Canada

Introduction

Canada

For other uses, see Canada (disambiguation).

Coordinates: 60°N 95°W / 60°N 95°W

Canada (ⁱ/ˈkænədə/; French: [ka.na.dɑ]) is a country in the northern half
of North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the
Atlantic to the Pacific and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering 9.98
million square kilometres (3.85 million square miles), making it the
world's second-largest country by total area and the fourth-largest country
by land area. Canada's border with the United States is the world's longest
binational land border. The majority of the country has a cold or severely
cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is
sparsely populated, the majority of its land territory being dominated by
forest and tundra and the Rocky Mountains. It is highly urbanized with 82
per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized
cities, many near the southern border. One third of the population lives in
the three largest cities: Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is
Ottawa, and other major urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City,
Winnipeg and Hamilton.

Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands
of years prior to European colonization. Beginning in the 16th century,
British and French claims were made on the area, with the colony of Canada
first being established by the French in 1534. As a consequence of various
conflicts, Great Britain gained and lost territories within British North
America until it was left, in the late 18th century, with what mostly
geographically comprises Canada today. Pursuant to the British North
America Act, on July 1, 1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick, and
Nova Scotia joined to form the semi-autonomous federal Dominion of Canada.
This began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly
self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories
forming modern Canada.

In 1931, Canada achieved near total independence from the United Kingdom
with the Statute of Westminster 1931, but at the time, Canada decided to
allow the British Parliament to temporarily retain the power to amend
Canada's constitution, on request from the Parliament of Canada. With the
Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over that authority (as the conclusion
of Patriation), removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the
Parliament of the United Kingdom, giving the country full sovereignty.

Canada is a federal parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy,
with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially
bilingual at the federal level. It is one of the world's most ethnically
diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration
from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in
the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and
well-developed international trade networks. Canada's long and complex
relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its
economy and culture.

Canada is a developed country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita
income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human
Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements
of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic
freedom, and education. Canada is a Commonwealth realm member of the
Commonwealth of Nations, a member of the Francophonie, and part of several
major international and intergovernmental institutions or groupings
including the United Nations, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the
G8, the Group of Ten, the G20, the North American Free Trade Agreement and
the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. Canada is an influential
nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of
prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military.¹¹ ¹² ¹³
¹⁴

Etymology

Main article: Name of Canada

While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological
origins of Canada, the name is now accepted as coming from the St. Lawrence
Iroquoian word kanata, meaning "village" or "settlement".¹⁵ In 1535,
indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word
to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona.¹⁶
Cartier later used the word Canada to refer not only to that particular
village, but the entire area subject to Donnacona (the chief at
Stadacona);¹⁶ by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this
small region along the St Lawrence River as Canada.¹⁶

From the 16th to the early 18th century "Canada" referred to the part of
New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River.¹⁷ In 1791, the area
became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada
collectively named The Canadas; until their union as the British Province
of Canada in 1841.¹⁸ Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the
legal name for the new country at the London Conference, and the word
Dominion was conferred as the country's title.¹⁹ The transition away from
the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the
Canada Act, which refers only to Canada. Later that year, the name of
national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day.²⁰ The term
Dominion is also used to distinguish the federal government from the
provinces, though after the Second World War the term federal had replaced
dominion.²¹

History

Main article: History of Canada
See also: Timeline of Canadian history and List of years in Canada
Further information: Historiography of Canada

Aboriginal peoples

Aboriginal peoples in present-day Canada include the First Nations, Inuit,
and Métis,²² the latter being a mixed-blood people who originated in the
mid-17th century when First Nations and Inuit people married European
settlers.²² The first inhabitants of North America migrated from Siberia by
way of the Bering land bridge²³ and arrived at least 15,000 years ago,
though increasing evidence suggests an even earlier arrival.²⁴ The
Paleo-Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are
two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada.²⁵ ²⁶ The
characteristics of Canadian Aboriginal societies included permanent
settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading
networks.²⁷ ²⁸ Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European
explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only
been discovered through archeological investigations.²⁹

The Aboriginal population at the time of the first European settlements is
estimated to have been between 200,000³⁰ and two million,³¹ with a figure
of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.³²
As a consequence of contact with European diseases, Canada's Aboriginal
peoples suffered from repeated outbreaks of newly introduced infectious
diseases, such as influenza, measles, and smallpox (to which they had no
natural immunity), resulting in a forty to eighty percent population
decrease in the centuries after the European arrival.³⁰ ³³

Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with
First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.³⁴ The Crown
and Aboriginal peoples began interactions during the European colonization
period, though, the Inuit, in general, had more limited interaction with
European settlers.³⁵ From the late 18th century, European Canadians
encouraged Aboriginals to assimilate into their own culture.³⁶ These
attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with
forced integration and relocations.³⁷ A period of redress is underway,
which started with the appointment of the Truth and Reconciliation
Commission of Canada by the Canadian government.³⁸

European colonization

The first known attempt at European colonization began when Norsemen
settled briefly at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland around 1000 AD.³⁹ No
further European exploration occurred until 1497, when Italian seafarer
John Cabot explored and claimed Canada's Atlantic coast in the name of King
Henry VII of England.⁴⁰ ⁴¹ Then Basque and Portuguese mariners established
seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast in the early
16th century.⁴² In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the Gulf
of Saint Lawrence, where, on July 24, he planted a 10-metre (33 ft) cross
bearing the words "Long Live the King of France" and took possession of the
territory (known as the colony of Canada) in the name of King Francis I.⁴³
In general the settlements appear to have been short-lived, possibly due to
the similarity of outputs producible in Scandinavia and northern Canada and
the problems of navigating trade routes at that time.⁴⁴

In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, by the royal prerogative of Queen Elizabeth
I, founded St. John's, Newfoundland, as the first North American English
colony.⁴⁵ French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and
established the first permanent European settlements at Port Royal (in
1605) and Quebec City (in 1608).⁴⁶ Among the colonists of New France,
Canadiens extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and Acadians
settled the present-day Maritimes, while fur traders and Catholic
missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Mississippi
watershed to Louisiana.⁴⁷ The Beaver Wars broke out in the mid-17th century
over control of the North American fur trade.⁴⁸

The English established additional colonies in Cupids and Ferryland,
Newfoundland, beginning in 1610.⁴⁹ The Thirteen Colonies to the south were
founded soon after.⁴² A series of four wars erupted in colonial North
America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of the period constituted the
North American theatre of the Seven Years' War.⁵⁰ Mainland Nova Scotia came
under British rule with the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht and the 1763 Treaty of
Paris ceded Canada and most of New France to Britain after the Seven Years'
War.⁵¹

The Royal Proclamation of 1763 created the Province of Quebec out of New
France, and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia.²⁰ St. John's Island
(now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769.⁵² To avert
conflict in Quebec, the British parliament passed the Quebec Act of 1774,
expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley.⁵³ It
re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law
there. This angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, fuelling
anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the 1775 outbreak of the
American Revolution.²⁰

The 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized American independence and ceded the
newly added territories south (but not north) of the Great Lakes to the new
United States.⁵⁴ New Brunswick was split from Nova Scotia as part of a
reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes. To accommodate
English-speaking Loyalists in Quebec, the Constitutional Act of 1791
divided the province into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec) and
English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own
elected legislative assembly.⁵⁵

The Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United
States and Britain. Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed.
Immigration now resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from
Britain 1815–50.⁵⁶ New arrivals included Irish refugees escaping the Great
Irish Famine as well as Gaelic-speaking Scots displaced by the Highland
Clearances.⁵⁷ Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 per cent of
Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.³⁰

The desire for responsible government resulted in the abortive Rebellions
of 1837. The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government
and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture.²⁰ The Act of
Union 1840 merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada and
responsible government was established for all provinces of British North
America by 1849.⁵⁸ The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the
United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the
border westward along the 49th parallel. This paved the way for British
colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858).⁵⁹

Confederation and expansion

Following several constitutional conferences, the 1867 Constitution Act
officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially
with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.⁶⁰ ⁶¹
Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to
form the Northwest Territories, where the Métis' grievances ignited the Red
River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July
1870.⁶² British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had been united in
1866) joined the confederation in 1871, while Prince Edward Island joined
in 1873.⁶³

The Canadian parliament passed a bill introduced by the Conservative
Cabinet that established a National Policy of tariffs to protect the
nascent Canadian manufacturing industries.⁶¹ To open the West, parliament
also approved sponsoring the construction of three transcontinental
railways (including the Canadian Pacific Railway), opening the prairies to
settlement with the Dominion Lands Act, and establishing the North-West
Mounted Police to assert its authority over this territory.⁶⁴ ⁶⁵ In 1898,
during the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, parliament
created the Yukon Territory. The Cabinet of Liberal Prime Minister Wilfrid
Laurier fostered continental European immigrants settling the prairies and
Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905.⁶³

Early 20th century

Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under
the Confederation Act, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought
Canada into World War I.⁶⁶ Volunteers sent to the Western Front later
became part of the Canadian Corps, which played a substantial role in the
Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major engagements of the war.⁶⁷ Out of
approximately 625,000 Canadians who served in World War I, some 60,000 were
killed and another 172,000 were wounded.⁶⁸ The Conscription Crisis of 1917
erupted when the Unionist Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's
dwindling number of active members with conscription was met with vehement
objections from French-speaking Quebecers.⁶⁹ The Military Service Act
brought in compulsory military service, though it, coupled with disputes
over French language schools outside Quebec, deeply alienated Francophone
Canadians and temporarily split the Liberal Party.⁶⁹ In 1919, Canada joined
the League of Nations independently of Britain,⁶⁷ and the 1931 Statute of
Westminster affirmed Canada's independence.⁴

The Great Depression in Canada during the early 1930s saw an economic
downturn, leading to hardship across the country.⁷⁰ In response to the
downturn, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Saskatchewan
introduced many elements of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas)
in the 1940s and 1950s.⁷¹ On the advice of Prime Minister William Lyon
Mackenzie King, war with Germany was declared effective September 10, 1939
by King George VI, seven days after the United Kingdom. The delay
underscored Canada's independence.⁶⁷

The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. In all,
over a million Canadians served in the armed forces during World War II and
approximately 42,000 were killed and another 55,000 were wounded.⁷²
Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war,
including the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid, the Allied invasion of Italy, the
Normandy landings, the Battle of Normandy, and the Battle of the Scheldt in
1944.⁶⁷ Canada provided asylum for the Dutch monarchy while that country
was occupied and is credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to
its liberation from Nazi Germany.⁷³ The Canadian economy boomed during the
war as its industries manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain,
China, and the Soviet Union.⁶⁷ Despite another Conscription Crisis in
Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong
economy.⁷⁴

Contemporary era

The financial crisis of the great depression had led the Dominion of
Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a
crown colony ruled by a British governor. After two bitter referendums,
Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.⁷⁵

Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive
Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new Canadian identity,
marked by the adoption of the current Maple Leaf Flag in 1965,⁷⁶ the
implementation of official bilingualism (English and French) in 1969,⁷⁷ and
the institution of official multiculturalism in 1971.⁷⁸ Socially democratic
programs were also instituted, such as Medicare, the Canada Pension Plan,
and Canada Student Loans, though provincial governments, particularly
Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their
jurisdictions.⁷⁹

Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the
Canada Act 1982, the patriation of Canada's constitution from the United
Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and
Freedoms.⁸⁰ ⁸¹ ⁸² Canada had established complete sovereignty as an
independent country, with the Queen's role as monarch of Canada separate
from her role as the British monarch or the monarch of any of the other
Commonwealth realms.⁸³ ⁸⁴ In 1999, Nunavut became Canada's third territory
after a series of negotiations with the federal government.⁸⁵

At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes
through the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, giving birth to a modern
nationalist movement. The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ)
ignited the October Crisis with a series of bombings and kidnappings in
1970⁸⁶ and the sovereignist Parti Québécois was elected in 1976, organizing
an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to
accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the Meech Lake
Accord failed in 1990.⁸⁷ This led to the formation of the Bloc Québécois in
Quebec and the invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West.⁸⁸ ⁸⁹
A second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by
a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent.⁹⁰ In 1997, the Supreme Court
ruled that unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional and
the Clarity Act was passed by parliament, outlining the terms of a
negotiated departure from Confederation.⁸⁷

In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook
Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the
explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass murder in
Canadian history;⁹¹ the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university
shooting targeting female students;⁹² and the Oka Crisis of 1990,⁹³ the
first of a number of violent confrontations between the government and
Aboriginal groups.⁹⁴ Canada also joined the Gulf War in 1990 as part of a
US-led coalition force and was active in several peacekeeping missions in
the 1990s, including the UNPROFOR mission in the former Yugoslavia.⁹⁵

Canada sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001, but declined to join the US-led
invasion of Iraq in 2003.⁹⁶ In 2009, Canada's economy suffered in the
worldwide Great Recession, but it has since largely rebounded.⁹⁷ ⁹⁸ In
2011, Canadian forces participated in the NATO-led intervention into the
Libyan civil war,⁹⁹ and also became involved in battling the Islamic State
insurgency in Iraq in the mid-2010s.¹⁰⁰

Geography and climate

Main articles: Geography of Canada and Climate of Canada

Canada occupies much of the continent of North America, sharing land
borders with the contiguous United States to the south, and the US state of
Alaska to the northwest. Canada stretches from the Atlantic Ocean in the
east to the Pacific Ocean in the west; to the north lies the Arctic
Ocean.¹⁰¹ Greenland is to the northeast. By total area (including its
waters), Canada is the second-largest country in the world, after Russia.
By land area alone, however, Canada ranks fourth, the difference being due
to it having the world's largest proportion of fresh water lakes.¹⁰²

Canada is home to the world's northernmost settlement, Canadian Forces
Station Alert, on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island – latitude 82.5°N –
which lies 817 kilometres (508 mi) from the North Pole.¹⁰³ Much of the
Canadian Arctic is covered by ice and permafrost. Canada has the longest
coastline in the world, with a total length of 243,042 kilometres (151,019
mi);¹⁰⁴ additionally, its border with the United States is the world's
longest land border, stretching 8,891 kilometres (5,525 mi).¹⁰⁵

Since the end of the last glacial period, Canada has consisted of eight
distinct forest regions, including extensive boreal forest on the Canadian
Shield.¹⁰⁶ Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes (563 greater than 100 km² (39 sq
mi)), more than any other country, containing much of the world's fresh
water.¹⁰⁷ ¹⁰⁸ There are also fresh-water glaciers in the Canadian Rockies
and the Coast Mountains.

Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially
active volcanoes, notably Mount Meager, Mount Garibaldi, Mount Cayley, and
the Mount Edziza volcanic complex.¹⁰⁹ The volcanic eruption of the Tseax
Cone in 1775 was among Canada's worst natural disasters, killing 2,000
Nisga'a people and destroying their village in the Nass River valley of
northern British Columbia. The eruption produced a 22.5-kilometre (14.0 mi)
lava flow, and, according to Nisga'a legend, blocked the flow of the Nass
River.¹¹⁰ Canada's population density, at 3.3 inhabitants per square
kilometre (8.5/sq mi), is among the lowest in the world. The most densely
populated part of the country is the Quebec City – Windsor Corridor,
situated in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and
the St. Lawrence River.¹¹¹

Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region
to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly
in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental
climate, where daily average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F), but can
drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe wind chills.¹¹² In noncoastal
regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while
in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia
has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west
coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F),
while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from
25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with temperatures in some interior locations
occasionally exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).¹¹³

Government and politics

Main articles: Government of Canada and Politics of Canada

Canada has a parliamentary system within the context of a constitutional
monarchy, the monarchy of Canada being the foundation of the executive,
legislative, and judicial branches.¹¹⁴ ¹¹⁵ ¹¹⁶ The sovereign is Queen
Elizabeth II, who is also monarch of 15 other Commonwealth countries and
each of Canada's 10 provinces. As such, the Queen's representative, the
Governor General of Canada (at present David Johnston), carries out most of
the federal royal duties in Canada.¹¹⁷ ¹¹⁸

The direct participation of the royal and viceroyal figures in areas of
governance is limited.¹¹⁶ ¹¹⁹ ¹²⁰ In practice, their use of the executive
powers is directed by the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the Crown
responsible to the elected House of Commons and chosen and headed by the
Prime Minister of Canada (at present Justin Trudeau),¹²¹ the head of
government. The governor general or monarch may, though, in certain crisis
situations exercise their power without ministerial advice.¹¹⁹ To ensure
the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as
prime minister the person who is the current leader of the political party
that can obtain the confidence of a plurality in the House of Commons.¹²²
The Prime Minister's Office (PMO) is thus one of the most powerful
institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary
approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown, besides the
aforementioned, the governor general, lieutenant governors, senators,
federal court judges, and heads of Crown corporations and government
agencies.¹¹⁹ The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually
becomes the Leader of Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition and is part of an
adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in
check.¹²³

Each of the 338 members of parliament in the House of Commons is elected by
simple plurality in an electoral district or riding. General elections must
be called by the governor general, either on the advice of the prime
minister, or if the government loses a confidence vote in the House.¹²⁴ ¹²⁵
Constitutionally, an election may be held no more than five years after the
preceding election, although the Canada Elections Act currently limits this
to four years with a fixed election date in October. The 105 members of the
Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age
75.¹²⁶ Five parties had representatives elected to the federal parliament
in the 2015 election: the Liberal Party of Canada who currently form the
government, the Conservative Party of Canada who are the Official
Opposition, the New Democratic Party, the Bloc Québécois, and the Green
Party of Canada. The list of historical parties with elected representation
is substantial.

Canada's federal structure divides government responsibilities between the
federal government and the ten provinces. Provincial legislatures are
unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of
Commons.¹²⁰ Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these
are not sovereign and have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the
provinces.¹²⁷ The territorial legislatures also differ structurally from
their provincial counterparts.¹²⁸

The Bank of Canada is the central bank of the country. In addition, the
Minister of Finance and Minister of Industry utilize the Statistics Canada
agency for financial planning and economic policy development.¹²⁹ The Bank
of Canada is the sole authority authorized to issue currency in the form of
Canadian bank notes.¹³⁰ The bank does not issue Canadian coins; they are
issued by the Royal Canadian Mint.¹³¹

Law

Main article: Law of Canada

The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country, and consists
of written text and unwritten conventions. The Constitution Act, 1867
(known as the British North America Act prior to 1982), affirmed governance
based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and
provincial governments. The Statute of Westminster 1931 granted full
autonomy and the Constitution Act, 1982, ended all legislative ties to the
UK, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the Canadian
Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The Charter guarantees basic rights and
freedoms that usually cannot be over-ridden by any government—though a
notwithstanding clause allows the federal parliament and provincial
legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of
five years.¹³²

The Indian Act, various treaties and case laws were established to mediate
relations between Europeans and native peoples.¹³³ Most notably, a series
of eleven treaties known as the Numbered Treaties were signed between
Aboriginals in Canada and the reigning Monarch of Canada between 1871 and
1921.¹³⁴ These treaties are agreements with the Canadian Crown-in-Council,
administered by Canadian Aboriginal law, and overseen by the Minister of
Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development. The role of the treaties and
the rights they support were reaffirmed by Section Thirty-five of the
Constitution Act, 1982.¹³³ These rights may include provision of services,
such as health care, and exemption from taxation.¹³⁵ The legal and policy
framework within which Canada and First Nations operate was further
formalized in 2005, through the First Nations–Federal Crown Political
Accord.¹³³

Canada's judiciary plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the
power to strike down Acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The
Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court and final arbiter and has been
led since 2000 by the Chief Justice Beverley McLachlin (the first female
Chief Justice).¹³⁶ Its nine members are appointed by the governor general
on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice. All judges at
the superior and appellate levels are appointed after consultation with
nongovernmental legal bodies. The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to
superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.¹³⁷

Common law prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where civil law
predominates. Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is
uniform throughout Canada.¹³⁸ Law enforcement, including criminal courts,
is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and
municipal police forces.¹³⁹ However, in most rural areas and some urban
areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal Royal
Canadian Mounted Police.¹⁴⁰

Foreign relations and military

Main articles: Foreign relations of Canada and Military history of Canada

Canada is recognized as a middle power for its role in international
affairs with a tendency to pursue multilateral solutions.¹⁴² Canada's
foreign policy based on international peacekeeping and security is carried
out through coalitions and international organizations, and through the
work of numerous federal institutions.¹⁴³ Canada's peacekeeping role during
the 20th century has played a major role in its global image.¹⁴⁴ The
strategy of the Canadian government's foreign aid policy reflects an
emphasis to meet the Millennium Development Goals, while also providing
assistance in response to foreign humanitarian crises.¹⁴⁵

Canada was a founding member of the United Nations and has membership in
the World Trade Organization, the G20 and the Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD).¹⁴² Canada is also a member of various
other international and regional organizations and forums for economic and
cultural affairs.¹⁴⁶ Canada acceded to the International Covenant on Civil
and Political Rights in 1976.¹⁴⁷ Canada joined the Organization of American
States (OAS) in 1990 and hosted the OAS General Assembly in 2000 and the
3rd Summit of the Americas in 2001.¹⁴⁸ Canada seeks to expand its ties to
Pacific Rim economies through membership in the Asia-Pacific Economic
Cooperation forum (APEC).¹⁴⁹

Canada and the United States share the world's longest undefended border,
co-operate on military campaigns and exercises, and are each other's
largest trading partner.¹⁵⁰ ¹⁵¹ Canada nevertheless has an independent
foreign policy, most notably maintaining full relations with Cuba since,
and declining to officially participate in the 2003 invasion of Iraq.¹⁵²
Canada also maintains historic ties to the United Kingdom and France and to
other former British and French colonies through Canada's membership in the
Commonwealth of Nations and the Francophonie.¹⁵³ Canada is noted for having
a positive relationship with the Netherlands, owing, in part, to its
contribution to the Dutch liberation during World War II.⁷³

Canada's strong attachment to the British Empire and Commonwealth led to
major participation in British military efforts in the Second Boer War,
World War I and World War II. Since then, Canada has been an advocate for
multilateralism, making efforts to resolve global issues in collaboration
with other nations.¹⁵⁴ ¹⁵⁵ During the Cold War, Canada was a major
contributor to UN forces in the Korean War and founded the North American
Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) in co-operation with the United States to
defend against potential aerial attacks from the Soviet Union.¹⁵⁶

During the Suez Crisis of 1956, future Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson
eased tensions by proposing the inception of the United Nations
Peacekeeping Force, for which he was awarded the 1957 Nobel Peace Prize.¹⁵⁷
As this was the first UN peacekeeping mission, Pearson is often credited as
the inventor of the concept.¹⁵⁸ Canada has since served in over 50
peacekeeping missions, including every UN peacekeeping effort until 1989,⁶⁷
and has since maintained forces in international missions in Rwanda, the
former Yugoslavia, and elsewhere; Canada has sometimes faced controversy
over its involvement in foreign countries, notably in the 1993 Somalia
Affair.¹⁵⁹

In 2001, Canada deployed troops to Afghanistan as part of the US
stabilization force and the UN-authorized, NATO-led International Security
Assistance Force.¹⁶⁰ In February 2007, Canada, Italy, the United Kingdom,
Norway, and Russia announced their joint commitment to a $1.5-billion
project to help develop vaccines for developing nations, and called on
other countries to join them.¹⁶¹ In August 2007, Canada's territorial
claims in the Arctic were challenged after a Russian underwater expedition
to the North Pole; Canada has considered that area to be sovereign
territory since 1925.¹⁶²

Canada currently employs a professional, volunteer military force of 92,000
active personnel and approximately 51,000 reserve personnel.¹⁶³ The unified
Canadian Forces (CF) comprise the Canadian Army, Royal Canadian Navy, and
Royal Canadian Air Force. In 2013, Canada's military expenditure totalled
approximately C$19 billion, or around 1% of the country's GDP.¹⁶⁴ ¹⁶⁵

Provinces and territories

Main article: Provinces and territories of Canada
See also: Canadian federalism

Canada is a federation composed of ten provinces and three territories. In
turn, these may be grouped into four main regions: Western Canada, Central
Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada (Eastern Canada refers to
Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together). Provinces have more autonomy
than territories, having responsibility for social programs such as health
care, education, and welfare.¹⁶⁶ Together, the provinces collect more
revenue than the federal government, an almost unique structure among
federations in the world. Using its spending powers, the federal government
can initiate national policies in provincial areas, such as the Canada
Health Act; the provinces can opt out of these, but rarely do so in
practice. Equalization payments are made by the federal government to
ensure that reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept
between the richer and poorer provinces.¹⁶⁷

A clickable map of Canada exhibiting its ten provinces and three
territories, and their capitals.

Economy

Main articles: Economy of Canada and Economic history of Canada

Canada is the world's eleventh-largest economy as of 2015, with a nominal
GDP of approximately US$1.79 trillion.¹⁶⁸ It is a member of the
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the Group
of Eight (G8), and is one of the world's top ten trading nations, with a
highly globalized economy.¹⁶⁹ ¹⁷⁰ Canada is a mixed economy, ranking above
the US and most western European nations on the Heritage Foundation's index
of economic freedom,¹⁷¹ and experiencing a relatively low level of income
disparity.¹⁷² The country's average household disposable income per capita
is over US$23,900, higher than the OECD average.¹⁷³ Furthermore, the
Toronto Stock Exchange is the seventh largest stock exchange in the world
by market capitalization, listing over 1,500 companies with a combined
market capitalization of over US$2 trillion as of 2015.¹⁷⁴

In 2014, Canada's exports totalled over C$528 billion, while its imported
goods were worth over $524 billion, of which approximately $351 billion
originated from the United States, $49 billion from the European Union, and
$35 billion from China.¹⁷⁵ The country's 2014 trade surplus totalled C$5.1
billion, compared with a C$46.9 billion surplus in 2008.¹⁷⁶ ¹⁷⁷

Since the early 20th century, the growth of Canada's manufacturing, mining,
and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy
to an urbanized, industrial one. Like many other developed nations, the
Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about
three-quarters of the country's workforce.¹⁷⁸ However, Canada is unusual
among developed countries in the importance of its primary sector, in which
the forestry and petroleum industries are two of the most prominent
components.¹⁷⁹

Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of
energy.¹⁸¹ Atlantic Canada possesses vast offshore deposits of natural gas,
and Alberta also hosts large oil and gas resources. The vastness of the
Athabasca oil sands and other assets results in Canada having a 13% share
of global oil reserves, comprising the world's third-largest share after
Venezuela and Saudi Arabia.¹⁸² Canada is additionally one of the world's
largest suppliers of agricultural products; the Canadian Prairies are one
of the most important global producers of wheat, canola, and other
grains.¹⁸³ Canada's Ministry of Natural Resources provides statistics
regarding its major exports; the country is a leading exporter of zinc,
uranium, gold, nickel, aluminum, steel, iron ore, coking coal and lead.¹⁸⁴
Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are
sustainable because of nearby mines or sources of timber. Canada also has a
sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with
automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important
industries.¹⁸⁵

Canada's economic integration with the United States has increased
significantly since World War II.¹⁸⁶ The Automotive Products Trade
Agreement of 1965 opened Canada's borders to trade in the automobile
manufacturing industry. In the 1970s, concerns over energy self-sufficiency
and foreign ownership in the manufacturing sectors prompted Prime Minister
Pierre Trudeau's Liberal government to enact the National Energy Program
(NEP) and the Foreign Investment Review Agency (FIRA).¹⁸⁷ In the 1980s,
Prime Minister Brian Mulroney's Progressive Conservatives abolished the NEP
and changed the name of FIRA to Investment Canada, to encourage foreign
investment.¹⁸⁸ The Canada – United States Free Trade Agreement (FTA) of
1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the North American
Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include Mexico
in 1994.¹⁸³ In the mid-1990s, Jean Chrétien's Liberal government began to
post annual budgetary surpluses, and steadily paid down the national
debt.¹⁸⁹

The global financial crisis of 2008 caused a major recession, which led to
a significant rise in unemployment in Canada.¹⁹⁰ By October 2009, Canada's
national unemployment rate had reached 8.6 percent, with provincial
unemployment rates varying from a low of 5.8 percent in Manitoba to a high
of 17 percent in Newfoundland and Labrador.¹⁹¹ Between October 2008 and
October 2010, the Canadian labour market lost 162,000 full-time jobs and a
total of 224,000 permanent jobs.¹⁹² Canada's federal debt was estimated to
total $566.7 billion for the fiscal year 2010–11, up from $463.7 billion in
2008–09.¹⁹³ In addition, Canada's net foreign debt rose by $41 billion to
$194 billion in the first quarter of 2010.¹⁹⁴ However, Canada's regulated
banking sector (comparatively conservative among G8 nations), the federal
government's pre-crisis budgetary surpluses, and its long-term policies of
lowering the national debt, resulted in a less severe recession compared to
other G8 nations.¹⁹⁵ As of 2015, the Canadian economy has largely
stabilized and has seen a modest return to growth, although the country
remains troubled by volatile oil prices, sensitivity to the Eurozone crisis
and higher-than-normal unemployment rates.¹⁹⁶ ¹⁹⁷ The federal government
and many Canadian industries have also started to expand trade with
emerging Asian markets, in an attempt to diversify exports; Asia is now
Canada's second-largest export market after the United States.¹⁹⁸ ¹⁹⁹
Widely debated oil pipeline proposals, in particular, are hoped to increase
exports of Canadian oil reserves to China.²⁰⁰ ²⁰¹

Science and technology

Main articles: Science and technology in Canada and Telecommunications in
Canada

In 2012, Canada spent approximately C$31.3 billion on domestic research and
development, of which around $7 billion was provided by the federal and
provincial governments.²⁰² As of 2015, the country has produced thirteen
Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry, and medicine,²⁰³ ²⁰⁴ and was ranked
fourth worldwide for scientific research quality in a major 2012 survey of
international scientists.²⁰⁵ It is furthermore home to the headquarters of
a number of global technology firms.²⁰⁶ Canada has one of the highest
levels of Internet access in the world, with over 33 million users,
equivalent to around 94 percent of its total 2014 population.²⁰⁷

The Canadian Space Agency operates a highly active space program,
conducting deep-space, planetary, and aviation research, and developing
rockets and satellites. Canada was the third country to launch a satellite
into space after the USSR and the United States, with the 1962 Alouette 1
launch.²⁰⁸ In 1984, Marc Garneau became Canada's first male astronaut.
Canada is a participant in the International Space Station (ISS), and is a
pioneer in space robotics, having constructed the Canadarm, Canadarm2 and
Dextre robotic manipulators for the ISS and NASA's Space Shuttle. Since the
1960s, Canada's aerospace industry has designed and built numerous marques
of satellite, including Radarsat-1 and 2, ISIS and MOST.²⁰⁹ Canada has also
produced one of the world's most successful and widely used sounding
rockets, the Black Brant; over 1,000 Black Brants have been launched since
the rocket's introduction in 1961.²¹⁰

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Canada

The 2016 Canadian census counted a total population of 35,151,728, an
increase of around 5.0 percent over the 2011 figure.²¹¹ ²¹² Between 1990
and 2008, the population increased by 5.6 million, equivalent to 20.4
percent overall growth.²¹³ The main drivers of population growth are
immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth.²¹⁴ Canada has one of
the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world,²¹⁵ driven mainly by
economic policy and, to a lesser extent family reunification.²¹⁶ ²¹⁷ The
Canadian public as-well as the major political parties support the current
level of immigration.²¹⁶ ²¹⁸ ²¹⁹ In 2010, a record 280,636 people
immigrated to Canada.²²⁰ The Canadian government anticipated between
280,000 and 305,000 new permanent residents in 2016,²²¹ a similar number of
immigrants as in recent years.²²² New immigrants settle mostly in major
urban areas such as Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver.²²³ Canada also accepts
large numbers of refugees,²²⁴ accounting for over 10 percent of annual
global refugee resettlements.²²⁵

About four-fifths of the population lives within 150 kilometres (93 mi) of
the contiguous United States border.²²⁶ Approximately 50 percent of
Canadians live in urban areas concentrated along the Quebec City–Windsor
Corridor,²²⁷ with an additional 30 percent living along the British
Columbia Lower Mainland, and the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor in Alberta.²²⁸
Canada spans latitudinally from the 83rd parallel north to the 41st
parallel north, and approximately 95% of the population is found below the
55th parallel north.²²⁷ In common with many other developed countries,
Canada is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population,
with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2006, the average
age was 39.5 years;²²⁹ by 2011, it had risen to approximately 39.9
years.²³⁰ As of 2013, the average life expectancy for Canadians is 81
years.²³¹ The majority of Canadians (69.9%) live in family households,
26.8% report living alone, and those living with unrelated persons reported
at 3.7%.²³² The average size of a household in 2006 was 2.5 people.²³²

Between 2011 and May 2016, Canada's population grew by 1.7 million people
with immigrants accounting for two-thirds of the increase. (The rest was
due to the difference between births and deaths).²³³

Education

Main article: Education in Canada

According to a 2012 report by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD), Canada is one of the most educated countries in the
world;²³⁴ the country ranks first worldwide in the number of adults having
tertiary education, with 51 percent of Canadian adults having attained at
least an undergraduate college or university degree.²³⁴ Canada spends about
5.3% of its GDP on education.²³⁵ The country invests heavily in tertiary
education (more than 20 000 USD per student).²³⁶ As of 2014, 89 percent of
adults aged 25 to 64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree,
compared to an OECD average of 75 percent.¹⁷³

Since the adoption of section 23 of the Constitution Act, 1982, education
in both English and French has been available in most places across
Canada.²³⁷ Canadian provinces and territories are responsible for education
provision.²³⁸ The mandatory school age ranges between 5–7 to 16–18
years,²³⁹ contributing to an adult literacy rate of 99 percent.¹⁰¹ In 2002,
43 percent of Canadians aged 25 to 64 possessed a post-secondary education;
for those aged 25 to 34, the rate of post-secondary education reached 51
percent.²⁴⁰ The Programme for International Student Assessment indicates
that Canadian students perform well above the OECD average, particularly in
mathematics, science, and reading.²⁴¹ ²⁴²

Ethnicity

Main article: Canadians

Self-reported ethnic origins of Canadians (as per 2011 census data)²

European (76.7%)
Asian (14.2%)
Aboriginal (4.3%)
Black (2.9%)
Latin American (1.2%)
Multiracial (0.5%)
Other (0.3%)

According to the 2006 census, the country's largest self-reported ethnic
origin is Canadian (accounting for 32% of the population), followed by
English (21%), French (15.8%), Scottish (15.1%), Irish (13.9%), German
(10.2%), Italian (4.6%), Chinese (4.3%), First Nations (4.0%), Ukrainian
(3.9%), and Dutch (3.3%).²⁴³ There are 600 recognized First Nations
governments or bands, encompassing a total of 1,172,790 people.²⁴⁴ Canada's
Aboriginal population is growing at almost twice the national rate, and
four percent of Canada's population claimed Aboriginal identity in 2006.
Another 16.2 percent of the population belonged to a non-Aboriginal visible
minority.²⁴⁵ In 2006, the largest visible minority groups were South Asian
(4.0%), Chinese (3.9%) and Black (2.5%). Between 2001 and 2006, the visible
minority population rose by 27.2 percent.²⁴⁶ In 1961, less than two percent
of Canada's population (about 300,000 people) were members of visible
minority groups.²⁴⁷ By 2007, almost one in five (19.8%) were foreign-born,
with nearly 60 percent of new immigrants coming from Asia (including the
Middle East).²⁴⁸ The leading sources of immigrants to Canada were China,
the Philippines and India.²⁴⁹ According to Statistics Canada, visible
minority groups could account for a third of the Canadian population by
2031.²⁵⁰

Religion

Main article: Religion in Canada

Canada is religiously diverse, encompassing a wide range of beliefs and
customs. Canada has no official church, and the government is officially
committed to religious pluralism.²⁵¹ Freedom of religion in Canada is a
constitutionally protected right, allowing individuals to assemble and
worship without limitation or interference.²⁵² The practice of religion is
now generally considered a private matter throughout society and the
state.²⁵³ With Christianity in decline after having once been central and
integral to Canadian culture and daily life,²⁵⁴ Canada has become a
post-Christian, secular state.²⁵⁵ ²⁵⁶ ²⁵⁷ ²⁵⁸ The majority of Canadians
consider religion to be unimportant in their daily lives,²⁵⁹ but still
believe in God.²⁶⁰ According to the 2011 census, 67.3% of Canadians
identify as Christian; of these, Roman Catholics make up the largest group,
accounting for 38.7% of the population. Much of the remainder is made up of
Protestants. The largest Protestant denomination is the United Church of
Canada (accounting for 6.1% of Canadians), followed by Anglicans (5.0%),
and Baptists (1.9%).³ Secularization has been growing since the 1960s.²⁶¹
²⁶² In 2011, 23.9% declared no religious affiliation, compared to 16.5% in
2001.²⁶³ The remaining 8.8% are affiliated with non-Christian religions,
the largest of which are Islam (3.2%) and Hinduism (1.5%).³

Languages

Main article: Languages of Canada

A multitude of languages are used by Canadians, with English and French
(the official languages) being the mother tongues of approximately 60% and
20% of Canadians respectively.²⁶⁵ Nearly 6.8 million Canadians listed a
non-official language as their mother tongue.²⁶⁶ Some of the most common
non-official first languages include Chinese (mainly Cantonese; 1,072,555
first-language speakers), Punjabi (430,705), Spanish (410,670), German
(409,200), and Italian (407,490).²⁶⁷ Canada's federal government practices
official bilingualism, which is applied by the Commissioner of Official
Languages in consonance with Section 16 of the Canadian Charter of Rights
and Freedoms and the Federal Official Languages Act English and French have
equal status in federal courts, parliament, and in all federal
institutions. Citizens have the right, where there is sufficient demand, to
receive federal government services in either English or French and
official-language minorities are guaranteed their own schools in all
provinces and territories.²⁶⁸

The 1977 Charter of the French Language established French as the official
language of Quebec.²⁶⁹ Although more than 85 percent of French-speaking
Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial Francophone populations in
New Brunswick, Alberta, and Manitoba; Ontario has the largest
French-speaking population outside Quebec.²⁷⁰ New Brunswick, the only
officially bilingual province, has a French-speaking Acadian minority
constituting 33 percent of the population.²⁷¹ There are also clusters of
Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and through
central and western Prince Edward Island.²⁷²

Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a
language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services, in
addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English
and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures, and laws are
enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status, but is
not fully co-official.²⁷³ There are 11 Aboriginal language groups, composed
of more than 65 distinct languages and dialects.²⁷⁴ Of these, only the
Cree, Inuktitut and Ojibway languages have a large enough population of
fluent speakers to be considered viable to survive in the long term.²⁷⁵
Several Aboriginal languages have official status in the Northwest
Territories.²⁷⁶ Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut, and is one
of three official languages in the territory.²⁷⁷

Additionally, Canada is home to many sign languages, two of which are
Indigenous. American Sign Language (ASL), is spoken across the country due
to the prevalence of ASL in primary and secondary schools.²⁷⁸ Quebec Sign
Language (LSQ), is spoken primarily in Quebec, however there are sizeable
population centres in francophone communities in New Brunswick, Ontario and
Manitoba; due to its historical relation to the francophone culture.²⁷⁹
Plains Sign Talk was the most widespread language in North America prior to
colonization, spoken across the Prairies by a number of First Nations.²⁸⁰
Inuit Uukturausingit is used by Inuit in Nunavut.²⁸¹ Maritime Sign Language
was used in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island before ASL
became available in the mid-20th century.²⁸²

Culture

Main article: Culture of Canada

Canada's culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent
nationalities, and policies that promote a "just society" are
constitutionally protected.²⁸³ ²⁸⁴ Canada has placed emphasis on equality
and inclusiveness for all its people.²⁸⁵ Multiculturalism is often cited as
one of Canada's significant accomplishments,²⁸⁶ and a key distinguishing
element of Canadian identity.²⁸⁷ ²⁸⁸ In Quebec, cultural identity is
strong, and many commentators speak of a culture of Quebec that is distinct
from English Canadian culture.²⁸⁹ However, as a whole, Canada is in theory
a cultural mosaic—a collection of several regional, Aboriginal, and ethnic
subcultures.²⁹⁰

Canada's approach to governance emphasizing multiculturalism, which is
based on selective immigration, social integration, and suppression of far
right politics, has wide public support.²⁹¹ Government policies such as
publicly funded health care, higher taxation to redistribute wealth, the
outlawing of capital punishment, strong efforts to eliminate poverty,
strict gun control, and the legalization of same-sex marriage are further
social indicators of Canada's political and cultural values.²⁹² ²⁹³
Canadians also identify with the country's health care institutions,
peacekeeping, the National park system and the Canadian Charter of Rights
and Freedoms.²⁸⁷ ²⁹⁴

Historically, Canada has been influenced by British, French, and Aboriginal
cultures and traditions. Through their language, art and music, Aboriginal
peoples continue to influence the Canadian identity.²⁹⁵ During the 20th
century Canadians with African, Caribbean and Asian nationalities have
added to the Canadian identity and its culture.²⁹⁶ Canadian humour is an
integral part of the Canadian Identity and is reflected in its folklore,
literature, music, art and media. The primary characteristics of Canadian
humour are irony, parody, and satire.²⁹⁷ Many Canadian comedians have
archived international success in the American TV and film industries and
are amongst the most recognized in the world.²⁹⁸

Canada has a well-developed media sector, but its cultural output;
particularly in English films, television shows, and magazines, is often
overshadowed by imports from the United States.²⁹⁹ As a result, the
preservation of a distinctly Canadian culture is supported by federal
government programs, laws, and institutions such as the Canadian
Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the National Film Board of Canada (NFB),
and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission
(CRTC).³⁰⁰

Symbols

Main article: National symbols of Canada

Canada's national symbols are influenced by natural, historical, and
Aboriginal sources. The use of the maple leaf as a Canadian symbol dates to
the early 18th century. The maple leaf is depicted on Canada's current and
previous flags, and on the Arms of Canada.³⁰² The Arms of Canada is closely
modelled after the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom with French and
distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the
British version.³⁰³ The Great Seal of Canada is a governmental seal used
for purposes of state, being set on letters patent, proclamations and
commissions, for representatives of the Queen and for the appointment of
cabinet ministers, lieutenant governors, senators, and judges.³⁰⁴ ³⁰⁵ Other
prominent symbols include the beaver, Canada goose, common loon, the Crown,
the Royal Canadian Mounted Police,³⁰² and more recently, the totem pole and
Inuksuk.³⁰⁶ Canadian coins feature many of these symbols: the loon on the
$1 coin, the Arms of Canada on the 50¢ piece, the beaver on the nickel.³⁰⁷
The penny, removed from circulation in 2013, featured the maple leaf.³⁰⁸
The Queen' s image appears on $20 bank notes, and on the obverse of all
current Canadian coins.³⁰⁷

Literature

Main article: Canadian literature

Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language
literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and
Britain, respectively.³⁰⁹ There are four major themes that can be found
within historical Canadian literature; nature, frontier life, Canada's
position within the world, all three of which tie into the garrison
mentality.³¹⁰ By the 1990s, Canadian literature was viewed as some of the
world's best.³¹¹ Canada's ethnic and cultural diversity are reflected in
its literature, with many of its most prominent modern writers focusing on
ethnic life.³¹² Arguably, the best-known living Canadian writer
internationally (especially since the deaths of Robertson Davies and
Mordecai Richler) is Margaret Atwood, a prolific novelist, poet, and
literary critic.³¹³ Numerous other Canadian authors have accumulated
international literary awards;³¹⁴ including Nobel Laureate Alice Munro, who
has been called the best living writer of short stories in English;³¹⁵ and
Booker Prize recipient Michael Ondaatje, who is perhaps best known for the
novel The English Patient, which was adapted as a film of the same name
that won the Academy Award for Best Picture.³¹⁶

Visual arts

Main article: Canadian art

Canadian visual art has been dominated by figures such as Tom Thomson – the
country's most famous painter – and by the Group of Seven.³¹⁷ Thomson's
career painting Canadian landscapes spanned a decade up to his death in
1917 at age 39.³¹⁸ The Group were painters with a nationalistic and
idealistic focus, who first exhibited their distinctive works in May 1920.
Though referred to as having seven members, five artists—Lawren Harris, A.
Y. Jackson, Arthur Lismer, J. E. H. MacDonald, and Frederick Varley—were
responsible for articulating the Group's ideas. They were joined briefly by
Frank Johnston, and by commercial artist Franklin Carmichael. A. J. Casson
became part of the Group in 1926.³¹⁹ Associated with the Group was another
prominent Canadian artist, Emily Carr, known for her landscapes and
portrayals of the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast.³²⁰
Since the 1950s, works of Inuit art have been given as gifts to foreign
dignitaries by the Canadian government.³²¹

Music

Main article: Music of Canada

The Canadian music industry is the sixth largest in the world producing
internationally renowned composers, musicians and ensembles.³²² Music
broadcasting in the country is regulated by the CRTC.³²³ The Canadian
Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences presents Canada's music industry
awards, the Juno Awards, which were first awarded in 1970.³²⁴ The Canadian
Music Hall of Fame established in 1976 honours Canadian musicians for their
lifetime achievements.³²⁵ Patriotic music in Canada dates back over 200
years as a distinct category from British patriotism, preceding the first
legal steps to independence by over 50 years. The earliest, The Bold
Canadian, was written in 1812.³²⁶ The national anthem of Canada, "O
Canada", was originally commissioned by the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec,
the Honourable Théodore Robitaille, for the 1880 St. Jean-Baptiste Day
ceremony, and was officially adopted in 1980.³²⁷ Calixa Lavallée wrote the
music, which was a setting of a patriotic poem composed by the poet and
judge Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier. The text was originally only in French,
before it was translated to English in 1906.³²⁸

Sport

Main articles: Sport in Canada and History of Canadian sports

The roots of organized sports in Canada date back to the 1770s.³²⁹ Canada's
official national sports are ice hockey and lacrosse.³³⁰ Canada's
franchises in the National Hockey League (NHL) in – Vancouver, Calgary,
Edmonton, Winnipeg, Toronto, Ottawa, and Montreal – while Quebec City had
the Quebec Nordiques until they relocated to Colorado in 1995. Canada does
have one Major League Baseball team, one professional basketball team,
three Major League Soccer teams and four National Lacrosse League teams.
Other popular and professional sports in Canada include Canadian football,
which is played professionally in the Canadian Football League (CFL), and
curling. A single rugby league team, the Toronto Wolfpack plays in League
One.

Canada has participated in almost every Olympic Games since its Olympic
debut in 1900, and has hosted several high-profile international sporting
events, including the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, the 1988 Winter
Olympics in Calgary, the 1994 Basketball World Championship, the 2007 FIFA
U-20 World Cup, the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver and Whistler, British
Columbia and the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup.³³¹ Golf, tennis, skiing,
badminton, volleyball, cycling, swimming, bowling, rugby union, canoeing,
equestrian, squash and the study of martial arts are widely enjoyed at the
youth and amateur levels.³³²

See also

- Index of Canada-related articles
- Outline of Canada
- Topics by provinces and territories
- Canada – Wikipedia book

References

[1] D. Michael Jackson (2013). The Crown and Canadian Federalism. Dundurn.
  p. 199. ISBN 978-1-4597-0989-8.
[2] "National Household Survey Profile". Statistics Canada. 2011. Retrieved
  February 13, 2015.
[3] "Religions in Canada—Census 2011". Statistics Canada/Statistique
  Canada.
[4] Hail, M; Lange, S (February 25, 2010). "Federalism and Representation
  in the Theory of the Founding Fathers: A Comparative Study of US and
  Canadian Constitutional Thought". Publius: the Journal of Federalism. 40
  (3): 366–388. doi:10.1093/publius/pjq001.
[5] Statistics Canada (February 8, 2017). "Population size and growth in
  Canada: Key results from the 2016 Census". Retrieved February 8, 2017.
[6] International Monetary Fund. "Report for Selected Countries and
  Subjects: Canada". Retrieved August 13, 2016.
[7] "World Economic Outlook Database". International Monetary Fund. October
  2016.
[8] "GINI index". The World Bank. Retrieved October 23, 2014.
[9] "Country Comparison: Distribution 0f Family Income – Gini Index". World
  Factbook. CIA. Retrieved February 8, 2016.
[10] "Human development report" (PDF). UNDP. 2015. Retrieved December 14,
  2015.
[11] "Annual Report on the Operation of the Canadian Multiculturalism Act –
  2014-2015 - Building a diverse and inclusive society Canada". cic.gc.ca.
[12] "Global Peace Index 2016" (PDF). economicsandpeace.org.
[13] "How Canada compares economically with other countries".
  ottawacitizen.com.
[14] "Canada Military Strength". globalfirepower.com.
[15] James Stuart Olson; Robert Shadle (1991). Historical Dictionary of
  European Imperialism. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 109. ISBN
  978-0-313-26257-9.
[16] Alan Rayburn (2001). Naming Canada: Stories about Canadian Place
  Names. University of Toronto Press. pp. 14–22. ISBN 978-0-8020-8293-0.
[17] Paul R. Magocsi (1999). Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples. University
  of Toronto Press. p. 1048. ISBN 978-0-8020-2938-6.
[18] Victoria (1841), An Act to Re-write the Provinces of Upper and Lower
  Canada, and for the Government of Canada, J.C. Fisher & W. Kimble, p. 20
[19] O'Toole, Roger (2009). "Dominion of the Gods: Religious continuity and
  change in a Canadian context". In Hvithamar, Annika; Warburg, Margit;
  Jacobsen, Brian Arly. Holy nations and global identities: civil religion,
  nationalism, and globalisation. Brill. p. 137. ISBN 978-90-04-17828-1.
[20] Buckner, Philip, ed. (2008). Canada and the British Empire. Oxford
  University Press. pp. 37–40, 56–59, 114, 124–125. ISBN 978-0-19-927164-1.
[21] John Courtney; David Smith (2010). The Oxford Handbook of Canadian
  Politics. Oxford Handbooks Online. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-19-533535-4.
[22] Christoph Beat Graber; Karolina Kuprecht; Jessica C. Lai (2012).
  International Trade in Indigenous Cultural Heritage: Legal and Policy
  Issues. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 366. ISBN 978-0-85793-831-2.
[23] Thomas D. Dillehay (2008). The Settlement of the Americas: A New
  Prehistory. Basic Books. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-7867-2543-4.
[24] Alfred J. Andrea; Kevin McGeough; William E. Mierse (2011). World
  History Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 99. ISBN 978-1-85109-929-0.
Jacques Cinq-Mars (2001). "The Significance of the Bluefish Caves in
  Beringian Prehistory". Hull: Canadian Museum of Civilization. Retrieved
  March 3, 2015.
Laurel Sefton MacDowell (2012). An Environmental History of Canada. UBC
  Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-7748-2104-9.
Guy Gugliotta (February 2013). "When Did Humans Come to the Americas?".
  Smithsonian Magazine. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved
  June 25, 2015.
[25] Center for Archaeological Sciences Norman Herz Professor of Geology
  and Director; Society of Archaelogical Sciences both at University of
  Georgia Ervan G. Garrison Associate Professor of Anthropology and Geology
  and President (1997). Geological Methods for Archaeology. Oxford
  University Press. p. 125. ISBN 978-0-19-802511-5.
[26] "Bluefish Caves". SFU Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology. 2005.
[27] Hayes, Derek (2008). Canada: an illustrated history. Douglas &
  Mcintyre. pp. 7, 13. ISBN 978-1-55365-259-5.
[28] Macklem, Patrick (2001). Indigenous difference and the Constitution of
  Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-8020-4195-1.
[29] Sonneborn, Liz (January 2007). Chronology of American Indian History.
  Infobase Publishing. pp. 2–12. ISBN 978-0-8160-6770-1.
[30] Wilson, Donna M; Northcott, Herbert C (2008). Dying and Death in
  Canada. University of Toronto Press. pp. 25–27. ISBN 978-1-55111-873-4.
[31] Thornton, Russell (2000). "Population history of Native North
  Americans". In Haines, Michael R; Steckel, Richard Hall. A population
  history of North America. Cambridge University Press. pp. 13, 380. ISBN
  978-0-521-49666-7.
[32] O'Donnell, C. Vivian (2008). "Native Populations of Canada". In
  Bailey, Garrick Alan. Indians In Contemporary Society. Handbook of North
  American Indians. 2. Government Printing Office. p. 285. ISBN
  978-0-16-080388-8.
[33] True Peters, Stephanie (2005). Smallpox in the New World. Marshall
  Cavendish. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-7614-1637-1.
[34] Preston, David L. (2009). The Texture of Contact: European and Indian
  Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783. U of
  Nebraska Press. pp. 43–44. ISBN 978-0-8032-2549-7.
[35] Tanner, Adrian (1999). "3. Innu-Inuit 'Warfare'". Innu Culture.
  Department of Anthropology, Memorial University of Newfoundland.
  Retrieved March 8, 2017.
[36] Asch, Michael (1997). Aboriginal and Treaty Rights in Canada: Essays
  on Law, Equity, and Respect for Difference. UBC Pres. p. 28. ISBN
  978-0-7748-0581-0.
[37] Kirmayer, Laurence J.; Guthriefirst2=Gail Valaskakis (2009). Healing
  Traditions: The Mental Health of Aboriginal Peoples in Canada. UBC Press.
  p. 9. ISBN 978-0-7748-5863-2.
[38] "Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada: Calls to Action"
  (PDF). Trc.ca. National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation. 2015. p. 5.
[39] Reeves, Arthur Middleton (2009). The Norse Discovery of America.
  BiblioLife. p. 82. ISBN 978-0-559-05400-6.
[40] The Canadian Encyclopedia (July 1, 2008). "John Cabot". Historica
  Canada. Retrieved January 20, 2014.
[41] "John Cabot's voyage of 1497". Memorial University of Newfoundland.
  2000. Retrieved March 8, 2017.
[42] Hornsby, Stephen J (2005). British Atlantic, American frontier: spaces
  of power in early modern British America. University Press of New
  England. pp. 14, 18–19, 22–23. ISBN 978-1-58465-427-8.
[43] Cartier, Jacques; Biggar, Henry Percival; Cook, Ramsay (1993). The
  Voyages of Jacques Cartier. University of Toronto Press. p. 26. ISBN
  978-0-8020-6000-6.
[44] Baten, Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the
  Present. Cambridge University Press. p. 84. ISBN 9781107507180.
[45] Rose, George A (October 1, 2007). Cod: The Ecological History of the
  North Atlantic Fisheries. Breakwater Books. p. 209. ISBN
  978-1-55081-225-1.
[46] Ninette Kelley; Michael J. Trebilcock (September 30, 2010). The Making
  of the Mosaic: A History of Canadian Immigration Policy. University of
  Toronto Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-8020-9536-7.
[47] Howard Roberts LaMar (1977). The Reader's Encyclopedia of the American
  West. University of Michigan. p. 355. ISBN 978-0-690-00008-5.
[48] Tucker, Spencer C; Arnold, James; Wiener, Roberta (September 30,
  2011). The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A
  Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. p. 394. ISBN
  978-1-85109-697-8.
[49] Phillip Alfred Buckner; John G. Reid (1994). The Atlantic Region to
  Confederation: A History. University of Toronto Press. pp. 55–56. ISBN
  978-0-8020-6977-1.
[50] Nolan, Cathal J (2008). Wars of the age of Louis XIV, 1650–1715: an
  encyclopedia of global warfare and civilization. ABC-CLIO. p. 160. ISBN
  978-0-313-33046-9.
[51] Allaire, Gratien (May 2007). "From "Nouvelle-France" to "Francophonie
  canadienne": a historical survey". International Journal of the Sociology
  of Language. 2007 (185): 25–52. doi:10.1515/IJSL.2007.024.
[52] Hicks, Bruce M (March 2010). "Use of Non-Traditional Evidence: A Case
  Study Using Heraldry to Examine Competing Theories for Canada's
  Confederation". British Journal of Canadian Studies. 23 (1): 87–117.
  doi:10.3828/bjcs.2010.5.
[53] Eric Nellis (2010). An Empire of Regions: A Brief History of Colonial
  British America. University of Toronto Press – University of British
  Columbia. p. 331. ISBN 978-1-4426-0403-2.
[54] Todd Leahy; Raymond Wilson (September 30, 2009). Native American
  Movements. Scarecrow Press. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-8108-6892-2.
[55] McNairn, Jeffrey L (2000). The capacity to judge. University of
  Toronto Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-8020-4360-3.
[56] Richard Colebrook Harris; et al. (1987). Historical Atlas of Canada:
  The land transformed, 1800–1891. U of Toronto Press. p. 21.
[57] "The Irish Emigration of 1847 and Its Canadian Consequences".
  cchahistory.ca.
[58] Romney, Paul (Spring 1989). "From Constitutionalism to Legalism: Trial
  by Jury, Responsible Government, and the Rule of Law in the Canadian
  Political Culture". Law and History Review. University of Illinois Press.
  7 (1): 128. doi:10.2307/743779.
[59] Evenden, Leonard J; Turbeville, Daniel E (1992). "The Pacific Coast
  Borderland and Frontier". In Janelle, Donald G. Geographical snapshots of
  North America. Guilford Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-89862-030-6.
[60] Dijkink, Gertjan; Knippenberg, Hans (2001). The Territorial Factor:
  Political Geography in a Globalising World. Amsterdam University Press.
  p. 226. ISBN 978-90-5629-188-4.
[61] Bothwell, Robert (1996). History of Canada Since 1867. Michigan State
  University Press. pp. 31, 207–310. ISBN 978-0-87013-399-2.
[62] Bumsted, JM (1996). The Red River Rebellion. Watson & Dwyer. ISBN
  978-0-920486-23-8.
[63] "Building a nation". Canadian Atlas. Canadian Geographic. Archived
  from the original on March 3, 2006. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
[64] "Sir John A. Macdonald". Library and Archives Canada. 2008. Retrieved
  May 23, 2011.
[65] Cook, Terry (2000). "The Canadian West: An Archival Odyssey through
  the Records of the Department of the Interior". The Archivist. Library
  and Archives Canada. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
[66] Tennyson, Brian Douglas (2014). Canada's Great War, 1914–1918: How
  Canada Helped Save the British Empire and Became a North American Nation.
  Scarecrow Press (Cape Breton University). p. 4. ISBN 978-0-8108-8860-9.
[67] Morton, Desmond (1999). A military history of Canada (4th ed.).
  McClelland & Stewart. pp. 130–158, 173, 203–233, 258. ISBN
  978-0-7710-6514-9.
[68] Granatstein, J. L. (2004). Canada's Army: Waging War and Keeping the
  Peace. University of Toronto Press. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-8020-8696-9.
[69] McGonigal, Richard Morton (1962). The Conscription Crisis in Quebec –
  1917: a Study in Canadian Dualism. Harvard University. p. Intro.
[70] Bryce, Robert B. (June 1, 1986). Maturing in Hard Times: Canada's
  Department of Finance through the Great Depression. McGill-Queens. p. 41.
  ISBN 978-0-7735-0555-1.
[71] Mulvale, James P (July 11, 2008). "Basic Income and the Canadian
  Welfare State: Exploring the Realms of Possibility". Basic Income
  Studies. 3 (1). doi:10.2202/1932-0183.1084.
[72] Humphreys, Edward (2013). Great Canadian Battles: Heroism and Courage
  Through the Years. Arcturus Publishing. p. 151. ISBN 978-1-78404-098-7.
[73] Goddard, Lance (2005). Canada and the Liberation of the Netherlands.
  Dundurn Press. pp. 225–232. ISBN 978-1-55002-547-7.
[74] Bothwell, Robert (2007). Alliance and illusion: Canada and the world,
  1945–1984. UBC Press. pp. 11, 31. ISBN 978-0-7748-1368-6.
[75] Boyer, J. Patrick (1996). Direct Democracy in Canada: The History and
  Future of Referendums. Dundurn. p. 119. ISBN 978-1-4597-1884-5.
[76] Mackey, Eva (2002). The house of difference: cultural politics and
  national identity in Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 57. ISBN
  978-0-8020-8481-1.
[77] Landry, Rodrigue; Forgues, Éric (May 2007). "Official language
  minorities in Canada: an introduction". International Journal of the
  Sociology of Language. 2007 (185): 1–9. doi:10.1515/IJSL.2007.022.
[78] Esses, Victoria M; Gardner, RC (July 1996). "Multiculturalism in
  Canada: Context and current status". Canadian Journal of Behavioural
  Science. 28 (3): 145–152. doi:10.1037/h0084934.
[79] Sarrouh, Elissar (January 22, 2002). "Social Policies in Canada: A
  Model for Development" (PDF). Social Policy Series, No. 1. United
  Nations. pp. 14–16, 22–37. Archived from the original (PDF) on February
  1, 2010. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
[80] "Proclamation of the Constitution Act, 1982". Canada.ca. Government of
  Canada. May 5, 2014. Retrieved February 10, 2017.
[81] "A statute worth 75 cheers". Globe and Mail. Toronto. March 17, 2009.
  Retrieved February 10, 2017.
[82] Couture, Christa (January 1, 2017). "Canada is celebrating 150 years
  of… what, exactly?". CBC. CBC. Retrieved February 10, 2017. ... the
  Constitution Act itself cleaned up a bit of unfinished business from the
  Statute of Westminster in 1931, in which Britain granted each of the
  Dominions full legal autonomy if they chose to accept it. All but one
  Dominion — that would be us, Canada — chose to accept every resolution.
  Our leaders couldn't decide on how to amend the Constitution, so that
  power stayed with Britain until 1982.
[83] Trepanier, Peter (2004). "Some Visual Aspects of the Monarchical
  Tradition" (PDF). Canadian Parliamentary Review. Canadian Parliamentary
  Review. Retrieved February 10, 2017.
[84] Bickerton, James; Gagnon, Alain, eds. (2004). Canadian Politics (4th
  ed.). Broadview Press. pp. 250–254, 344–347. ISBN 978-1-55111-595-5.
[85] Légaré, André (2008). "Canada's Experiment with Aboriginal
  Self-Determination in Nunavut: From Vision to Illusion". International
  Journal on Minority and Group Rights. 15 (2–3): 335–367.
  doi:10.1163/157181108X332659.
[86] Munroe, HD (2009). "The October Crisis Revisited: Counterterrorism as
  Strategic Choice, Political Result, and Organizational Practice".
  Terrorism and Political Violence. 21 (2): 288–305.
  doi:10.1080/09546550902765623.
[87] Sorens, J (December 2004). "Globalization, secessionism, and
  autonomy". Electoral Studies. 23 (4): 727–752.
  doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2003.10.003.
[88] Leblanc, Daniel (August 13, 2010). "A brief history of the Bloc
  Québécois". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved November 25, 2010.
[89] Betz, Hans-Georg; Immerfall, Stefan (1998). The new politics of the
  Right: neo-Populist parties and movements in established democracies. St.
  Martinʼs Press. p. 173. ISBN 978-0-312-21134-9.
[90] Schmid, Carol L. (2001). The Politics of Language : Conflict,
  Identity, and Cultural Pluralism in Comparative Perspective: Conflict,
  Identity, and Cultural Pluralism in Comparative Perspective. Oxford
  University Press. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-19-803150-5.
[91] "Commission of Inquiry into the Investigation of the Bombing of Air
  India Flight 182". Government of Canada. Archived from the original on
  June 22, 2008. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
[92] Sourour, Teresa K (1991). "Report of Coroner's Investigation" (PDF).
  Retrieved March 8, 2017.
[93] "The Oka Crisis". CBC. 2000. Archived from the original (Digital
  Archives) on August 21, 2011. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
[94] Roach, Kent (2003). September 11: consequences for Canada.
  McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 15, 59–61, 194. ISBN
  978-0-7735-2584-9.
[95] Cohen, Lenard J.; Moens, Alexander (1999). "Learning the lessons of
  UNPROFOR: Canadian peacekeeping in the former Yugoslavia". Canadian
  Foreign Policy Journal. 6 (2): 85–100. doi:10.1080/11926422.1999.9673175.
[96] Jockel, Joseph T; Sokolsky, Joel B (2008). "Canada and the war in
  Afghanistan: NATO's odd man out steps forward". Journal of Transatlantic
  Studies. 6 (1): 100–115. doi:10.1080/14794010801917212.
[97] "Canada Recession: Global Recovery Still Fragile 3 Years On".
  Huffington Post. July 22, 2012. Retrieved September 1, 2012.
[98] "Canadian economy showing signs of wider recovery, Stephen Poloz
  says". Toronto Star. December 3, 2014. Retrieved March 8, 2017.
[99] Aidan Hehir; Robert Murray (2013). Libya, the Responsibility to
  Protect and the Future of Humanitarian Intervention. Palgrave Macmillan.
  p. 88. ISBN 978-1-137-27396-3.
[100] Thomas Juneau (2015). "Canada's Policy to Confront the Islamic
  State". Canadian Global Affairs Institute. Retrieved December 10, 2015.
[101] "Canada". World Factbook. CIA. May 16, 2006. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
[102] Robert A. Battram (2010). Canada in Crisis: An Agenda for Survival of
  the Nation. Trafford Publishing. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-4269-3393-6.
[103] Canadian Geographic. Royal Canadian Geographical Society. 2008. p.
  20.
[104] "Geography". www.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved March 4, 2016.
[105] "The Boundary". International Boundary Commission. 1985. Archived
  from the original on August 1, 2008. Retrieved May 17, 2012.
[106] National Atlas of Canada. Natural Resources Canada. 2005. p. 1. ISBN
  978-0-7705-1198-2.
[107] Bailey, William G; Oke, TR; Rouse, Wayne R (1997). The surface
  climates of Canada. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 124. ISBN
  978-0-7735-1672-4.
[108] "The Atlas of Canada – Physical Components of Watersheds". December
  5, 2012. Archived from the original on December 5, 2012. Retrieved March
  4, 2016.
[109] Etkin, David; Haque, CE; Brooks, Gregory R (April 30, 2003). An
  Assessment of Natural Hazards and Disasters in Canada. Springer. pp. 569,
  582, 583. ISBN 978-1-4020-1179-5.
[110] Jessop, A. Geological Survey of Canada, Open File 5906. Natural
  Resources Canada. pp. 18–. GGKEY:6DLTQFWQ9HG.
[111] Peter H. McMurry; Marjorie F. Shepherd; James S. Vickery (2004).
  Particulate Matter Science for Policy Makers: A NARSTO Assessment.
  Cambridge University Press. p. 391. ISBN 978-0-521-84287-7.
[112] The Weather Network. "Statistics, Regina SK". Archived from the
  original on January 5, 2009. Retrieved January 18, 2010.
[113] "Regina International Airport". Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010.
  Environment Canada. Retrieved May 12, 2015.
[114] Queen Victoria (March 29, 1867). "Constitution Act, 1867: Preamble".
  Queen's Printer. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
[115] Smith, David E (June 10, 2010). "The Crown and the Constitution:
  Sustaining Democracy?" (PDF). The Crown in Canada: Present Realities and
  Future Options. Queen's University. p. 6. Archived from the original
  (PDF) on June 17, 2010. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
[116] MacLeod, Kevin S (2012). A Crown of Maples (PDF) (2nd ed.). Queen's
  Printer for Canada. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-662-46012-1. Retrieved March 8,
  2017.
[117] "The Governor General of Canada: Roles and Responsibilities". Queen's
  Printer. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
[118] Commonwealth public administration reform 2004. Commonwealth
  Secretariat. 2004. pp. 54–55. ISBN 978-0-11-703249-1.
[119] Forsey, Eugene (2005). How Canadians Govern Themselves (PDF) (6th
  ed.). Queen's Printer. pp. 1, 16, 26. ISBN 978-0-662-39689-5. Archived
  from the original (PDF) on January 15, 2011. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
[120] Marleau, Robert; Montpetit, Camille. "House of Commons Procedure and
  Practice: Parliamentary Institutions". Queen's Printer. Archived from the
  original on August 28, 2011. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
[121] "'A cabinet that looks like Canada:' Justin Trudeau pledges
  government built on trust". thestar.com. November 4, 2015.
[122] Johnson, David (2006). Thinking government: public sector management
  in Canada (2nd ed.). University of Toronto Press. pp. 134–135, 149. ISBN
  978-1-55111-779-9.
[123] "The Opposition in a Parliamentary System". Library of Parliament.
  Archived from the original on November 25, 2010. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
[124] "About Elections and Ridings". Retrieved September 3, 2016.
[125] O'Neal, Brian; Bédard, Michel; Spano, Sebastian (April 11, 2011).
  "Government and Canada's 41st Parliament: Questions and Answers". Library
  of Parliament. Archived from the original on May 22, 2011. Retrieved June
  2, 2011.
[126] Ann L. Griffiths; Karl Nerenberg (2003). Handbook of Federal
  Countries. McGill-Queen's Press. p. 116. ISBN 978-0-7735-7047-4.
[127] "Difference between Canadian Provinces and Territories".
  Intergovernmental Affairs Canada. 2010. Retrieved November 23, 2015.
[128] "Differences from Provincial Governments". Legislative Assembly of
  the Northwest Territories. 2008. Retrieved January 30, 2014.
[129] "About". Statistics Canada. 2014. Retrieved March 8, 2017.
[130] Emily Gilbert; Eric Helleiner (2003). Nation-States and Money: The
  Past, Present and Future of National Currencies. Routledge. p. 39. ISBN
  978-1-134-65817-6.
[131] George S. Cuhaj; Thomas Michael (2011). Coins of the World: Canada.
  Krause Publications. p. 4. ISBN 1-4402-3129-X.
[132] Bakan, Joel; Elliot, Robin M (2003). Canadian Constitutional Law.
  Emond Montgomery Publications. pp. 3–8, 683–687, 699. ISBN
  978-1-55239-085-6.
[133] Patterson, Lisa Lynne (2004). "Aboriginal roundtable on Kelowna
  Accord: Aboriginal policy negotiations 2004–2006" (PDF). 1. Parliamentary
  Information and Research Service, Library of Parliament: 3. Retrieved
  October 23, 2014.
[134] "Treaty areas". Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat. October 7,
  2002. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
[135] Gary Brent Madison (2000). Is There a Canadian Philosophy?:
  Reflections on the Canadian Identity. University of Ottawa Press. p. 128.
  ISBN 978-0-7766-0514-2.
[136] McCormick, Peter (2000). Supreme at last: the evolution of the
  Supreme Court of Canada. James Lorimer & Company Ltd. pp. 2, 86, 154.
  ISBN 978-1-55028-692-2.
[137] Richard Yates; Penny Bain; Ruth Yates (2000). Introduction to law in
  Canada. Prentice Hall Allyn and Bacon Canada. p. 93. ISBN
  978-0-13-792862-0.
[138] Sworden, Philip James (2006). An introduction to Canadian law. Emond
  Montgomery Publications. pp. 22, 150. ISBN 978-1-55239-145-7.
[139] "Ontario Provincial Police". OPP official website. 2009. Retrieved
  October 24, 2012.
[140] Royal Canadian Mounted Police. "Keeping Canada and Our Communities
  Safe and Secure" (PDF). Queen's Printer. Archived from the original (PDF)
  on July 6, 2011. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
[141] "Prime Minister Justin Trudeau meets U.S. President Donald Trump".
  CBC/Radio-Canada. February 13, 2017.
[142] Adam Chapnick (2011). The Middle Power Project: Canada and the
  Founding of the United Nations. UBC Press. pp. 2–5. ISBN
  978-0-7748-4049-1.
[143] Allen Sens; Peter Stoett (2013). Global Politics 5e. Nelson
  Education. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-17-648249-7.
[144] Richard Sobel; Eric Shiraev; Robert Shapiro (2002). International
  Public Opinion and the Bosnia Crisis. Lexington Books. p. 21. ISBN
  978-0-7391-0480-4.
[145] "Millennium Development Goals: A sprint to 2015 and the way forward
  –". Canadian Government Executive. 2014. Retrieved November 12, 2016.
[146] "International Organizations and Forums". Foreign Affairs, Trade and
  Development Canada. 2013. Retrieved March 3, 2014.
[147] Dominique Clément (2016). Human Rights in Canada: A History. Wilfrid
  Laurier University Press. p. 98. ISBN 978-1-77112-164-4.
[148] Peter McKenna (2012). Canada Looks South: In Search of an Americas
  Policy. University of Toronto Press. p. 91. ISBN 978-1-4426-1108-5.
[149] Ibp Usa. Canada Intelligence, Security Activities and Operations
  Handbook Volume 1 Intelligence Service Organizations, Regulations,
  Activities. Int'l Business Publications. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-7397-1615-1.
[150] Haglung, David G (Autumn 2003). "North American Cooperation in an Era
  of Homeland Security". Orbis. Foreign Policy Research Institute. 47 (4):
  675–691. doi:10.1016/S0030-4387(03)00072-3.
[151] "Canada". United States Department of State. 2014. Retrieved February
  13, 2015.
[152] James Bickerton; Alain-G. Gagnon (2014). Canadian Politics: Sixth
  Edition. University of Toronto Press. p. 423. ISBN 978-1-4426-0703-3.
[153] James, Patrick (2006). Michaud, Nelson; O'Reilly, Marc J, eds.
  Handbook of Canadian Foreign Policy. Lexington Books. pp. 213–214,
  349–362. ISBN 978-0-7391-1493-3.
[154] Teigrob, Robert (September 2010). "'Which Kind of Imperialism?' Early
  Cold War Decolonization and Canada–US Relations". Canadian Review of
  American Studies. 37 (3): 403–430. doi:10.3138/cras.37.3.403.
[155] Canada's international policy statement: a role of pride and
  influence in the world. Government of Canada. 2005. ISBN
  978-0-662-68608-8.
[156] Finkel, Alvin (1997). Our lives: Canada after 1945. Lorimer. pp.
  105–107, 111–116. ISBN 978-1-55028-551-2.
[157] Holloway, Steven Kendall (2006). Canadian foreign policy: defining
  the national interest. University of Toronto Press. pp. 102–103. ISBN
  978-1-55111-816-1.
[158] Terry M. Mays (December 16, 2010). Historical Dictionary of
  Multinational Peacekeeping. Scarecrow Press. pp. 218–. ISBN
  978-0-8108-7516-6.
[159] Farnsworth, Clyde H (November 27, 1994). "Torture by Army
  Peacekeepers in Somalia Shocks Canada". The New York Times. Retrieved May
  23, 2011.
[160] Jerome Klassen; Greg Albo (January 10, 2013). Empire's Ally: Canada
