Abstract for "Is apology worth the risk? Predictors, outcomes, and ways to avoid regret," by Exline, DeShea, & Holeman (in press):

Why do people choose to apologize or withhold apology, and what are the consequences of these decisions? We addressed these questions in two within-participants studies of undergraduates. Participants consistently reported more regret about non-apology than apology. Regrets about apology were linked with mutual grudges, protests of innocence, unsafe relationships, and apologies seen as insincere, premature, or fear-based. Regrets about non-apology were linked with persistent remorse, self-punishing attitudes, and seeing the offended party as innocent of wrongdoing. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed.