*Minoan civilization and the importance of its location- The Minoan civilization is in the eastern Mediterranean and it had access to the Nile Valley and the Middle East.
*Explain how Sparta's location was important- The location gave them the chance to be wealthy and trade. Sparta was isolated by hills and mountains that surround the area.
*Trojan War- location- The Trojan War took place in the Mediterranean Sea and in Troy where the Mycenaean�s came out of the Trojan horse and burned everything.
*Geography of Greece created? The Geography of Greece created the right conditions that influenced the rise of Greek civilization.
*Post Persian wars domination- Persia had already conquered an empire stretching from Asia Minor to the border of India.
*Peloponnesian War- Athens has the best navy, but they were unable to use there navy because Sparta is inland and couldn�t be attacked by the sea. Athens won the war against Sparta.
*Greek theater origins- The Greek theater origins came from religious festivals and then evolved into plays that they performed in theater in the sides of hills.
*Alexander's achievements and empire- Alexander never lost a battle and his empire stretched from Asia Minor into Palestine and south to Egypt.
*Center of Hellenistic world- The Hellenistic civilization brought schools into cities. The schools taught mathematic and science and medicine.
*Geographic characteristics of Greece- Greece was the center of trade, with Asia Minor and Middle East and Europe around them and they had access to the sea.
*Oligarchy: landowning nobles that came to power and dominated some city-states.
*Democracy: government by the people.
*Spartan childhoods- At the age of 7 boys began training for a life in the military. Girls were part of a warrior society and were expected to produce healthy sons for the army.
*Athens' golden age- In the 6th Century B.C the golden age is when Athens democracy started.
*Aristotle's meritocracy- Aristotle�s meritocracy consisted of school and study of all the branches of knowledge. His students also studied Architecture, Sculpture, and painting.
*Greek values- The Greeks had a democracy and they established schools.
Chapter 6
*Augustus- Augustus is the senate and declared him princeps or first to citizen.
*Julius Caesar- He was a commander who combined soaring ambition with a determination to make drastic reforms. Caesar had a great army they crossed the Rubicon and they tried to help settle many of Rome�s problems.
*Hannibal- When the Hannibal was 9 years old; his life was already dedicated to the destruction of Rome. Hannibal was selected as leader of the Carthaginian army and had gone on the most daring military expeditions in history.
*Jesus- Jesus was a Jew that founded Christianity in Palestine. Jesus called him the son of God and he believed in only one god and accepted the Ten Commandments. The Gospels state betrayed Jesus and he was crucified. It wasn�t until after Jesus was crucified that Christianity really started to spread.
*Paul- Paul had a dream that Jesus spoke to him and from then on he would spread the faith onto not only Jew, but also non-Jews.
*Odoacer- Odoacer is a German leader that ousted the emperor in Rome. This was known as the fall of Rome and Roman power in the west ended.
*Ptolemy-
*Virgil- Virgil wrote the epic poem called the Aencid. The Aencid fallowed the Romans great heritage.
*Martyr: people who suffer or die for their beliefs.
*Mercenary: foreign soldiers serving for pay to defend its borders.
*Messiah: savior sent by god who would soon appear to lead the Jewish people to freedom.
*Patrician: members of the landholding upper class.
*Plebian: the farmers, merchants, artisans, and traders who made up the bulk of the population.
*Aqueduct: bridge like stone structures that brought water from the hills into Roman cities.
*Heresy: beliefs said to be contrary to official church teachings.
*Legion: the basic unit.
*Republic: when officials were chosen by the people.
*Sect: small groups within Judaism.
Chapter 8
*Peasant: A member of the class constituted by small farmers and tenants, sharecroppers, and laborers on the land where they form the main labor force in agriculture.
*Usury: the lending at interest. Usury is the way the clergy made its profits from merchants and bankers.
*Capital: money for investment. Merchants needed money to buy goods so they borrowed from moneylenders
*Tithe: payment to a church equal to one tenth of a person�s income. The idea of a tithe had existed in ancient religions before Christianity. The church used the tithe to help the poor.
*Fief: estate. The lords would grant vassals fief that ranges from a few acres to hundreds of square miles and included peasants to work the land, towns or buildings.