  and the War in Afghanistan. University of Toronto Press. pp. 3–. ISBN
  978-1-4426-6496-8.
[161] Vagnoni, Giselda (February 5, 2007). "Rich nations to sign $1.5 bln
  vaccine pact in Italy". Reuters. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
[162] Blomfield, Adrian (August 3, 2007). "Russia claims North Pole with
  Arctic flag stunt". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
[163] "Military Strength of Canada". Global Firepower. March 27, 2014.
  Retrieved January 25, 2015.
[164] "Canadian military spending by the numbers". Ottawa Citizen.
  September 3, 2014. Retrieved January 25, 2015.
[165] "Military expenditure of Canada". SIPRI. 2011. Retrieved May 3, 2012.
[166] G. Bruce Doern; Allan M. Maslove; Michael J. Prince (2013). Canadian
  Public Budgeting in the Age of Crises: Shifting Budgetary Domains and
  Temporal Budgeting. MQUP. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-7735-8853-0.
[167] Jason Clemens; Niels Veldhuis (2012). Beyond Equalization: Examining
  Fiscal Transfers in a Broader Context. The Fraser Institute. p. 8. ISBN
  978-0-88975-215-3.
[168] "Report for selected Country – Canada". International Monetary Fund.
  2015. Retrieved May 22, 2015.
[169] "Latest release". World Trade Organization. April 17, 2008. Retrieved
  May 23, 2011.
[170] "Index of Globalization 2010". KOF. Retrieved May 22, 2012.
[171] "Index of Economic Freedom". Heritage Foundation/Wall Street Journal.
  2013. Retrieved June 27, 2013.
[172] "Jonathan Kay: The key to Canada's economic advantage over the United
  States? Less income inequality". National Post. December 13, 2012.
  Retrieved December 14, 2012.
[173] "Canada". OECD Better Life Index. OECD. 2014. Retrieved February 13,
  2015.
[174] "TMX Group Equity Financing Statistics – September 2014". TMX.
  September 2014. Retrieved February 7, 2015.
[175] "Imports, exports and trade balance of goods on a balance-of-payments
  basis, by country or country grouping". Statistics Canada. 2014.
  Retrieved February 1, 2017.
[176] Grant, Tavia (February 10, 2010). "Canada has first yearly trade
  deficit since 1975". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
[177] "Canada's Trade Deficit Widens". Wall Street Journal. February 7,
  2015.
[178] "Employment by Industry". Statistics Canada. January 8, 2009.
  Retrieved May 23, 2011.
[179] Easterbrook, WT (March 1995). "Recent Contributions to Economic
  History: Canada". Journal of Economic History. 19: 98.
[180] Center for International Studies (2014). "What did Canada export in
  2014?". Harvard Kennedy School. Retrieved January 19, 2016.
[181] Brown, Charles E (2002). World energy resources. Springer. pp. 323,
  378–389. ISBN 978-3-540-42634-9.
[182] "World proven crude oil reserves by country, 1960–2011". Organization
  of the Petroleum Exporting Countries. 2012. Oil & Gas Journal's oil
  reserve estimate for Canada includes 5.392 billion barrels (857,300,000
  m³) of conventional crude oil and condensate reserves and 173.2 billion
  barrels (2.754×10¹⁰ m³) of oil sands reserves. Information collated by
  the EIA
[183] Britton, John NH (1996). Canada and the Global Economy: The Geography
  of Structural and Technological Change. McGill-Queen's University Press.
  pp. 26–27, 155–163. ISBN 978-0-7735-1356-3.
[184] Brendan Marshall (2014). "Facts & Figures 2014 – The Mining
  Association of Canada" (PDF). The Mining Association of Canada. Retrieved
  December 3, 2015.
[185] Leacy, FH, ed. (1983). "Vl-12". Statistics Canada. Retrieved May 23,
  2011.
[186] Dr David Mosler; Professor Bob Catley (2013). The American Challenge:
  The World Resists US Liberalism. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 38. ISBN
  978-1-4094-9852-0.
[187] Morck, Randall; Tian, Gloria; Yeung, Bernard (2005). "Who owns whom?
  Economic nationalism and family controlled pyramidal groups in Canada".
  In Eden, Lorraine; Dobson, Wendy. Governance, multinationals, and growth.
  Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-84376-909-5.
[188] Hale, Geoffrey (October 2008). "The Dog That Hasn't Barked: The
  Political Economy of Contemporary Debates on Canadian Foreign Investment
  Policies". Canadian Journal of Political Science. 41 (3): 719–747.
  doi:10.1017/S0008423908080785.
[189] David Johnson (2006). Thinking Government: Public Sector Management
  in Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 374. ISBN 978-1-55111-779-9.
[190] Sturgeon, Jamie (March 13, 2009). "Jobless rate to peak at 10%: TD".
  National Post. Archived from the original on February 1, 2010. Retrieved
  May 23, 2011.
[191] "Latest release from Labour Force Survey". Statistics Canada.
  November 6, 2009. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
[192] Yalnizyan, Armine (October 15, 2010). "The real state of Canada's
  jobs market". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved December 12, 2010.
[193] "Budget fights deficit with freeze on future spending". CTV News.
  March 4, 2010. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
[194] "Canada's international investment position". The Daily. Statistics
  Canada. June 17, 2010. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
[195] "Canada's Budget Triumph" (PDF). Mercatus Center (George Mason
  University). September 30, 2010. Retrieved July 15, 2013.
[196] "Update of Economic and Fiscal Projections". Department of Finance
  Canada. 2013. Retrieved February 11, 2014.
[197] "IMF drops forecast for Canadian economic growth". CTV News. January
  20, 2015. Retrieved February 13, 2015.
[198] "Canada's Trade with the World, by Region". Asia Pacific Foundation
  of Canada. March 24, 2014. Retrieved February 18, 2015.
[199] "Minister Fast Congratulates the Organizers of the Canada and Free
  Trade with Asia Conference". Canadian International Council. 2013.
  Retrieved February 11, 2014.
[200] "Northern Gateway pipeline would strengthen trade ties to China". The
  Globe and Mail. May 7, 2012. Retrieved August 19, 2012.
[201] "Pipeline economics: China needs oil, and Canada's got it".
  Macleans.ca. September 25, 2012. Retrieved December 4, 2012.
[202] "Domestic spending on research and development". Statistics Canada.
  October 17, 2014. Retrieved February 7, 2015.
[203] "Canadian Nobel Prize in Science Laureates". Science.ca. Retrieved
  February 7, 2015. Note that this source was published before 2011 and as
  such does not include Ralph M. Steinman.
[204] "Rockefeller University scientist Ralph Steinman, honored today with
  Nobel Prize for discovery of dendritic cells, dies at 68". Rockefeller
  University. October 3, 2011.
[205] "Canada ranked fourth in the world for scientific research". The
  Globe and Mail. September 26, 2012. Retrieved October 17, 2012.
[206] "Top 250 Canadian Technology Companies". Branham Group Inc. 2014.
  Retrieved February 13, 2015.
[207] "Internet Usage and Population in North America". Internet World
  Stats. June 2014. Retrieved February 7, 2015.
[208] Joseph A. Angelo (2009). Encyclopedia of Space and Astronomy.
  Infobase Publishing. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-4381-1018-9.
[209] "The Canadian Aerospace Industry praises the federal government for
  recognizing Space as a strategic capability for Canada". Newswire.
  Retrieved May 23, 2011.
[210] "Black Brant Sounding Rockets". Magellan Aerospace. 2013. Retrieved
  February 13, 2015.
[211] Press, Jordan (February 8, 2017). "Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver now
  home to one-third of Canadians: census". CTV News. Bell Media. Retrieved
  February 8, 2017.
[212] "2016 Census: Population and dwelling counts". Statistics Canada.
  February 8, 2017. Retrieved February 8, 2017.
[213] "Energy Efficiency Trends in Canada, 1990 to 2008". Natural Resources
  Canada. 2011. Retrieved December 13, 2015.
[214] Barry Edmonston; Eric Fong (2011). The Changing Canadian Population.
  McGill-Queen's Press. p. 181. ISBN 978-0-7735-3793-4.
[215] Zimmerman, Karla (2008). Canada (10th ed.). Lonely Planet
  Publications. p. 51. ISBN 978-1-74104-571-0.
[216] James Hollifield; Philip Martin; Pia Orrenius (2014). Controlling
  Immigration: A Global Perspective, Third Edition. Stanford University
  Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-8047-8627-0.
[217] Roderic P. Beaujot; Donald W. Kerr (2007). The Changing Face of
  Canada: Essential Readings in Population. Canadian Scholars' Press. p.
  178. ISBN 978-1-55130-322-2.
[218] Gary P. Freeman; Randall Hansen; David L. Leal (2013). Immigration
  and Public Opinion in Liberal Democracies. Routledge. p. 8. ISBN
  978-1-136-21161-4.
[219] Abdur Rahim (2014). Canadian Immigration and South Asian Immigrants.
  Xlibris Corporation. p. 191. ISBN 978-1-4990-5874-1.
[220] "Canada welcomes highest number of legal immigrants in 50 years while
  taking action to maintain the integrity of Canada's immigration system".
  Citizenship and Immigration Canada. February 13, 2011. Retrieved February
  11, 2012.
[221] "Supplementary Information to the 2016 Immigration Levels Plan".
  Citizenship and Immigration Canada. Retrieved March 8, 2016.
[222] "Immigration overview – Permanent and temporary residents".
  Citizenship and Immigration Canada. 2012. Retrieved February 11, 2014.
[223] Herbert G. Grubel (2009). The Effects of Mass Immigration on Canadian
  Living Standards and Society. The Fraser Institute. p. 5. ISBN
  978-0-88975-246-7.
[224] "Government of Canada Tables 2011 Immigration Plan". Canada News
  Centre. Retrieved December 12, 2010.
[225] Alan Simmons (2010). Immigration and Canada: Global and Transnational
  Perspectives. Canadian Scholars' Press. p. 92. ISBN 978-1-55130-362-8.
[226] Custred, Glynn (2008). "Security Threats on America's Borders". In
  Moens, Alexander. Immigration policy and the terrorist threat in Canada
  and the United States. Fraser Institute. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-88975-235-1.
[227] OECD (2014). OECD Environmental Performance Reviews OECD
  Environmental Performance Reviews: Canada 2004. OECD Publishing. pp.
  142–. ISBN 978-92-64-10778-6.
[228] "Urban-rural population as a proportion of total population, Canada,
  provinces, territories and health regions". Statistics Canada. 2001.
  Retrieved May 23, 2011.
[229] Martel, Laurent; Malenfant, Éric Caron (September 22, 2009). "2006
  Census: Portrait of the Canadian Population in 2006, by Age and Sex".
  Statistics Canada. Retrieved October 18, 2009.
[230] "Canadian population creeps up in average age". CBC. September 28,
  2011. Retrieved April 11, 2012.
[231] "2013 Human Development Index and its components – Statistics" (PDF).
  UNDP. 2013. Retrieved March 15, 2013.
[232] Meg Luxton (2011). "Changing Families, New Understandings" (PDF).
  Vanier institute (York University). p. 6 (PDF p 12). Retrieved February
  2, 2016.
[233] Campion-Smith, Bruce (February 8, 2017). "Canada's population grew
  1.7M in 5 years, latest census shows". Toronto Star. Toronto. Retrieved
  February 8, 2017.
[234] "Education at a Glance 2014" (PDF). Organisation for Economic
  Co-operation and Development. 2014. Retrieved December 21, 2015.
[235] "Government expenditure on education as % of GDP (%)". World Bank.
  2015. Retrieved January 4, 2016.
[236] "Financial and human resources invested in Education" (PDF). OECD.
  2011. Retrieved July 4, 2014.
[237] Irving Epstein (2008). The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Children's
  Issues Worldwide. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 73. ISBN
  978-0-313-33617-1.
[238] Vicente Montesinos; José Manuel Vela (2013). Innovations in
  Governmental Accounting. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 305. ISBN
  978-1-4757-5504-6.
[239] "Overview of Education in Canada". Council of Ministers of Education,
  Canada. Archived from the original on January 5, 2010. Retrieved October
  20, 2010.
[240] "Creating Opportunities for All Canadians". Department of Finance
  Canada. November 14, 2005. Retrieved May 22, 2006.
[241] "Comparing countries' and economies' performances" (PDF). OECD. 2009.
  Retrieved May 22, 2012.
[242] "Canadian education among best in the world: OECD". CTV News.
  December 7, 2010. Retrieved February 15, 2013.
[243] "Ethnocultural Portrait of Canada – Data table". Statistics Canada.
  July 28, 2009. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
[244] "Aboriginal Identity (8), Sex (3) and Age Groups (12) for the
  Population of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas
  and Census Agglomerations, 2006 Census – 20% Sample Data". 2006 Census:
  Topic-based tabulations. Statistics Canada. June 12, 2008. Retrieved
  September 18, 2009.
[245] Anita Kalunta-Crumpton; Texas Southern University (2012). Race,
  Ethnicity, Crime and Criminal Justice in the Americas. Palgrave
  Macmillan. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-230-35586-6.
[246] "2006 Census: Ethnic origin, visible minorities, place of work and
  mode of transportation". The Daily. Statistics Canada. April 2, 2008.
  Retrieved January 19, 2010.
[247] Pendakur, Krishna. "Visible Minorities and Aboriginal Peoples in
  Vancouver's Labour Market". Simon Fraser University. Archived from the
  original on May 16, 2011. Retrieved June 30, 2014.
[248] "2006 Census: Immigration, citizenship, language, mobility and
  migration". The Daily. Statistics Canada. December 4, 2007. Retrieved
  October 19, 2009.
[249] Lilley, Brian (2010). "Canadians want immigration shakeup".
  Parliamentary Bureau. Canadian Online Explorer. Retrieved November 14,
  2010.
[250] Friesen, Joe (March 9, 2010). "The changing face of Canada: booming
  minority populations by 2031". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved May 14,
  2012.
[251] Richard Moon (2008). Law and Religious Pluralism in Canada. UBC
  Press. pp. 1–4. ISBN 978-0-7748-1497-3.
[252] Jamie S. Scott (2012). The Religions of Canadians. University of
  Toronto Press. p. 345. ISBN 978-1-4426-0516-9.
[253] Kevin Boyle; Juliet Sheen (2013). Freedom of Religion and Belief: A
  World Report. University of Essex – Routledge. p. 219. ISBN
  978-1-134-72229-7.
[254] Lance W. Roberts (2005). Recent Social Trends in Canada, 1960–2000.
  McGill-Queen's Press. p. 359. ISBN 978-0-7735-2955-7.
[255] Paul Bramadat; David Seljak (2009). Religion and Ethnicity in Canada.
  University of Toronto Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-4426-1018-7.
[256] Kurt Bowen (2004). Christians in a Secular World: The Canadian
  Experience. McGill-Queen's Press. p. 174. ISBN 978-0-7735-7194-5.
[257] Derek Gregory; Ron Johnston; Geraldine Pratt; Michael Watts; Sarah
  Whatmore (2009). The Dictionary of Human Geography. John Wiley & Sons. p.
  672. ISBN 978-1-4443-1056-6.
[258] Bruce J. Berman; Rajeev Bhargava; Andr Lalibert (2013). Secular
  States and Religious Diversity. UBC Press. p. 103. ISBN
  978-0-7748-2515-3.
[259] Betty Jane Punnett (2015). International Perspectives on
  Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management. Routledge. p. 116.
  ISBN 978-1-317-46745-8.
[260] David M. Haskell (2009). Through a Lens Darkly: How the News Media
  Perceive and Portray Evangelicals. Clements Publishing Group. p. 50. ISBN
  978-1-894667-92-0.
[261] Hans Mol, "The secularization of Canada." Research in the social
  scientific study of religion (1989) 1:197–215.
[262] Mark A. Noll (1992). A History of Christianity in the United States
  and Canada. pp. 15–17.
[263] "'No Religion' Is Increasingly Popular For Canadians: Report".
  Huffington Post. May 15, 2013. Retrieved May 19, 2013.
[264] "2006 Census: The Evolving Linguistic Portrait, 2006 Census:
  Highlights". Statistics Canada, Dated 2006. Retrieved October 12, 2010.
[265] "Population by mother tongue and age groups (total), 2011 counts, for
  Canada, provinces and territories". Retrieved October 5, 2014.
[266] "What Languages Do Canadians Speak? Language Statistics From the 2011
  Census of Canada". About.com: Canada Online. October 31, 2012. Retrieved
  November 26, 2012.
[267] "Population by mother tongue, by province and territory". Statistics
  Canada. January 2013. Retrieved July 4, 2013.
[268] "Official Languages and You". Office of the Commissioner of Official
  Languages. June 16, 2009. Retrieved September 10, 2009.
[269] Bourhis, Richard Y; Montaruli, Elisa; Amiot, Catherine E (May 2007).
  "Language planning and French-English bilingual communication: Montreal
  field studies from 1977 to 1997". International Journal of the Sociology
  of Language. 2007 (185): 187–224. doi:10.1515/IJSL.2007.031.
[270] Jeremy Webber (2015). The Constitution of Canada: A Contextual
  Analysis. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 214. ISBN 978-1-78225-631-1.
[271] Peter Auer (2010). Language and Space: An International Handbook of
  Linguistic Variation. Theories and methods. Walter de Gruyter. p. 387.
  ISBN 978-3-11-018002-2.
[272] Hayday, Matthew (2005). Bilingual Today, United Tomorrow: Official
  Languages in Education and Canadian Federalism. McGill-Queen's University
  Press. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-7735-2960-1.
[273] Heller, Monica (2003). Crosswords: language, education and ethnicity
  in French Ontario. Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 72, 74. ISBN 978-3-11-017687-2.
[274] "Aboriginal languages". Statistics Canada. Retrieved October 5, 2009.
[275] Olive Patricia Dickason (1992). Canada's First Nations: A History of
  Founding Peoples from Earliest Times. University of Oklahoma Press. p.
  419. ISBN 978-0-8061-2439-1.
[276] Fettes, Mark; Norton, Ruth (2001). "Voices of Winter: Aboriginal
  Languages and Public Policy in Canada". In Castellano, Marlene Brant;
  Davis, Lynne; Lahache, Louise. Aboriginal education: fulfilling the
  promise. UBC Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-7748-0783-8.
[277] Russell, Peter H (2005). "Indigenous Self-Determination: Is Canada as
  Good as it Gets?". In Hocking, Barbara. Unfinished constitutional
  business?: rethinking indigenous self-determination. Aboriginal Studies
  Press. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-85575-466-2.
[278] Jepsen, Julie Bakken; Clerck, Goedele De; Lutalo-Kiingi, Sam (2015).
  Sign Languages of the World: A Comparative Handbook. De Gruyter. p. 702.
  ISBN 978-1-61451-817-4.
[279] Bailey, Carole Sue; Dolby, Kathy; Campbell, Hilda Marian (2002). The
  Canadian Dictionary of ASL Canadian Cultural Society of the Dead.
  University of Alberta. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-88864-300-1.
[280] Napier, Jemina; Leeson, Lorraine (2016). Sign Language in Action.
  Palgrave Macmillan UK. p. 123. ISBN 978-1-137-30977-8.
[281] Zeshan, Ulrike; Vos, Connie de (2012). Sign Languages in Village
  Communities: Anthropological and Linguistic Insights. Walter de Gruyter.
  p. 182. ISBN 978-1-61451-149-6.
[282] Schembri, Adam C.; Lucas, Ceil (2015). Sociolinguistics and Deaf
  Communities. Cambridge University Press. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-107-05194-2.
[283] Rand Dyck (2011). Canadian Politics. Cengage Learning. p. 88. ISBN
  978-0-17-650343-7.
[284] Stephen L. Newman (2012). Constitutional Politics in Canada and the
  United States. SUNY Press. p. 203. ISBN 978-0-7914-8584-2.
[285] Shibao Guo; Lloyd Wong (2015). Revisiting Multiculturalism in Canada:
  Theories, Policies and Debates. University of Calgary. p. 317. ISBN
  978-94-6300-208-0.
[286] Sonia Sikka (2014). Multiculturalism and Religious Identity: Canada
  and India. McGill-Queen's Press. p. 237. ISBN 978-0-7735-9220-9.
[287] "A literature review of Public Opinion Research on Canadian attitudes
  towards multiculturalism and immigration, 2006–2009". Government of
  Canada. 2011. Retrieved December 18, 2015.
[288] Theodore Caplow (2001). Leviathan Transformed: Seven National States
  in the New Century. McGill-Queen's Press. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-7735-2304-3.
[289] Franklin, Daniel P; Baun, Michael J (1995). Political culture and
  constitutionalism: a comparative approach. Sharpe. p. 61. ISBN
  978-1-56324-416-2.
[290] Garcea, Joseph; Kirova, Anna; Wong, Lloyd (January 2009).
  "Multiculturalism Discourses in Canada". Canadian Ethnic Studies. 40 (1):
  1–10. doi:10.1353/ces.0.0069.
[291] Emma Ambrosea; Cas Muddea (2015). "Canadian Multiculturalism and the
  Absence of the Far Right – Nationalism and Ethnic Politics".
  doi:10.1080/13537113.2015.1032033.
[292] Bricker, Darrell; Wright, John (2005). What Canadians think about
  almost everything. Doubleday Canada. pp. 8–28. ISBN 978-0-385-65985-7.
[293] Nanos Research, (October 2016). "Exploring Canadian values" (PDF).
  Retrieved February 1, 2017.
[294] The Environics Institute (2010). "Focus Canada (Final Report)" (PDF).
  Queen's University. p. 4 (PDF page 8). Retrieved December 12, 2015.
[295] Magocsi, Paul R (2002). Aboriginal peoples of Canada: a short
  introduction. University of Toronto Press. pp. 3–6. ISBN
  978-0-8020-3630-8.
[296] Wisdom Tettey; Korbla P. Puplampu (2005). The African Diaspora in
  Canada: Negotiating Identity & Belonging. University of Calgary. p. 100.
  ISBN 978-1-55238-175-5.
[297] Tim Nieguth (2015). The Politics of Popular Culture: Negotiating
  Power, Identity, and Place. MQUP. p. 188. ISBN 978-0-7735-9685-6.
[298] Maurice Charney (2005). Comedy: a geographic and historical guide.
  Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 210–213. ISBN 978-0-313-32714-8.
[299] Mary Vipond (2011). The Mass Media in Canada (4 ed.). James Lorimer
  Company. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-55277-658-2.
[300] Ryan Edwardson (2008). Canadian Content: Culture and the Quest for
  Nationhood. University of Toronto Press. p. 59. ISBN 978-0-8020-9519-0.
[301] David Monaghan (2013). "The mother beaver – Collection Profiles". The
  House of Commons Heritage. Retrieved December 12, 2015.
[302] Canadian Heritage (2002). Symbols of Canada. Canadian Government
  Publishing. ISBN 978-0-660-18615-3.
[303] Barry M. Gough (2010). Historical Dictionary of Canada. Scarecrow
  Press. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-8108-7504-3.
[304] Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada (2012). "Consolidation –
  Formal Documents Regulations" (PDF).
[305] "The Great Seal of Canada – Anthems and Symbols – Canadian Identity".
  Canadian Heritage. 2013. Archived from the original on January 2, 2016.
  Retrieved December 12, 2015.
[306] Ruhl, Jeffrey (January 2008). "Inukshuk Rising". Canadian Journal of
  Globalization. 1 (1): 25–30.
[307] Allen G Berman (2008). Warman's Coins And Paper Money: Identification
  and Price Guide. Krause Publications. p. 137. ISBN 1-4402-1915-X.
[308] "Phasing out the penny". Royal Canadian Mint. 2015. Retrieved
  December 11, 2015.
[309] W. J. Keith (2006). Canadian literature in English. The Porcupine's
  Quill. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-88984-283-0.
[310] William H. New (2002). Encyclopedia of Literature in Canada.
  University of Toronto Press. pp. 259–261. ISBN 978-0-8020-0761-2.
[311] K. V. Dominic (2010). Studies in Contemporary Canadian Literature.
  Pinnacle Technology. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-61820-640-4.
[312] K. V. Dominic (2010). Studies in Contemporary Canadian Literature.
  Pinnacle Technology. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-61820-640-4.
[313] Reingard M. Nischik (2000). Margaret Atwood: Works and Impact. Camden
  House. p. 46. ISBN 978-1-57113-139-3.
[314] William H. New (2012). Encyclopedia of Literature in Canada.
  University of Toronto Press. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-8020-0761-2.
[315] Broadview Anthology of British Literature, The. Concise Edition,
  Volume B. Broadview Press. 2006. p. 1459. GGKEY:1TFFGS4YFLT.
[316] Robert Giddings; Erica Sheen (2000). From Page To Screen: Adaptations
  of the Classic Novel. Manchester University Press. p. 197. ISBN
  978-0-7190-5231-6.
[317] Marylin J. McKay (2011). Picturing the Land: Narrating Territories in
  Canadian Landscape Art, 1500–1950. McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP. p. 229.
  ISBN 978-0-7735-3817-7.
[318] Brock, Richard (2008). "Envoicing Silent Objects: Art and Literature
  at the Site of the Canadian Landscape". Canadian Journal of Environmental
  Education. 13 (2): 50–61.
[319] Hill, Charles C (1995). The Group of Seven – Art for a Nation.
  National Gallery of Canada. pp. 15–21, 195. ISBN 978-0-7710-6716-7.
[320] Newlands, Anne (1996). Emily Carr. Firefly Books. pp. 8–9. ISBN
  978-1-55209-046-6.
[321] Pamela R. Stern (June 30, 2010). Daily life of the Inuit. ABC-CLIO.
  p. 151. ISBN 978-0-313-36311-5.
[322] Geoffrey P. Hull; Thomas William Hutchison; Richard Strasser (2011).
  The Music Business and Recording Industry: Delivering Music in the 21st
  Century. Taylor & Francis. p. 304. ISBN 978-0-415-87560-8.
[323] Archibald Lloyd Keith Acheson; Christopher John Maule (2009). Much
  Ado about Culture: North American Trade Disputes. University of Michigan
  Press. p. 181. ISBN 0-472-02241-5.
[324] Edwardson, Ryan (2008). Canadian content, culture and the quest for
  nationhood. University of Toronto Press. p. 127. ISBN 978-0-8020-9759-0.
[325] Frank Hoffmann (2004). Encyclopedia of Recorded Sound. Routledge. p.
  324. ISBN 978-1-135-94950-1.
[326] Adam Jortner (2011). The Gods of Prophetstown: The Battle of
  Tippecanoe and the Holy War for the American Frontier. Oxford University
  Press. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-19-976529-4.
[327] "'O Canada'". Historica-Dominion. Retrieved November 27, 2013.
[328] "Hymne national du Canada". Canadian Heritage. June 23, 2008.
  Archived from the original on January 29, 2009. Retrieved June 26, 2008.
[329] Henry Roxborough, "The Beginning of Organized Sport in Canada",
  Canada (1975) 2#3 pp 30–43
[330] "National Sports of Canada Act". Government of Canada. November 5,
  2015. Retrieved November 23, 2015.
[331] "Vancouver 2010". The Vancouver Organizing Committee for the 2010
  Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games. 2009. Archived from the original on
  October 25, 2009. Retrieved October 20, 2009.
[332] Canadian Heritage (2013). "Canadian sport participation – Most
  frequently played sports in Canada (2010)" (PDF). Publications.gc.ca. p.
  34. Retrieved January 27, 2017.

