Chapter 7
(Nothing will ever be certain
again, after that)
When the United States reoccupied Guam in 1944, the structure of Chamorro consciousness had shifted sharply, thousands of miles east from Guam. The brutal nature of the Japanese takeover contrasted intensely with the casual benevolent indifference of the Americans. Chamorros found hope in the idea that America would return to free them, to liberate them. Whatever qualms Chamorros may have had with the US rule on Guam, whether it be social, political, personal or economic evaporated under the constant threat of being beaten, raped or be-headed.
American ideology on Guam had always been drenched in the vague and almost mysterious concept of freedom. “The United States stands for freedom” was a common statement in the public schools at that time. However that discourse never saw actualization because freedom existed under the Naval regime only as long as the Navy wanted you to have it. If it did not want you to be free, it could simply lock you up, take away your land or demolish your house (all of which did happen on many separate occasions for myriad reasons). But the occupation suddenly gave that hollow and silly statement a whole new meaning, and whole new significance, for the United States did actually stand for freedom; if they returned, then the Chamorros would be free once again.
When American returned in 1944 the island was in jubilation. Despite the fact that the US had bombed Guam nearly to pieces for three weeks before ever hitting the beaches, destroying most of the structures on island, didn’t mar any of the Chamorro’s joyous celebrations. Intense loyalty to the idea of America and freedom, liberty and justice had developed while America was away licking its wounds following the attack on Pearl Harbor and then the invasion of Guam. The propaganda was finally given life, the seeds of American colonization that had been planted in the Chamorros through the discourse instilled in them by their participation in the political, health care, and economic spheres had sprouted and grown tall.
Two things surrounding the dynamics of patriotism and resistance had changed. The first came with the abolition of spheres in terms of American colonization of Guam. Under Japanese rule, each Chamorro became caretaker of their own personal sphere of American influence. The public spheres which had ensnared and influenced so many Chamorros were replaced with private and personal spheres within the consciousness of each Chamorro. Suddenly one didn’t have to go to Hagatna in order to brush up against American rhetoric or ideology. The terrifying pain of war gave each Chamorro the opportunity to interact with America on a personal level. And the common interaction was probably best captured by a song composed during the Japanese occupation: Uncle Sam won’t you please come back to Guam. Whose lyrics are a plea for America to come back to Guam and save the Chamorros from the Japanese.
American ideas which had little value to your average Chamorro, who was content to remain on his or her ranch before the war. But when that life which existed before Americans ever set foot on Guam was stripped from the Chamorros by the Japanese, they had little to turn to within traditional culture, which offered no solutions for a psychological or physical crisis of that magnitude. American culture however had the two perfect responses, the military and the concept of freedom. So Chamorros all over the island looked to them for salvation, and eventually got it.
Apart from this extension and personalization of the American sphere of influence, the war also provided at last a starting point by which Chamorro patriotism and loyalty for America could begin, a chenchule’ relationship. Chenchule’ refers to a network of gift and favor exchanges, by which help is given with the expressed and sometimes unexpressed condition that the favor will be returned at a later date. Chenchule’ is a blanket term which refers to reciprocity amongst Chamorros.
The gifts which America offered prior to the war were abstract at best and pointless at worst. Freedom, democracy and capitalism were hardly the big draws the Navy hoped, because they couldn’t be realized under Naval control of the island. Their economic, health care and educational improvements were dubious at best, often falling far short of the hype. With these gifts, there was little need or desire amongst Chamorros to reciprocate back loyalty or patriotism. The few that did were those such as Bordallo or Calvo who were wealthy enough to see the American offerings as vital to their success, reciprocated their gratitude by participating in the token governments or making flowery speeches about the progress and successes of our relationship with the United States. But to most Chamorros the US wasn’t offering very much.
With the saving of every Chamorro on Guam in 1944 from the hands of the Japanese Imperial Army, the very important gift of life was given back to each Chamorro on Guam, and that was something which all Chamorros could reciprocate. With the reoccupation of Guam the United States and the Chamorros of Guam firmly established a chenchule’ relationship, and it was that need to reciprocate out of intense obligation and gratitude that created the first real waves of Chamorro patriotism and loyalty to the United States.
Stepping out of the scope of this project for a second, the relationship was further maintained with the establishment of an Organic Act for Guam, which allowed a measure of self-government on Guam as well as the granting of American citizenship to the Chamorros.
With this the first strain of viewing Chamorro identity seems to hold all the cards. In fact it does hold the major advantages, as the simple equation of interaction with the US prior to the war based on activity and passivity was flipped around. So monumental was the shift following the “liberation” of Guam that to participate in the first discursive telling of history became a passive endeavor, since most if not all Chamorros felt a deep and insurmountable affinity and debt to the US for returning to Guam. To feel as if you were a part of the American whole was the norm following the war, as the Chamorro personal involvement in that global conflict shattered all previous notions of reality, tradition, progress, development or success. The only way after the war seemed to be the American way.
That was how it seemed, however in reality the war also provided at last the substantive evidence in which an active position against the United States situated outside an acceptable/ colonial context could be formed. From the American policies prior to the war and immediately following the war, Chamorro resistance to American rule was able to take new life in the form of active resistance against America. As already mentioned the active resistance in earlier decades had all been worked through an acceptable colonial framework, in that it was all about moving closer to the United States, and guided by the teleological reasoning that the US would eventually remedy all.
But the indifferent and at times criminal policies of the US Navy would ensure that even amongst the almost universal love of the United States from their destruction of the Japanese in 1944, pockets of dissent and rage would exist, and in times those pockets would organize and eventually become active against the United States.
The crimes of the Navy before the war range from, lying to the Chamorros about the situation with Japan prior to the War, not preparing the Chamorros for war even when the local Navy was preparing for it, by evacuating all their civilian personal and military dependents, and lastly not evacuating any military dependents of any Chamorro military men, or any dependents that were not white.
Many Chamorros were confused with the manner in which the island was retaken, the wholesale destruction of the island, in particular the capital city of Hagatna was hard to reconcile. As was the lack of regard for the Chamorros during the three weeks of bombing before the Americans finally attacked. Following the war came the crimes which have caused the most Chamorros to stand up against the United States, and those center around land issues. The Navy at its pick in land appropriation had nearly 2/3 of the island under their control and the Chamorros living in tent cities. They took land sometimes without compensating the owners, and sometimes took land by force. Many who received compensation, received barely a pittance. Eventually the Navy would give back some land, so that they only held about 1/3 of the island, but even up until this day there are struggles over land issues.
And so in the wake of the almost tsunami like force of patriotism after World War II, it was difficult to maintain anything an identity on Guam which did not borrow heavily or owe much to the United States. The second strain, that of resistance became heavily marginalized and difficult to maintain. The bestowing of American citizenship in 1950 only compounded that, as Chamorros at least politically became Americans. However the fit was still far from perfect, which again allowed resistance even at the most minute levels to persist within each individual Chamorro psyche. In 1950, Chamorros became Americans, however they were Americans who didn’t get to vote for president, didn’t get to vote for their own governor, and didn’t get any representation in Washington D.C.