*Chivalry: code that knights adopted. Chivalry required knights to be brave, loyal, and true to their word. In warfare they had to fight fairly and be generous to their enemies.
*Charter: a written document that set out the rights and privileges of a town. Merchants paid the lord or the king a large sum of money or a yearly fee and sometimes both. The charters granted townspeople the right to choose their own leaders and control their own affairs.
*Troubadours: wandering poets. The troubadours adopted the code of chivalry called for women to be protected and cherished.
*Manor economy: Most manors included one or more villages and the surrounding lands. Peasants lived and worked on the manor. Most peasants of the manors were serfs.
*How monks and nuns lived: Monks would be required to work on the fields or at other physical tasks. The monks and nuns tended for the sick and they gave alms to the poor and set up schools for children.
*Why was church reform desired? It was because they were weakened and the clergy tended to e worldly and many lived in luxury. The Church was growing corrupt and moral decay led to demands for reform.
*New agricultural technologies: They made a new iron plow that carved deep into the heavy soil. The used horses rather than oxen to pull the plows. They made new devices called the windmill and watermill.
*Defense of castles (moats, etc): They would separate the keep from the surrounding area with a moat. They would build the castles out of stone and build the walls, towers, and drawbridges over the moats.
*Battle of Tours:
*Vassals: lesser lord. Feudalism was a loosely organized system of rule in which powerful local lords divided their large landholdings among the lesser lords.
*Peasants: A member of the class constituted by small farmers and tenants, sharecroppers, and laborers on the land where they form the main labor force in agriculture. Men, women, and children worked long hours.
*Knights: mounted warrior. At the age of seven a boy slated to become a knight and was sent away to the castle of his father�s lord. They learned to ride and fight and learned to keep his armor and weapons in good conditions. When the training was finished at the age of 21, then he was able to become a knight.
*Lords: A man of high rank in a feudal society or in one that retains feudal forms.
*Why did the church have great power over the people? Churches had great power over the people because they had a set of laws and if didn�t obey those laws you were punished. They would excommunicate you from the Church.
*Cluniac reforms: Gregory VII extended the Cluniac reforms throughout the entire Church. He prohibited simony and outlawed marriage for priests. Gregory called on Christians to renew their faith. The policy would lead to a battle of wills with the German emperor.
*Three field system: In the three field system they planted one field with grain, the second with legumes, and the third with fallow. The legumes restored soil fertility while adding variety to the peasant diet. It left only a third rather than half of the land unplanted. This all allowed farmers to produce more food and because of that the population grew.
*Merchant guilds: The guilds are associations and they passed laws levied taxes, and decided whether to spend funds to pave the streets with cobblestone, build protective walls for the city, or raise a new town hall.
*Clergy: the group or body of ordained persons in a religion, as distinguished from the laity.
*Nobles: Nobles and the church had as much or more power than the king and they both collected their own taxes and the fielded their own armies.
*Charlemagne: Charlemagne or Charles the Great is the founder of the Western Europe Empire. Charlemagne spent 46 years fighting against the Muslims in Spain. Charlemagne tried to exercise control over his many lands and create a united Christian Europe. Charlemagne appointed powerful nobles to rule local regions.
*Leif Erikson:
*Serf: bound to the land. Serfs were not slaves who could be bought and sold, but they still weren�t free and they could not leave to manor was granted to a new lord.
Chapter 9
*Excommunication: exclusion from the Roman Catholic Church as a penalty for refusing to obey Church laws. People who were excommunicated could not receive the sacraments. They also could not be buried in sacred ground.
*Steel plow: The steel plow allowed farmers to plow an area faster and they were than able to use horse that made it go even faster. The farmers would get more done in one day than they did before.
*Feudal system: loosely organized system of government in which local lords governed their own lands but owed military service and other support to a greater lord.
*Black Death- which regions most devastated? % population died? Result? It devastated Spain, England, Italy, Norway, Sweden, Scotland, Ireland, and Southern Russia. It killed 1/3 of the population and as a result there was a lack of sanitation and lack of accurate medical knowledge contributed to the epidemic.