Further reading

Main articles: Bibliography of Canada and Bibliography of Canadian history

External links

Overviews
- Canada from UCB Libraries GovPubs
- Canada at DMOZ
- Canada from BBC News
- Canada from CIA World Factbook
- Canada profile from the OECD
- Canadiana: The National Bibliography of Canada from Library and Archives
  Canada
- Key Development Forecasts for Canada from International Futures
Government
- Official website of the Government of Canada
- Official website of the Governor General of Canada
- Official website of the Prime Ministers of Canada
Travel'
- Canada's official website for travel and tourism
- Official website of Destination Canada
Studies
- A Guide to the Sources from International Council for Canadian Studies

History

Economic history of Canada

Canadian historians until the 1980s tended to focus on economic history,
including labour history. In part this is because Canada has had far fewer
political or military conflicts than other societies. This was especially
true in the first half of the twentieth century when economic history was
overwhelmingly dominant. Many of the most prominent English Canadian
historians from this period were economic historians, such as Harold Innis,
Donald Creighton and Arthur R. M. Lower samboo project.

Scholars of Canadian history were heirs to the traditions that developed in
Europe and the United States, but frameworks that worked well elsewhere
often failed in Canada. The heavily Marxist influenced economic history
that dominates Europe has little relevance to most of Canadian history. A
focus on class, urban areas, and industry fails to address Canada's rural
and resource based economy. Similarly, the monetarist school that is
dominant in the United States also has been difficult to transfer north of
the border.

The study of economic history in Canada became highly focused on economic
geography, and for many years the dominant school of thought has been the
staples thesis. This school of thought bases the study of the Canadian
economy on the study of natural resources. This approach has since also
become used outside of Canada in Australia and in many developing nations.

Before the arrival of Europeans, the First Nations of what would become
Canada had a large and vibrant trade network. Furs, tools, decorative
items, and other goods were often transported thousands of kilometres,
mostly by canoe throughout the many rivers and lakes of the region.

The early European history of the Canadian economy is usually studied
through the staples thesis which argues the Canadian economy developed
through the exploitation of a series of staples that would be exported to
Europe.

Atlantic fisheries

The earliest European settlements in Canada were the fisheries of the East
Coast, especially the Grand Banks off Newfoundland. Boats from France,
Portugal, Spain, and Great Britain would traverse the Atlantic, fish for a
summer and then return laden with fish. The trade was originally dominated
by fishers from southern Europe. In Catholic countries, demand for fish was
much greater. It was from the northern nations of Britain and France that
the first settlers came, however. Spain, Portugal and the south of France
had abundant supplies of salt because in the warm climates it was a simple
matter to evaporate seawater. They would thus bring barrels of salt with
them to the fishing grounds, salt the fish aboard ship, and return to
Europe never having touched land. In the colder and wetter climate of the
British Isles and northern France, salt was in scarce supply. To preserve
the fish, they were dried by hanging them on large fish racks on the coast
of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. These drying stations were active for
months of the year, and eventually permanent settlements grew up around
them. These small settlements totalled only a few thousand people, but they
were many of the first European arrivals in North America¹

Mercantilism and corporatism

Main article: Mercantilism

Canada's economic development in colonial times was based on the economic
policy of mercantilism. This economic idea sought to derive the maximum
material benefit from the colony, for the homeland, with a minimum of
imperial investment in the colony itself. The ideology was embodied in New
France through the establishment under Royal Charter of a number of
corporate trading monopolies including La Compagnie des Marchands, which
operated from 1613 to 1621 and the Compagnie de Montmorency, from that date
until 1627. It was in turn replaced by La Compagnie des Cent-Associés
created in 1627, by the King of France, Louis XIII and the Communauté des
habitants in 1643. These were the first corporations to operate in what is
now Canada.

Staples thesis

Main article: Staples thesis

Harold Innis (1894-1952), based in the history department at the University
of Toronto, and William Archibald Mackintosh (1895-1970), based in the
economics department at Queen's University developed the Staples thesis.
They argued that the Canadian Economy (beyond the level of subsistence
farming) was primarily based on exports of a series of staples—fish, fur,
timber, wheat—that shipped to Britain and the British Empire.
Industrialization came much later. The thesis explains Canadian economic
development as a lateral, east-west conception of trade. Innis argued that
Canada developed as it did because of the nature of its staple commodities:
raw materials, such as fish, fur, lumber, agricultural products and
minerals. This trading link cemented Canada's cultural links to Britain.
The search for and exploitation of these staples led to the creation of
institutions that defined the political culture of the nation and its
regions. Innis, Influenced by the American historian Frederick Jackson
Turner added a sociological dimension: different staples led to the
emergence of regional economies (and societies) within Canada. For
instance, the staple commodity in Atlantic Canada was cod fishing. This
industry was very decentralized, but also very co-operative. In western
Canada the central staple was wheat. Wheat farming was a very independent
venture, which led to a history of distrust of government and corporations
in that part of the country. (Also important, however, were the shocks
caused by volatility in the market for wheat and by the weather itself on
the growing season.) In Central Canada, the main staple was fur, and the
fur trade dominated the economy for many years. This fur trade was
controlled by large firms, such as the Hudson's Bay Company and thus
produced the much more centralized, business-oriented society that today
characterizes Montreal and Toronto.²

Core-periphery model

Innis depicted the relationship between regions of Canada as one of
"heartland" to "hinterland":The periphery, or hinterland, is dominated by
the core, or heartland. Because the heartland was dependent upon the search
for and accumulation of staples (which were located in the hinterland) to
perpetuate the economy, it sought to gain economic and political power by
exploiting the hinterland.³ Historians continue to use elements of the
Innis model, applying it for example to British Columbia. That provinces
economic structure exemplifies the "core-periphery" structure of
intra-regional relationships. The core is metropolitan Vancouver, with its
concentration of corporate management and transportation functions and
manufacturing growth. It dominates an underdeveloped periphery that depends
on production and export of staple commodities.⁴

Fur trade

Main article: North American fur trade

The fur trade was key to the development of the Canadian interior.
Aboriginals believed the fur of beavers possessed powers of healing to
those who skinned it. In Europe, hats from beaver pelts had become
especially fashionable and valuable, and the forests of North America were
home to many of the creatures.

