Focus of this class will not be the individual industries that arose during the period following Napoleon, but rather the shift in economic systems from an agricultural / guild system to an industrial one. The rise of a new class of people (proletariat) will be examined as well, as will the political and social institutions that the proletariat used to try to control their lives and to determine Europe's fortunes.
Before 1820s -- pre-industrial or guild system
Centered around families and work from home
Most people never ventured far from the villages
Links to medieval feudal times
Domestic system
-- system whereby work was done in the home by independent laborers. Example -- wool bought from sheep farmers and given to women working at home. The women would spin it into yarn. The yarn would be taken by the merchant to a weaver (working at his home) who would then weave cloth.
Agricultural Revolution
-- takes place in the late 1700s -- people can now feed themselves on less land
More food = more people (people have more children when they can afford to provide for them)
Great Britain took the lead towards industrialization
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Enclosure laws
-- squeezed the small farmers out. Many of these peasants went to the cities looking for work.
Swelling cities produced a ready made base of potential workers
Money -- from an aristocracy untouched by the problems of the French Revolution and heavily invested in trade with America and India
Coal and iron -- two materials necessary for industrialization -- in easy reach in Britain, especially in the Lancashire District (around Liverpool and Manchester)
Ready supply of wool and cotton for the textile mills -- wool from Britain and Ireland -- cotton from American South and Egypt
Need for industrialization -- Britain has a need to trade for almost everything -- necessity is the mother of invention
1793 -- Eli Whitney invents the cotton gin -- soon American cotton exports will be measured not by the pound, but rather by the ton
Textile industries -- first factories -- organized system where workers were brought under one roof and production was streamlined -- necessary due to the size of the machines -- important in America as well
Steam power increased production and transportation
Industrialization fed off the advances -- each invention brought another and growth became exponential
Capitalism
-- economic system run by the middle class
Based on factories and production -- looks to make money for those in charge, not the workers -- workers become simply part of the machine
Bourgeoisie -- begins to develop a social consciousness -- the class sees itself as in charge of the country
Economic personification of classical liberal governmental philosophy
Laissez-faire economics
-- "hands off" -- no government intervention -- laws of supply and demand will drive economic cycles
"invisible hand"
-- idea proposed by Adam Smith that competition and free markets will hold prices down and drive the economy
In an age of economic growth -- shouldn't the people causing the growth have all the power and say?
Proletariat
-- new working class -- really responsible for the means of production
Working conditions were terrible in the new factories. Workers often worked long shifts 7 days a week
No labor laws at the time -- very dangerous and unsanitary conditions
Living conditions -- slums -- workers living like animals -- crowded into dirty sections of the city -- malnourished and pitiful
Businessmen felt that it was their job to make as much money for themselves and save expenses
Workers didn't matter
-- (story from the Jungle in class)
Eventually workers began to organize and develop a collective consciousness of their own
Labor unions -- associations of workers -- fought for workers rights
Some political and philosophical leaders felt that society itself must accept responsibility for the workers
Problem -- although the working class lived in misery, their numbers were constantly expanding, not only from more people moving to the cities, but also from the agricultural revolution
Some people took up the workers cause
Charles Dickens -- "It was the best of times. It was the worst of times."
Dickens -- A Christmas Story -- hard on Scrooge -- symbol of capitalism
Early reformers tried to get government to help with labor laws
Utopian Socialism
-- idea put forth by a few reformers during the 1820s and 1830s -- create a new society where everyone was equal -- numerous small communities started in Europe and America -- most famous is New Harmony, Indiana -- prospered for a while, but ultimately failed due to human nature
Marxist Socialism and Communism
Karl Marx -- German philosopher of the 19th century
Believed that history was the story of a constant struggle between the classes
Important -- Marx saw no difference between French workers, German workers and British workers -- runs counter to the idea of nationalism
Conflict was inevitable -- it pushed history forward
Governmental systems were created to serve whatever class was in power -- revolutions (class warfare) brought down the old systems
Absolutism -- Aristocracy -- French Revolution brought it down
Capitalism -- Bourgeoisie
Socialism -- Proletariat
Communism -- everyone equal
Marx saw a series of revolutions as part of the natural order of things. Europe, according to his model, was perched on the edge of another revolution, one that would bring Socialism and the workers to power.
Eventually, socialism would EVOLVE into communism where everyone was equal
Under communism -- no private property -- no government -- no class distinctions
Communist Manifesto
Published in 1848, on the eve of revolutions in Europe
Contains Marx's historical theories and his call for a workers revolution to overthrow the bourgeoisie
"Workers of the World Unite"
Revolutions of 1848
Revolutions of 1848 What, Where, Why and Who Cares?