*Magna Carta: In 1215 a group of rebellious barons cornered John and forced him to sign the Magna Carta. The Magna Carta had two basic ideas that in the long run would shape government traditions in England.
*Concordat of Worms: The struggle over investiture dragged on for almost 50 years. They agreed to the Church that they had the sole power to elect and invest bishops with spiritual authority. This comprised of the ending of the investiture struggle between the popes and emperors.
*Chief goal of/ and result of the Crusades: The results of the Crusades increased trade, money and economy and serfdom, and it enhanced the churches. The Crusades increased the power of feudal monarchs.
*Reconquista: Reconquista is the campaign to drive the Muslims from Spain. The efforts for Christian warriors to expel the Muslims began in the 700�s. The first real success came in 1085 and during the next 200 years Christian forces pushed slowly southward. In 1300 the Christians controlled the entire Iberian Peninsula except for Granada.
*Early jury system: Henry II England developed an early jury system. These juries determined which cases should be brought to trial and were the ancestors of today�s grand jury.
*Conflict between emperors and popes: They fought to bring the wealthy cities of northern Italy under control. Barbarossa arranged a marriage between his son Henry and Constance and that moved German emperors even more deeply in Italian affairs.
Short Answer
A. 5 reasons late Middle Ages was a time of decline.
It was because of the Black Plague. The church grew corrupt and it leads to demands of reform. The popes versus emperors. The Islam that came from the Mediterranean. The 100 year war.
B. 3 long term effects of the crusades.
The Crusades increased the trade and developed a taste for luxury goods that merchants brought from the Byzantine Empire. The Crusades helped to increase the power of feudal monarchs. The Crusades further encouraged the growth of a money economy.
Chapter 14
Annul: A annul is to cancel. Henry had a wife that he annulled so he would be able to have a son and then he married again.
Gravity: The single force that keeps the planets in their orbits around the sun.
Patron: A patron is a financial supporter of the arts. The politician held Florence together during difficult times. The poets and philosophers frequently visited the Medici palace.
Perspective: It is making distant objects smaller than those close to the viewer. The Roman art had been very realistic and Renaissance painters developed new techniques.
Theocracy: It is the government run by church leaders.
John Calvin: John Calvin was the most important reformer to follow Martin Luther.
Calvin was born in France and trained as a priest and lawyer. Calvin believed that salvation was gained through faith.
Henry VIII: He shut down all convents and monasteries in England and seized their lands. This brought wealth to the royal exchequer. Henry got married at the age of 18. Henry needed a son so he got a new wife.
Leonardo da Vinci: Leonardo was one of the many outstanding painters and sculptures. He was born in 1452. Leonardo thought of himself as an artist, but was more than just an artist. He made sketches for flying machines and undersea boats centuries before the first airplane and submarine were built.
Lorenzo de' Medici: Medici organized a banking business. The family expanded and the produced a dazzling number of gifts poets, artists, architects, scholars, and scientists in a short space of time.
Nicola Machiavelli: Machiavelli had served as a diplomat and had observed kings and princes in foreign courts. He studied roman history and he combined his personal experience of politics with his knowledge of the past to offer a guide to rulers on how to gain and maintain power.
Heliocentric: It is the sun-centered model of the universe.
Humanism: It is the study of classical culture. The heart of the Italian Renaissance was an intellectual movement. The movement focused on worldly subjects rather than on religious issues.
Indulgence: It was a pardon for sins committed during a person�s lifetime. Churches increased fees for religious services. It promoted the sale of indulgences.
Predestination: It was the idea of God that long ago determined who would gain salvation.
Recant: It is means to give up views. Luther�s 95 these were printed and distributed across Europe and the church tried to reform.
Luther: Martin Luther found a fertile field in northern Germany and Scandinavia. Luther�s reforms were the answers to corruption in the Roman Catholic Church. Peasant hoped to gain his support for social and economic change as well as religious reform.
Newton: Newton developed a brilliant theory to explain why planets moved as they did.
Patriarch: It is the Byzantine Empire, highest church official in a major city.
Renaissance focus: The renaissance was a time of creativity and the change of many areas. The renaissance was a time of transformation. The renaissance produced new attitudes toward culture and learning.