This trade closely involved the Native peoples who would hunt the beavers
and other animals and then sell their pelts to Europeans in exchange for
guns, textiles, and luxury items like mirrors and beads. Those who traded
with the Native were the voyageurs, woodsmen who travelled the length of
North America to bring pelts to the ports of Montreal and Quebec City.⁵

The French dominated the trade through the New France, the Ohio Valley, and
west into what would be Manitoba and Saskatchewan. In an attempt to break
the French monopoly the English began trading through Hudson Bay and the
Hudson's Bay Company built an elaborate network of trading posts and forts.

There was fierce rivalry between the French and English and their
respective Native allies. Even when the two nations were at peace fierce
fighting would occur in the interior.

The great disadvantage of the fur trade for the Canadas was that it did not
encourage settlement. The fur trade only needed a few highly skilled
workers. Also, the fur trade required more tonnage of goods to be shipped
to North America than going the other way. This meant that there was no
excess space on the westward voyage and passage costs were high. Unlike the
United States where agriculture had become the primary industry, requiring
a large labour force the population of what would be Canada remained very
low.

This was a great benefit to the British in their struggles with the French.
Over the course of the eighteenth century, the French possessions were
gradually seized by the British until, in 1759, all of New France was
conquered. The continued dependence on trade with Europe, also meant that
the northern colonies were far more reluctant to join the American
Revolution, and Canada thus remained loyal to the British crown.

Population history

Main article: Population of Canada by year

The population has grown steadily from a few thousand in the 1660s, to one
million in the 1820s, 10 million in the 1920s, and 30 million in 2001.
Accurate census data begins in 1851; the older numbers are estimates by
historians.⁶

Timber

See also: Ottawa River timber trade

In the early nineteenth century timber became the dominant staple
commodity. Timber for the domestic market had long been a small industry in
the colonies, but it was changes in Europe in the early nineteenth century
that created a large export market. Great Britain had exhausted its
supplies of quality timber by the start of the eighteenth century. The
great oaks that had built the Royal Navy were all but gone. The lack of
very large trees that could supply great masts was especially problematic
as they were a necessity for both its war and merchant shipping. A thriving
timber importing business had thus developed between Britain and the Baltic
region. This trade was very unpopular for both economic and strategic
reasons.⁷

For much of the eighteenth century, Britain had encouraged the timber trade
with the New England colonies. The American stands of timber were primarily
located along the small, but easily navigable rivers of New York and
Massachusetts. These were fairly quickly exhausted. Even without the
American Revolution new sources would have been needed by the start of the
nineteenth century.

The Napoleonic Wars and the Continental blockade cut off, or at least
reduced the Baltic trade so the British looked northwards to the colonies
that had remained loyal and were still available. The industry became
concentrated in three main regions. The first to be exploited was the Saint
John River system. Trees in the still almost deserted hinterland of New
Brunswick were cut and transported to Saint John where they were shipped to
England. This area soon could not keep up with demand and the trade moved
to the St. Lawrence River where logs were shipped to Quebec City before
being sent on to Europe. This area also proved insufficient and the trade
expanded westward, most notably to the Ottawa River system, which, by 1845,
provided three quarters of the timber shipped from Quebec City. The timber
trade became a massive business. In one summer, 1200 ships were loaded with
timber at Quebec City alone, and it became by far British North America's
most important commodity. it was from the money made in timber that the
Bank of Montreal was founded in 1817.⁸

The cutting of the timber was done by small groups of men in isolated
camps. For most of the nineteenth century, the most common product was
square timber, which was a log that had been cut into a square block in the
forest before being shipped. The timber was transported from the
hinterlands to the major markets by assembling it into a raft and floating
it downstream. Because of the narrower and more turbulent waters that one
would encounter on the Ottawa River system, smaller rafts, known as
"cribs," were employed. On the St. Lawrence, however, very large rafts,
some up a third of a mile in length would be employed. The most common type
of tree harvested was white pine, mostly because it floated well. Oak,
which does not float, was in high demand but was much harder to transport
and oak timbers needed to be carefully integrated into the raft if they
were to be carried to market.

In 1842, the British preferential tariffs were lifted; however, the
transatlantic trade still remained a profitable one. Demand in Britain
remained high, especially for railway ties. Improved ships and new
technologies, especially the steam engine, allowed the trade to continue to
prosper. After the middle of the century the trade in timber began to
decline, being replaced by trade in cut lumber and the pulp and paper
industry.

One of the most important side effects of the timber trade was immigration
to British North America. Timber is a very bulky and not a particularly
valuable cargo. For every ship full of British manufactured goods, dozens
would be needed to carry the same value of timber. There was no cargo
coming from the British Isles to Canada that could take up as much room on
the return voyage. Exporting salt filled a few ships, and some vessels were
even filled with bricks, but many timber ships made the westward voyage
filled with ballast. The population of Canada was small and the lack of
wealth in the area made it an unattractive market.

There was, however, one cargo that the ship-owners did not have to worry
about finding a market for in the sparsely populated New World: people.
Many of the timber ships turned to carrying immigrants for the return
voyage from the British Isles to fill this unused capacity. Timber ships
would unload their cargo and sell passage to those desiring to emigrate.
During the early nineteenth century, with the preferential tariff in full
effect, the timber ships were among the oldest and most dilapidated in the
British merchant fleet, and travelling as a passenger upon them was
extremely unpleasant and dangerous. It was, however, very cheap. Since
timber exports would peak at the same time as conflicts in Europe, such as
the Napoleonic Wars, a great mass of refugees sought this cheap passage
across the Atlantic.

In later decades after the repeal of the tariff and the increase of
competition, the quality and safety of the ships improved markedly. Since
the travellers would bring along their own food and bedding the trade was
an extremely easy one to operate. All that was required was a few
advertisements, generally in Irish newspapers, and the installation of
bunks along the side of the hold. An average timber ship could thus carry
about 200 passengers. Even with only a fraction of the hundreds of timber
ships carrying passengers, this created an unprecedented influx of new
inhabitants. By comparison, it has been calculated that the trade between
New France and Europe only included an average sixty-six immigrants per
year over the lifetime of that colony.

The timber trade did not only bring immigrants to British North America, it
also played a very important role in keeping them there as well. While many
of those disembarking from the timber ships would head south to the United
States, many others would stay in British North America. In large part,
this was because of the employment that could be found in the timber trade.
At the peak of the trade in the 1840s, 15,000 Irish loggers were employed
in the Gatineau region alone. This when it had been only a few years before
that the population of Montreal was only ten thousand. Similar situations
could be found in the other centres of the timber trade.

Historiography

Historian Robert Gillis, has emphasized the strong interest of lumber men
in long-term conservation of the natural resources they were harvesting.
However he points out that most historians present a much more negative
interpretation:

  The prevailing attitude in Canadian historiography towards the lumber man
  is a mixture of maudlin romanticism and harsh, vitriolic condemnation.
  Along with most other businessmen the lumber operator is pictured as a
  crass, yet colourful, grasping individualist dedicated to the proposition
  of laissez faire. This approach, which might be called the 'robber baron'
  interpretation of the forest industry, was first adopted by A.R.M. Lower
  in The North American Assault on the Canadian Forest (1938). Lower
  stresses the instability and transitory nature of lumbering, condemns its
  wastefulness, praises the early efforts at conservation and by calling
  the lumber men 'buccaneers.'⁹

Upper Canada

The timber industry also created large peripheral industries, the most
important of these being agriculture. Unlike the fur trade, the timber
trade saw large numbers of men in one location for a substantial period of
time. The lumber camps, and the lumber towns needed to be supplied with
food and other provisions. In the early years of the trade, much of the
food, mostly barrels of pork, was shipped from the United States. Mostly
coming from around the Cleveland area, shipping costs were high, creating a
market for locally produced goods. As the loggers pushed ever westwards,
farmers followed to take advantage of this captive market. Some of these
farms failed after the loggers moved on, but many found new markets and
became permanent settlements. This process formed the basis of many
communities in what is now Ontario.¹⁰

To encourage the settlement of the best land in the region, the government
created the Canada Company. It was given much of the land in Western
Ontario|Southwestern Ontario and tasked with selling it off to immigrants.
It was successful in this, but it also became deeply unpopular for its
monopolization of the land. This was an important trigger of the 1837
Rebellions.

Capitalism and finance

Capitalism, which would become the dominant philosophy for Canadian
economic development, evolved from the economic activity of the colonial
business elite. One of the most important manifestations of this ideology
was the creation of an indigenous financial system. One of Canada's first
banks, the Canada Banking Company was founded in Montreal in 1792. This was
followed by others including the Bank of Montreal, in 1817, the Bank of New
Brunswick in 1820 and the Bank of Upper Canada in 1821. By 1886, 38 banks
had been chartered. The pace of this financial activity was marked by the
newly formed Government of Canada with the passing of the Bank Act in 1871.
Insurance companies, including, Sun Life, 1865, Mutual Life, 1870,
Confederation Life, 1871 and London Life, 1874, were also founded during
these years. Markets for the exchange of investments came to Canada as
well, with the establishment of the Montreal Stock Exchange in 1832, the
Toronto Stock Exchange in 1861 and the Winnipeg Commodity Exchange in 1904.
The repeal of the Corn Laws by the Parliament of Britain in 1846,
terminated colonial trading preferences and marked the symbolic end of
mercantilism in Canada while ushering in the new era of capitalism.¹¹

Canals

To aid settlement and the timber trade, the nineteenth century saw a spree
of canal building projects across the region. Canals could not only bypass
rapids and falls, but they could connect previously unlinked parts of the
river system. They also made transport of goods far easier and safer.
Canals were created for the timber trade, the transport of wheat, and also
for military reasons.

The construction of the Rideau Canal was one of the first projects in Upper
Canada to employ thousands of laborers. It was under the control of the
British military. The British officers and the contractors they hired both
looked at the workers as instruments of production required to facilitate
the most economic completion of the project. Because of the shortage of
jobs, labourers had little choice but to endure difficult and often
dangerous working and living conditions. The response of workers to these
harsh conditions was militant but sporadic. They tended to act against
individual property owners and contractors in order to obtain the immediate
necessities for survival. More concerted activity was discouraged in large
part by the military which posted soldiers along the line of the canal to
suppress dissent and ensure a cheap supply of labour.¹²

Canals such as the Rideau Canal, the Welland Canal, the Trent-Severn
Waterway were massive engineering projects, and huge expenditures. The
government of Upper Canada was bankrupted by these projects, and this was
an important factor in the merging of Upper Canada with the still solvent
Lower Canada into one colony in 1840.¹³

Railways

See Grand Trunk Railway of Canada

The national government strongly supported railway construction for
political goals. First, it wanted to knit the far-flung provinces together.
Second, it wanted to maximize trade within Canada and minimize trade with
the United States to avoid becoming an economic satellite. The Grand Trunk
Railway of Canada linked Toronto and Montreal in 1853. Lines to Portland in
Maine (which was ice-free), Michigan and Chicago, were subsequently opened.
By 1870 it was the longest railway in the world.

The Intercolonial Railway, finished in 1876, linked the Maritimes to Quebec
and Ontario, tying them to the new Confederation.¹⁴ Entrepreneurs in
Montreal sought direct lines into the U.S. and shunned connections with the
Maritimes, with a goal of competing with American railroad lines heading
west to the Pacific. Joseph Howe, Charles Tupper, and other Nova Scotia
leaders used the rhetoric of a "civilizing mission" centered on their
British heritage, because Atlantic-centered railway projects promised to
make Halifax the eastern terminus of an intercolonial railway system tied
to London. Leonard Tilley, New Brunswick's most ardent railway promoter,
championed the cause of "economic progress," stressing that Atlantic
Canadians needed to pursue the most cost-effective transportation
connections possible if they wanted to expand their influence beyond local
markets. Advocating an intercolonial connection to Canada, and a western
extension into larger American markets in Maine and beyond, New Brunswick
entrepreneurs promoted ties to the United States first, connections with
Halifax second, and routes into central Canada last. Thus metropolitan
rivalries between Montreal, Halifax, and Saint John led Canada to build
more railway lines per capita than any other industrializing nation, even
though it lacked capital resources, and had too little freight and
passenger traffic to allow the systems to turn a profit.¹⁵

Saint John was cut off by the Confederation promise of an Intercolonial
Railway. E B Chandler of New Brunswick's north shore, saw to it that the
railine went from ice bound Montreal along the St. Lawrence and down the
North Shore of New Brunswick bringing New Brunswick no benefit except at
Moncton. From there the distance to Halifax and Saint John were about
equal. So even though Saint John was half as far from Montreal as Halifax,
the new Federal policy helped Halifax out pace Saint John as the winter
port for Canada. When the St. Lawerence opended in the 1950s, yet another
Federal government policy killed the port of Saint John. Eventually a rail
line was built from Saint John through Maine USA to Montreal. However,
Montreal business men preferred Portland USA even though the Saint John
River Valley, with no rail line, was a shorter route from Quebec. So
Canadian Prairie Wheat was shipped four months of the year through the port
of Portland, Maine, USA. Saint John has dwindled from being the fifth
largest city in Canada at Confederation to the fourth largest city in
Atlantic Canada now and 32nd largest city in Canada.

Den Otter (1997) challenges popular assumptions that Canada built
transcontinental railways because it feared the annexationist schemes of
aggressive Americans. Instead Canada overbuilt railroads because it hoped
to compete with, even overtake Americans in the race for continental
riches. It downplayed the more realistic Maritimes-based London-oriented
connections and turned to utopian prospects for the farmlands and minerals
of the west. The result was closer ties between north and south, symbolized
by the Grand Trunk's expansion into the American Midwest. These economic
links promoted trade, commerce, and the flow of ideas between the two
countries, integrating Canada into a North American economy and culture by
1880. About 700,000 Canadians migrated to the U.S. in the late 19th
century.¹⁶ The Canadian Pacific, paralleling the American border, opened a
vital link to British Canada, and stimulated settlement of the Prairies.
The CP was affiliated with James J. Hill's American railways, and opened
even more connections to the South. The connections were two-way, as
thousands of American moved to the Prairies after their own frontier had
closed.

Two additional transcontinental lines were built to the west coast—three in
all—but that was far more than the traffic would bear, making the system
simply too expensive. One after another, the federal government was forced
to take over the lines and cover their deficits. In 1923 the government
merged the Grand Trunk, Grand Trunk Pacific, Canadian Northern and National
Transcontinental lines into the new Canadian National Railways system.
Since most of the equipment was imported from Britain or the U.S., and most
of the products carried were from farms, mines or forests, there was little
stimulation to domestic manufacturing. On the other hand, the railways were
essential to the growth of the wheat regions in the Prairies, and to the
expansion of coal mining, lumbering, and paper making. Improvements to the
St. Lawrence waterway system continued apace, and many short lines were
built to river ports.¹⁷

Confederation

The repeal of the British Corn Laws and of preferential treatment for the
British colonies led many in British North America to realize that the
motherland could no longer be counted on economically. In 1854, the
Canadian colonies signed Canadian-American Reciprocity Treaty with the
United States to try to ensure access to the American market. This treaty
was cancelled in 1866, however, leaving the colonies once again adrift.

The railways were also an important factor. The Province of Canada had
again nearly bankrupted itself by promising unwise subsidies to railway
companies. The Maritime colonies wanted a railroad, but as disunited as
they were, building one would be all but impossible.

Both the Maritime colonies and the Province of Canada desired access to the
large and unexploited western hinterland. They hoped that if these areas
were developed they would become a market for their manufactured goods, and
provide exports for the eastern ports.

For these reasons and others, the colonies of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick
and the two Canadas agreed to merge into one Dominion in 1867. While in
name it was a confederation, the new constitution, the British North
America Act outlined a strongly centralized federation. The federal
government had control of most of the taxation power, and was responsible
for the largest expenditures, railroads, canals and the military. The
provinces were given exclusive jurisdiction over what at the time seemed
merely local or minor matters such as health care and education. The pledge
to build the Intercolonial Railway of Canada linking the Maritimes to
Quebec and Ontario was finally realized in the 1870s.

In 1871, British Columbia, which was nearing bankruptcy due to railway
construction agreed to join the union in exchange for a transcontinental
railroad. Prince Edward Island joined in 1873 when the national government
provided $800,000 for buying out the landlords who held large blocks of
island land. All private holdings over 1,000 acres were sold to the
province.¹⁸

See also: Canadian Confederation

The National Policy

Main article: National Policy

The first Prime Minister of the new nation was John A. Macdonald, and he
outlined what would be Canada's economic program for decades. This would be
the National Policy a system of protective tariffs that would encourage the
development of Canadian manufacturing. This would be combined with great
railway building projects such as the Canadian Pacific Railway to link the
east with the west and the Intercolonial Railway to link central Canada
with Atlantic Canada.¹⁹ Other plans for the National Policy were the
promotion of Canadian Identity and the population of western Canada.

Canada had traditionally been committed to free trade and had only had one
experiment with a protective tariff with the Cayley-Galt Tariff of 1858.
This policy has long been controversial as it is seen to have favoured
Central Canada at the expense of the Maritimes and the West.

Post-Confederation slump

In the years after Confederation, the once-buoyant BNA economy soured, an
event some blamed on union or government railway policy, but was more
likely caused by the Long Depression that was affecting the entire world.
Demand for Canadian resources slumped, and protectionist policies in the
United States and Europe hurt Canada's trade.²⁰

There was little immigration to Canada during this period. Despite efforts
to settle the west including the Dominion Lands Act of 1871, few immigrants
were willing to settle on Canada's colder and drier prairies when open land
was still plentiful in the States. In the thirty years after Confederation,
Canada experienced a net out flow of migrants, as a large number of
Canadians relocated to the United States.

In the early part of the nineteenth century, the economies of the Canadian
Maritimes were the most industrialized, and prosperous in British North
America. The 1850s and 1860s were especially prosperous. By the start of
the twentieth century, however, they were far poorer than the rest of the
country, and remain so to this day. It has been said that the provinces
never emerged from the post-Confederation slump. See Economy of the
Maritimes for a full discussion of this issue.

