA I-12
Presented to: Mr. Jay Dumlao