Printing of reformation: the printing revolution brought major changes, like they could print books and on rag paper. The printing press educated Europeans were exposed to new ideas that greatly expanded their horizons.
Results of Reformation: It contributed to the religious turmoil that engulfed Europe in the 1500s. Religion spread faster and to a larger audience than ever before.
Causes of Renaissance: The cause of the renaissance was to reform and become a better country. The reforming took place in the political, social, economic, and cultural areas. Many countries become wealthier.
Chapter 18
Hobbes: Thomas Hobbes was a philosopher that founded the Social contract. He believed that only a powerful government could unsure an orderly society.
Locke: He had a more optimistic view of human nature. People were basically reasonable and moral.
Joseph II: He built the framework for modern chemistry. He expanded European knowledge.
Enlightened despot: It an absolute ruler who used their power to bring about political and social change.
Natural laws: They are laws that govern human nature. They apply scientific knowledge. Then inventors use that knowledge to change people�s lives.
Natural rights: They are the rights that belong to humans from birth.
Physiocrat: It was focused on economic reforms. And the philosophers look for natural laws to define a rational economic system.
Bach: Back wrote a complex and beautiful religious works for organ and choirs.
Rousseau: He was the one that published the social contract. He used ideas about the general will to justify their programs.
Baroque: It means in the grand. They were Greek and Roman traditions that were passed on buy the people.
Free market: It is the natural forces of supply and demand.
Laissez faire: It is the allowing of business to operate with little or no government interference.
Salon: Is the informal social gatherings at which writers, artists, philosophers, and other exchanged ideas.
Social contract: It is an agreement by which they gave up the state of nature for an organized society. Hobbes believed that this was the only way to ensure orderly society.
Chapter 20
Enclosure: enclosure is the process of taking over and fencing off land that was formerly shared by peasant
farmers. Rich landowners had enclosed land to gain pastures for sheep and increased wool output by doing so in the 1500�s.
Factories (How they worked) - factories brought together machines to produce large quantities of goods. The workers worked day and night in factories with machines. During this period the machines either ran by windmills, coal, or running water.
Turnpike: turnpikes were privately built roads that charged a fee to travelers who used them. Many capitalists invested in turnpike and charged people so that they would use the road which was a short cut to the place they needed to get to.
Urbanization: urbanization is a movement of people to cities. The development of factories caused rapid urbanization during the Industrial Revolution.
Utilitarianism: utilitarianism is the idea that the goal of society should be the �greatest happiness for the greatest number� of its citizens. By the 1800�s, Jeremy Bentham preached this idea first.
Socialism: socialism is a government where the people as a whole would own and operate all of the means of production, instead of individually or privately. Socialism was a radical solution to end injustice and poverty.
Communism: Karl Marx proposed the idea of socialism during the 1800s. It is a form of socialism that sees a class struggle between employers and sees employers as inevitable.
Proletariat: the proletariat is another name for the working class. Karl Marx said that the proletariats were the �have-nots� and the bourgeoisie were the �haves.�
Michael Faraday: Faraday created an electric generator called the dynamo. The dynamo created an electric current by rotating a coil of wire between the poles of a magnet.
John Wesley: Founded the Methodist church. He stressed the need for a personal sense of faith.
Karl Marx: Karl Marx was a German philosopher who proposed the idea of Communism. He condemned the ideas of the Utopians as unrealistic idealism. Communism is based on the class struggle between employers and sees employers as inevitable.
Thomas Malthus: Thomas Malthus writings about population shaped the economic thinking for generations to come. He predicted that the population would eventually outpace the food supply.
John Stuart Mill: John Stuart Mill argued that a person�s actions are right and just if they promote happiness, but wrong if they cause pain. Mill was a follower of Bentham.
James Watt: Watt made revisions that improved the steam engine. His new version used coal instead of water power to run.
Abraham Darby: Darby�s family was one of the leading families that were led in developing the iron industry in Britain. Darby began to use coal instead of wood for smelting iron.
David Ricardo: David Ricardo noted that when the wages were high, families had more children. With more children, the supply of labor also increased, but wages were lowered and more people were unemployed.
Jeremy Bentham: Jeremy was one of the first people to preach the ideal of utilitarianism. He believed that the laws or actions should be judged by their utility.