Review of Conservative backlash of 1815 (Metternich)
Key terms liberalism (middle class rule), socialism (worker class rule)
Many groups in Europe ready for change by 1848
Liberal Middle Class
Socialists (Workers)
Nationalists (Romanticism)
Peasants Always ready, just no one to listen
France
Louis Phillipe "Citizen King"
Tries to rule with the support of the people, but unwilling and unable to answer the questions of industrialization and representation
Liberal Middle Class -- becoming Nationalists -- see themselves as the foundation for the state
Spring of 1848 -- Bourgeoisie in France begins to call for more rights and an expanded role in government. After King Louis Phillippe clamps down on individual freedoms, they take to the streets. The proletariat had nothing to do with the bourgeois reforms, but they take to the streets with the bourgeoisie. Both classes fought together, but for different motives.
middle class want power and the vote
workers want the socialist revolution -- Marx himself is in Paris egging on the crowd
The coalition worked. The army, made up of the very same people they were supposed to fight, refused to fire upon the civilians. Louis Phillipe fled to England.
New French Governmant (Called the 2nd Republic)
Universal Manhood suffrage
Coalition between the liberals and socialists (didnt last long)
Liberals want middle class control of govt and economic growth
Workers want a social revolution
Louis Blanc
leading socialist program of workshops for workers
Liberals didnt like the workshops wanted workers in the factories
Liberals crush the revolt by turning to an alliance with the conservatives
France control Liberal/Conservative coalition (really conservative)
Napoleon III restores order (nephew of Napoleon)
Prussia (Germany)
News of the Paris revolution quickly spread to Germany
Prussia Ruled by Fredrick William IV (A weak Autocrat) system of so-called Benevolent Despotism (Hes an autocrat, but thinks hes ruling for the people) slowly modernizing
When the barricades went up in Berlin, (March 15, 1848) the army fought back, but the king decided to support the people. After a few days of bloodshed, the army is pulled out of Berlin. The people have won! Fredrick William agrees to a constitutional convention, a parliament and the united Germany. German unification, a thousand-year dream, appears months away. As a result of Prussias position, the smaller German states fall quickly into line. Liberalism appears to be winning in Germany.
Frankfurt Assembly
(1848) German liberals and the constitutional convention
Object Constitution for a united Germany under Liberal rule (similar to the Constitutional Monarchy system of England)
Liberals have control all over the German Lands the individual states agree to accept the new constitution
Problem
: conservatives still powerful tradition in Germany, especially the military
May 1848 Frankfurt assembly opens
Who should be the King? Over 30 to choose from
Big fight comes form Austria and Prussia for leadership (well see this again)
Much debate little substance
While the liberals were debating, but achieving little, conservatives (Junkers) began to retake power.
Fredrick William, who originally supported the revolution, now turns against the convention.
The Prussian Army retook Berlin and reinstalled conservative control
Smaller German states followed suit
Meanwhile, the Frankfurt Assembly finally cranked out a constitution. (Apr 1849)
Quite a liberal document
Universal manhood suffrage (still no hope for the fraulines)
German Emperor elected by the Reichstag (German parliament)
Bill of rights
Little for the workers workers revolt and turn for help to the conservatives (interesting alliance)
Fredrick William actually offered the crown, but he refused to take it
Biggest Result of the failure of 1848 in Germany
Germany will be united not under liberalism (middle class), but under a conservative iron fist (revolution from above)
Austria
"Austria" didn't really exist -- a backwards empire comprised of many nationalities -- all governed by a benevolent despot from Vienna
Her entire concept of an empire had been built on a multi - nationalistic approach. In the political and diplomatic realities of the late ninetieth and early twentieth century, this simply was not feasible. She was a deformed and anachronistic society which simply could not make the transition to the modern world in the political climate of the time.
The eastern half of the empire was mostly German, centered mainly in the region known today as Austria, with an impressive collection of Germans in the area of the Sudatenland (today's eastern Czech Republic) and a sprinkling of Germans in other parts as well.
Overall, however, the Germans constituted less than twenty - five percent of the empire.
The next largest nationality was the Magyars (Hungarians). They comprised just over twenty percent, and were centered in the Hungarian portion of the empire. Instead of looking to Vienna for guidance and culture, they looked to Budapest.
The remaining fifty-five percent (over half the empire) was comprised of various other nationalities, from the Czechs in the northern areas to the Serbs and Croats of the Balkans.
Over the years, Hapsburg emperors had spurned the idea of a nationalistic empire, even to the point of refusing to give the empire an official name.
The most important reasons for the empire's ability to stay together were the fact that Austrian military might would crush any resistance, the knowledge that small, independent nations couldn't hope to compete on a global or continental scale, and personal loyalty to the emperor.
1848 -- Viennese liberals denounce Hapsburg absolutism and demand a new liberal constitution
A constitutional assembly was convened in August 1848, but nationalism tore the empire apart and gave conservatives a chance to regroup
The Czechs and Hungarians in particular wanted autonomy (self rule) -- when the Austrian government responded, it did so with brutal force
Prague was bombarded into submission by the Hapsburg Army
Spring 1849 -- Hungarian liberals declare Hungary to be independent
The Hapsburgs crushed the rebellion, but the legacy remained -- Hungary will get autonomy in 1867
Legacy of 1848
Why do we study 1848? After all, the revolutions failed.
Conservatives back in control of France, Prussia, and Austria (As well as Italy who we'll discuss later)
Liberals now really afraid of workers -- workers seen as radicals and revolutionaries bent on socialism
Conservatives will make Germany and Italy -- consequences for Europe will be see in the 20th century -- Nationalism, not liberalism or socialism, will rule