Robert Owen: Owen was a poor Welsh boy who later became a successful mill owner. He was one of the first people to not use child labor to support his business.
Britain's population growth (why did it happen?)- Many people came to the cities and left their old lives of being a farmer. There were more jobs offered in the mines and factories than in the agriculture business.
Importance of coal to Industrialization- Coal was very useful during this time period. It was used to run many of the new technologies that were being developed, such as steamboats and trains. It was also used to smelt iron, which helped in the development of more machinery.
Agricultural Revolution- during the agricultural revolution, many things happened that helped the industry. Dikes were built to reclaim land from the sea. Farmers also combined smaller fields into larger ones to make better use of the land. They also used the fertilizers from their livestock to renew the soil.
Textile industry: one of the first industries that was affected during the Industrial Revolution was the textile industry. New machines were constantly developed that sped up the productivity of many products, and it increased the productivity of weaving and thread for everyday use.
Laissez faire economics (Adam Smith) - Adam Smith believed that a free market would eventually help all classes, not just the rich, in a free market, the exchange of goods and services is unregulated. Laissez-fair economics is precisely this type of economy, where the government is hands off.
Chapter 21
Ideology: ideology was a system of thought and belief. Many ideologies clashed in Europe into a period of turmoil that lasted more than 30 years.
Universal manhood suffrage: Liberals supported the idea of universal manhood suffrage. Basically, all adult men were given the right to vote, and there were social reforms. Women did not have this right.
Autonomy: autonomy is the name given to self rule of a country or government. In the Ottoman Empire, the Serbs were Balkan people who revolted and took over the government, achieving autonomy.
El Grito de Dolores: El Grito de Dolores means the cry of Dolores. This name was given to the speech given by Father Hidalgo when he talked about taking back the rural parish of Dolores.
February Days: during February days, the government was taking steps to silence critics and prevent public meetings. During this time, a common sight would be iron railings, overturned cars, paving stones, and toppled trees blocking the streets of Paris.
Frankfurt Assembly: The Frankfurt Assembly was a group of men from many German states who met to create a constitution for Germany as a whole. They assembly was dissolved by the 1800s under threat from the Prussian military.
Simon Bolivar: Bolivar was sent to Europe to complete his education and became a strong admirer of the ideas of the French Revolution. He liberated South America from Spain.
Miguel Hidalgo: Father Hidalgo was the man who gave the famous speech known as El Grito de Dolores, or cry of Dolores. He was captured and executed and his followers scattered.
Louis Kossuth: Kossuth led Hungarian nationalists who demanded an independent government. They called for an end to serfdom and a written constitution to protect all of their basic rights.
Tupac Amaru: Amaru organized a revolt. During the revolt, a large army crushed the rebels and killed Amaru.
Louis XVIII: Once Louis XVIII was restored to the throne, he sensibly signed the Charter of French Liberties. The charter was a constitution that created a two-house legislature and allowed limited freedom of the press.
John Stuart Mill: John Stuart Mill was an influential English liberal. He urged for equal rights for women.
Toussaint L' Ouverture: Toussaint L� Ouverture was born into slavery in Haiti. He was taught to speak both French and the African language of his ancestors. His master also allowed him to learn how to read. After reading many books, Toussaint was determined to become a brave leader and bring his people to liberty.
Louis Napoleon: Louis Napoleon was the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte. He attracted the working class� vote by presenting himself as a man who cared about social issues such as poverty. In the vote, Napoleon won. However, once he was named king, Napoleon named himself emperor and took the title of Napoleon III.
Louis Philippe: Louis Phillippe was also called the �citizen king� because he owed his throne to the people. He got along well with the liberal bourgeoisie, and dressed the same way they did. Under his rule, Louis extended suffrage, but only to France�s wealthiest citizens. In this way, the lower and middle class benefited.
Clemens Von Metternich: Clemens Von Metternich had dominated Austrian politics for more than thirty years. When the students rose up and took to the streets in revolt, Metternich tried to suppress them. When the workers soon rose up in support, Metternich resigned and fled in a disguise.
Pedro: Dom Pedro was left to rule Brazil when the king returned to Portugal. He became emperor of an independent Brazil, and accepted a constitution that provided for freedom of the press and religion, as well as an elected legislature. The country remained a monarchy until 1889, when political and social turmoil caused it to become a republic.
Revolts in Austrian empire: revolts in the Austrian empire forst broke out in Veinna, and took the government by surprise. Clemens von Metternich tried to suppress the students who took to the streets. When workers rose up to support the students, Metternich resigned. The Austrian emperor promised reforms, and revolution quickly spread throughout the empire.
Goals of nationalists: The nationalists at this time wanted to end domination of Italy by the Austrian Hapsburgs. Also, their goals were related to liberal reforms like the constitutional government.
Conservative ideology in Europe:- the conservatives included monarchs and members of their government, noble land owners, and church leaders. They supported the political and social order that came under attack during the French Revolution.
Chapter 22
Interchangeable parts: interchangeable parts were identical components that could be used in place of one another. They simplified assembly and repair, and improved the efficiency of the factory system to produce products.
Assembly line: the assembly line was introduced to improve efficiency of the factory and its products. On an assembly line, workers would add parts to a product that moves along a belt from one work station to the next. This lowered the price of goods, and made production faster and cheaper.
Corporation: corporations are businesses that are owned by many investors who buy shares of stock. Corporations began showing up in the late 1800�s, and allowed businesses to expand according to the amounts of capital they acquired.
Cartel: a cartel is an association that formed to fix prices, set production quotas, and divided up markets. The association is composed of a group of large corporations.
Women�s suffrage: many groups that were dedicated to votes for women emerged in the late 1800�s. However, suffragists faced intense oppositions from critics who claimed women were too emotional to be allowed to vote. They believed that the woman�s place was in the home and not in the government. In other places outside of Europe, women were quickly gaining their right to vote.
Racism: racism is the belief that one racial group is superior to another. By the late 1800�s, the claim was being made that the success of western civilization was largely due to the supremacy of the white race. These ideas were later used to justify global expansion of European power.
Social gospel: many Protestant churches in Europe and the United states were backing social gospel, which was a movement that urged Christians to social service. Reforms included those in the areas of health care, housing, and even education. These services helped to spread the Christian belief, as well as help the community.
Romanticism: William Wordsworth was one man who contributed to the movement called romanticism. This period lasted from about 1750 to 1850, and shaped western literature and arts. New verse forms, bold colors, swelling sounds of orchestra, and strong emotions were expressed during this period.
Realism: realism was a new artistic movement that began by the mid-1800. In realism, painters and writers tried to express the world as it was. They often portrayed the harsher aspects of life in cities or villages. Many writers and artists were committed to improving the lives of the unfortunate people they described in their works.
Impressionism: impressionism was a new movement that began by the 1870�s. Instead of trying for realism, where a camera could do a better than those portraying the picture, impressionists tried to capture the first impression made by a scene or object on the viewer�s eye.
Social Darwinism: Darwin never promoted any social ideas, but some thinkers used his beliefs and theories to support their own opinions about society. Social Darwinism applies the idea of survival of the fittest to war and economic competition. Followers of this belief often also supported racism.
Darwin: Charles Darwin was a British naturalist who argued that all forms of life had evolved into their present state over millions of years. He produced the theory of natural selection to show how the long process of evolution is made possible. Darwin was highly criticized for his theories, but even today we study them.
Joseph Lister: Joseph Lister, an English surgeon, discovered how antiseptics prevented infection. The use of his methods, such as having the surgeon wash their hands before operating and sterilizing instruments, helped to drastically reduce the rate of deaths from infections.
Factory life (How it changed the lives of workers): factories forced small children and women to get jobs to help pay for expenses. In these factories, the workers were abused. They worked long hours, were not allowed sick days, and there were no safety preventions so many workers were injured and even died. Family life declined and wages decreased as a result of factories.
Chapter 19
Suffrage: the right to vote. Backed by Paris crowds, radicals took control of the Assembly. Radicals called for the election of a new legislative body, the National Convention.
Sans-culottes: working class men and women. By sans-culottes demanded a republic and they also wanted the government to guarantee them a living wage.
Abdicate: to step down from power. Russia, Britain, Austria, and Prussia fought Napoleons army and Napoleon was defeated in the Battle of the Nations at Leipzig.
Deficit spending: a government spending more money than it takes in.
Plebiscite: ballot in which voters say yes or no to an issue.
Blockade: the shutting off of ports to keep people or supplies from moving in or out. During their long struggles, both Britain and France seized neutral ships suspected of trading with the other side.
Bourgeoisie: middle class. The bourgeoisie included the prosperous bankers, merchants, and manufactures that propped up the French economy.
Nationalism: an aggressive feeling of pride in and devotion on one�s country.
�migr�: nobles, clergy, and others who had fled revolutionary France.
Louis XVI: He left France deeply in debt. Wars like the Seven Years� War and the American Revolution strained the treasury even further.
Napoleon: He was born on the French-ruled island of Corsica in the Mediterranean. His family was minor nobles and had little money. He was sent to France to be trained for a military career at the age of nine. Napoleon favored the Jacobins and republican rule.
Robespierre: He was a shrewd lawyer and politician who quickly rose to the leadership of the Committee of Public Safety. He embraced Rousseau�s idea of the general will and promoted religious toleration and sought to abolish slavery.
Jacques Louis David: He immortalized such stirring events as the tennis Court Oath and, later, the reign of Napoleon. He helped shape the way future generations pictures the French Revolution.
Reign of Terror: Robespierre was a chief architect of the Reign of Terror, which lasted from July 1793 to July 1794. The revolutionary courts conducted hasty trials. 40,000 people died during the Terror. 15% were nobles and clergy and another 15% were middle-class citizens. The rest were peasants and sans culottes involved in riots or revolts against the Republic.
Napoleon annexed who? Napoleon annexed some areas of France, including the Netherlands and Belgium as well as parts of Italy and Germany. He cut Prussian territory in half, turning part of old Poland into the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. He also forced alliances on European powers from Madrid to Moscow.
Congress of Vienna: The congress met for 10 months, from September 1814 to June 1815. It was a brilliant gathering of European leaders. Diplomats, courtiers, and royalty dined and danced attended concerts and ballets, and enjoyed hunting parties and picnics arranged by Emperor Francis I of Austria.
Chapter 23
Alexander II: came to the throne during the Crimean War. He set up a system of local government called Zemstvos(elected assembly�s, responsible for local matters.
Francis Joseph: ruled as emperor of Austria and king of Hungary. Austria and Hungary shared ministries or finance, defense, and foreign affairs, but were independent in all other areas.
Giuseppe Garibaldi: he was a long time nationalist and ally of Mazzini. He wanted to create an Italian republic.
Otto von Bismarck: the kings chancellor who gave his �blood and iron� speech. He wanted to built a strong unified German nation that would be let by Prussia.
William II: he succeed his grandfather as Kaiser. He spent funds and effort on building up the German military.
Camillo Cavour: prime minister to Victor Emmanuel. His long-term goal was to expel Austrian power from Italy.
Anarchist: a person who wants to abolish all government. The anarchist turned to sabotage and violence.
Refugee: a person who flees his/her homeland to seek safety elsewhere. Jews became refugees when they escaped from Russia.
Pogrom: violent attack on a Jewish community. Gangs committed pogroms when they beat and killed Jews and looted and burned their stores.
Realpolitik: realistic politics based on a tough minded evaluation of the needs of the state. Otto Von Bismarck was a master at real politic by manipulating others,
Zemstvo: local elected assembly set up in Russia under Alexander II. Zemstvo�s were made responsible for matters such as road repair, schools, and agriculture.
economic development in Germany: Germany growth was due to ample, iron, and coal resources. A disciplined educated work force helped the economy. The government promoted the economy by issuing a single currency, organizing the banking system and coordinating the railroads.
Nationalism threatened? who? (which country the most): nationalism threatened by the Austrian Hapsburgs and ottoman Turks. The Ottoman Empire was threatened the most.
Revolution of 1905: peasants were revolting and demanding land. Terrorists targeted officials and Nicholas II was forced to draw up reforms in the October Manifesto where he promised freedom of person, conscience, speech, assembly, and union.