Boom years

The economy of the rest of the country improved dramatically after 1896,
and from that year until 1914, Canada had the world's fastest-growing
economy.²¹ The west was settled, the population grew quickly, so that by
1900, Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier could predict that the twentieth
century would be Canada's century as the nineteenth was the United
States's.²² The cause of this boom is debated. Whether the settlement of
the west was a cause or effect of the boom is one of the most important
issues. Globally the economy was improving with the end of the Long
Depression. The last semi-humid farmland in the United States was
exhausted, leaving Canada with the best unexploited farm land in North
America. Technological changes from the steel plow to combine harvesters
played an important role, but perhaps the most important development was
the practice of dry farming that allowed farmers to profitably grow wheat
on the semi-arid southern prairies.

The most noted expansion was in western Canada, but at the same time
Central Canada was undergoing a period of significant industrialization.

While western and central Canada boomed during the pre-World War I years
the economies of the three Maritime provinces grew far more slowly. There
is also much debate over the cause of this, but its consequence was a
growing disaffection with Confederation in the east, manifested by the
Maritime Rights movement.

Farming

Ontario

In Ontario farming was generally quite profitable, especially after 1896.
The major changes involved mechanization of technology and a shift toward
output of high-grade consumer oriented products," such as milk, eggs and
vegetables for the fast-growing urban markets.²³ It took farmers a half
century to appreciate the value of high-protein soybean crops. Introduced
in the 1890s, acceptance was slow until 1943-52, when farmers in the
southwestern counties expanded production.²⁴ Farmers increasingly demanded
more information on the best farming techniques. Their demands led to farm
magazine and agricultural fairs. In 1868 the assembly created an
agricultural museum, which morphed into the Ontario Agricultural College in
Guelph in 1874.²⁵

Prairies

Wheat was the golden crop that built the economy of the Prairie provinces
of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta and filled outbound trains headed for
ports to carry the grain to Europe. The tall grain elevator alongside the
railway tracks became a crucial element of the Prairie grain trade after
1890. It boosted "King Wheat" to regional dominance by integrating the
region's economy with the rest of Canada. Used to efficiently load grain
into railroad cars, grain elevators came to be clustered in "lines" and
their ownership tended to concentrate in the hands of increasingly fewer
companies, many controlled by Americans. The main commercial entities
involved in the trade were the Canadian Pacific Railway and the powerful
grain syndicates. Dramatic changes in the grain trade took place in the
1940s, notably the amalgamation of grain elevator companies.²⁶

Norrie argues that the necessity of using dry farming techniques created
special risks and the farmers responded by using summer fallow rather than
the risky but more productive use of substitute crops or the planting of
wheat every year. Tenants often preferred the safety of sharecropping to
the hazards (and higher returns) of cash rental, and showed an interest in
crop insurance. Because farmers were averse to risk, grain production was
less than it might have been.²⁷

Recklessness, greed, and overoptimism played a part in the
early-20th-century financial crisis on the Canadian wheat frontier.
Beginning in 1916, the Palliser Triangle, a semiarid region in Alberta and
Saskatchewan, suffered a decade of dry years and crop failures that
culminated in financial ruin for many of the region's wheat farmers.
Overconfidence on the part of farmers, financiers, the Canadian Pacific,
and the Canadian government led to land investments and development in the
Palliser on an unprecedented and dangerous scale. A large share of this
expansion was funded by mortgage and loan companies in Britain eager to
make overseas investments. British money managers were driven by a complex
set of global economic forces including a decline in British investment
opportunities, excess capital, and massive investment expansion on the
Canadian frontier. Reduced grain production in Europe and increased grain
production in the Prairie Provinces also encouraged the export of capital
from London. The mythical image of the Palliser as an abundant region,
coupled with a growing confidence in technology, created a false sense of
security and stability. Between 1908 and 1913 British firms lent vast sums
to Canadian farmers to plant their wheat crops; only when the drought began
in 1916 did it become clear that far too much credit had been extended.²⁸

The First World War and the Roaring Twenties

Canada played an extraordinarily large role in the First World War relative
to its size. It sent over hundreds of thousands of troops, and was also the
granary and arms producer for the allied side. This led to a further boom
on the prairies as wheat prices skyrocketed. The rest of the country, even
the Maritimes, benefited from an increase in manufacturing.²⁹

The immediate post-war years saw a short, but severe, recession as the
economy readjusted to the end of wartime production. By 1921, the Canadian
economy was back on its feet and rapidly expanding. In the 1920s, there was
an unprecedented increase in the standard of living as items that had been
luxury goods such as radios, automobiles, and electric lights—not to
mention flush toilets—became common place across the nation. The boom
lasted until 1929.

The Great Depression

Main article: The Great Depression in Canada

Canada was hard hit by the Great Depression. When the American economy
began to collapse in the late 1920s the close economic links and the
central banking system meant that the malaise quickly spread across the
border. The world demand fell for wheat, lumber and mining products; prices
fell, profits plunged, and unemployment soared.

In May 1930, US raised the tariff with the Smoot Hawley Tariff Act. Canada
retaliated by imposing new tariffs on 16 products that accounted altogether
for around 30% of U.S. exports to Canada.³⁰ ³¹ Following Britain's lead,
Canada then forged closer economic links with the British Empire via the
British Empire Economic Conference of 1932.

By 1933, 30% of the labour force was out of work, and one fifth of the
population became dependent on government assistance. Wages fell as did
prices; debts did not fall and they became more burdensome. Gross National
Expenditure had declined 42% from the 1929 levels. In some areas, the
decline was far worse. In the rural areas of the prairies two thirds of the
population were on relief. Population growth contracted markedly as
immigration slowed, and birth rates fell as people postponed marriage and
family life until they were more secure. Crime rates increased, and a new
class of unemployed vagrants appeared.³²

Like the United States, Canada remained in depression far longer, not
passing 1929 levels until 1939, with the outbreak of the Second World War.
There was no national recovery program similar to Franklin D. Roosevelt's
New Deal.

The Second World War and the boom years

The turn around brought about by the command economy imposed at the
beginning of the Second World War was immense. Unemployment virtually
disappeared by 1940 as soldiers were recruited and factories turned to war
production. Canada was in the unusual situation of helping Britain
financially, through a program similar to the American Lend Lease.³³

In the twenty-five years after the war, there was an immense expansion in
the Canadian economy. Unemployment remained low and the end of wartime
production was quickly turned over to making consumer goods. Canada, along
with many other developed nations, firmly established itself as a welfare
state with publicly funded health care, the Canada Pension Plan, and other
programs.³⁴

During this period, the Canadian economy became much more closely
integrated with the American one as tariff barriers fell and trade
agreements like the Canada-United States Automotive Agreement and the "Hyde
Park Declaration" were signed.

Recent years

Recession

Canada experienced economic recession in the early 1980s and again in the
early 1990s.³⁵ This led to massive government deficits, high unemployment,
and general disaffection. The poor economy helped lead to the overwhelming
rejection of theProgressive Conservative Party in the 1993 election, and
the fall of other governments such as Bob Rae's Ontario New Democratic
Party. The poor economy may have increased support for sovereignty in
Quebec, an option that was just barely rejected in the 1995 Quebec
referendum.

A brief recovery in 1994 was followed by an economic slump in 1995-1996.
Since that date, the Canadian economy has improved markedly, in step with
the boom in the United States. Once referred to as a fiscal basket-case ,
Canada has become a model of fiscal stability as the government has posted
surpluses every fiscal year from 1996 to the 2008 recession.

The recession brought on in the United States by the collapse of the dot
com bubble beginning in 2000, hurt the Toronto Stock Exchange but has
affected Canada only mildly. It is one of the few times Canada has avoided
following the United States into a recession.

Following this downturn, Canadian economic growth has been concentrated in
the petroleum, real estate and income trust sectors.

Healthcare system

Canada's healthcare system, colloquially called "Medicare", is a
significant economic factor. As most aspects of the healthcare system are
financed from general government revenues, and as provincial governments
bear the majority of these costs, healthcare has grown to become the
largest component of Canadian provincial budgets. Medicare is also a
relevant factor in the decisions of employers to locate businesses in
Canada (where government pays most of employees' healthcare costs) as
opposed to the United States (where employers are forced to pay most of
these costs).

Poverty

Poverty in Canada remains a prevalent issue within some segments of
society. The most frequently quoted measure, the low-income cut off or
LICO, displays a downward trend since 2000 after a spike in the mid-1990s
and was 10.8% as of 2005.³⁶ Another measure, published by the free market
think tank Fraser Institute, displays a constant downward trend since 1970
and stood at 4.9% as of 2004. There is a debate about which measure is more
valid.³⁷

GDP history

The following table displays the change in real GDP from the previous year,
from 2000 to 2011:

See also

- Canadian and American economies compared
- Economic impact of immigration to Canada
- Economy of Canada
- Historiography of Canada
- History of Canada
- History of the petroleum industry in Canada
- Science and technology in Canada
- Technological and industrial history of Canada

Notes

[1] Joseph Gough, Managing Canada's Fisheries: From Early Days to the Year
  2000 (2007)
[2] Trevor J. Barnes, "Industrial geography, institutional economics and
  Innis." in Trevor Barnes, Meric S Gertler eds., The new industrial
  geography: Regions, regulation and institutions (1999): 1-22.
[3] "Staples Theory" in Old Messengers, New Media: The Legacy of Innis and
  McLuhan, from Library and Archives Canada
[4] Thomas A. Hutton, "The Innisian core-periphery revisited: Vancouver's
  changing relationships with British Columbia's staple economy." BC
  Studies: The British Columbian Quarterly 113 (1997): 69-100. online
[5] Carolyn Podruchny, Making theVoyageur World: Travelers and Traders in
  the North American Fur Trade (2006)
[6] Newfoundland is included starting in 1951. William L. Marr and Donald
  G. Paterson, Canada, an economic history (1980) p. 151
[7] Tim Ball, "Timber!", Beaver, April 987, Vol. 67#2 pp 45-56
[8] Graeme Wynn, Timber Colony: A Historical Geography of Early Nineteenth
  Century New Brunswick (2002)
[9] Robert Peter Gillis, "The Ottawa lumber barons and the conservation
  movement 1880-1914." Journal of Canadian Studies/Revue d'Études
  Canadiennes 9#1 (1974): 14-30.
[10] Douglas McCalla, Planting the Province: The Economic History of Upper
  Canada, 1784-1870 (1993)
[11] R. Thomas. Naylor, The History of Canadian Business: 1897-1914. Vol.
  1, The Banks and Finance Capital (1975)
[12] William N.T. Wylie, "Poverty, Distress, and Disease: Labour and the
  Construction of the Rideau Canal, 1826-32," Labour/Le Travail, Spring19
  83, Vol. 11, pp 7-29
[13] John N. Jackson, The Welland Canals and Their Communities:
  Engineering, Industrial, and Urban Transformation (1998)
[14] Jay Underwood, Built for War: Canada's Intercolonial Railway (2005)
[15] A.A. den Otter, The Philosophy of Railways: The Transcontinental
  Railway Idea in British North America (1997)
[16] Den Otten, The Philosophy of Railways: The Transcontinental Railway
  Idea in British North America (1997); Bill Waiser, Saskatchewan: A New
  History (2005) p. 63
[17] M. L. Bladen, Construction of Railways in Canada to the Year 1885,"
  Contributions to Canadian Economics Vol. 5 (1932), pp. 43-60; in JSTOR;
  Bladen, "Construction of Railways in Canada Part II: From 1885 to 1931,"
  Contributions to Canadian Economics Vol. 7 (1934), pp. 61-107; in JSTOR
[18] Rusty Bittermann and Margaret McCallum, "Upholding the Land
  Legislation of a 'Communistic and Socialist Assembly': The Benefits of
  Confederation for Prince Edward Island," Canadian Historical Review,
  (March 2006) 87#1 pp 1-28
[19] Vernon C. Fowke, "National Policy and Western Development in North
  America" Journal of Economic History, Vol. 16, No. 4 (Dec., 1956) , pp.
  461-479 in JSTOR
[20] P. B. Waite, Canada, 1874-1896 (1971)
[21] R. C. Brown and Ramsay Cook, Canada, 1896-1921 A Nation Transformed
  (1974)
[22] SMC-MCS, gazette@uottawa.ca. "A prediction that belonged to the 20th
  century". Uottawa.ca. Retrieved 2011-04-14.
[23] D. A. Lawr, "The Development of Ontario Farming, 1870-1914: Patterns
  of Growth and Change," Ontario History, Sept 1972, Vol. 64 Issue 3, pp
  239-251
[24] Ian A. McKay, "A Note on Ontario Agriculture: The Development of
  Soybeans, 1893-1952," Ontario History, June 1983, Vol. 75 Issue 2, pp
  175-186
[25] John Carter, "The Education of the Ontario Farmer," Ontario History,
  May 2004, Vol. 96 Issue 1, pp 62-84
[26] John Everitt, "The Line Elevator in Alberta." Alberta History [Canada]
  1992 40(4): 16-22; 1993 41(1): 20-26.
[27] Kenneth Norrie, "Dry Farming and the Economics of Risk Bearing: The
  Canadian Prairies, 1870-1930," Agricultural History, Winter 1977, Vol. 51
  Issue 1, pp 134-148
[28] John Feldberg, and Warren M. Elofson, "Financing The Palliser
  Triangle, 1908-1913." Great Plains Quarterly 1998 18(3): 257-268.
  0275-7664
[29] Robert Bothwell, Ian Drummond, and John English, Canada 1900-1945
  (1987)
[30] Richard N. Kottman, "Herbert Hoover and the Smoot–Hawley Tariff:
  Canada, A Case Study", Journal of American History (1975), 62#3 pp
  609–635, in JSTOR
[31] McDonald, Judith; O'Brien, Anthony Patrick; Callahan, Colleen "Trade
  Wars: Canada's Reaction to the Smoot–Hawley Tariff", Journal of Economic
  History (1997), 57#4 pp 802–826, in JSTOR
[32] Pierre Berton, The Great Depression: 1929-1939 (1990) is a popular
  acoount
[33] C. P. Stacey, Arms, Men and Governments: The War Policies of Canada,
  1939-1945 (1970)
[34] Robert Bothwell, Ian Drummond, and John English, Canada since 1945
  (2d. ed. 1989)
[35] Ecolnomic Concepts: Recession
[36] Poverty Measure in Canada Analysis, CBC, URL accessed 4 January 2007
[37] Poverty in Canada: 2006 Update, Fraser Institute, November 2006, URL
  accessed 3 December 2007

References and further reading

Main article: Bibliography of Canadian economic history
- Bliss, Michael. Northern Enterprise: Five Centuries of Canadian Business.
  (1987).
- Bordo, Michael D., Angela Redish, and Hugh Rockoff. "Why Didn't Canada
  Have a Banking Crisis in 2008 (or in 1930, or 1907, or . . .)?" Economic
  History Review 68#1 (2015): 218–43
- Creighton, D. G. The Commercial Empire of the St. Lawrence, 1760-1850
  (1937) online
- Currie, A.W. Canadian Economic Development 1st ed. 1942; 4th ed. 1963.
- Easterbrook, William Thoma; Aitken, Hugh G. J (1988). Canadian economic
  history. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-6696-8.
- Geloso, Vincent (2016) The seeds of divergence: the economy of French
  North America, 1688 to 1760. PhD thesis, The London School of Economics
  and Political Science (LSE).
- Granatstein, J. L. A Reader's Guide to Canadian History: Confederation to
  the Present (1982)
- Innis, Harold A. Essays in Canadian Economic History (1956) online
  edition
- McCalla, Douglas. Planting The Province: The Economic History of Upper
  Canada, 1784-1870 (University of Toronto Press, 1993). 446 pp.
- Marr, William L., and Donald G. Paterson. Canada: An Economic History
  (Toronto, 1980)
- Morton, Desmond. Working People: An Illustrated History of the Canadian
  Labour Movement (1999)
- Muise, D. A. ed., A Reader's Guide to Canadian History: i, Beginnings to
  Confederation (1982); historiography
- Naylor, R. Thomas. The History of Canadian Business: 1897-1914. Vol. 1,
  The Banks and Finance Capital; Vol. 2, Industrial Development (2 vol
  1975)
- Neill, Robin. A History of Canadian Economic Thought (1991) online
- Norrie, Kenneth, Douglas Owram, and J.C. Herbert Emery. A History of the
  Canadian Economy 4th ed. (2007)
- Palmer, Bryan D. Working Class Experience: Rethinking the History of
  Canadian Labour, 1800-1991, 1992
- Pomfret, Richard. The Economic Development of Canada 2nd ed. (1993)
- Taylor, Graham D., and Peter Baskerville. A Concise History of Business
  in Canada, 1994
- Taylor, M. Brook, ed. Canadian History: A Reader's Guide. Vol. 1. Doug
  Owram, ed. Canadian History: A Reader's Guide. Vol. 2. (1994).
  historiography

Primary sources

- Innis, H. A., and A. R. M. Lower, ed. Select Documents in Canadian
  Economic History, 1783-1885 (1933), 846pp

External links

- Set of audio lectures on Canadian economic history
- Economic history of Canada

History of Canada

The history of Canada covers the period from the arrival of Paleo-Indians
thousands of years ago to the present day. Prior to European colonization,
the lands encompassing present-day Canada were inhabited for millennia by
Aboriginal peoples, with distinct trade networks, spiritual beliefs, and
styles of social organization. Some of these civilizations had long faded
by the time of the first European arrivals and have been discovered through
archaeological investigations.

Starting in the late 15th century, French and British expeditions explored,
colonized, and fought over various places within North America in what
constitutes present day Canada. The colony of New France was established in
1534 and was ceded to the United Kingdom in 1763 after the French defeat in
the Seven Years' War. The now British Province of Quebec was divided into
Upper and Lower Canada in 1791 and reunified in 1841. In 1867, the Province
of Canada was joined with two other British colonies of New Brunswick and
Nova Scotia through Confederation, forming a self-governing entity named
Canada. The new dominion expanded by incorporating other parts of British
North America, finishing with Newfoundland and Labrador in 1949.

Although responsible government had existed in Canada since 1848, Britain
continued to set its foreign and defence policies after the end of the
First World War. With the passing of the Statute of Westminster in 1931,
Canada became co-equal with the United Kingdom. After the Constitution was
repatriated in 1982, the final vestiges of legal dependence on the British
parliament were removed. Canada currently consists of ten provinces and
three territories and is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional
monarchy with Queen Elizabeth II as its head of state.

Over centuries, elements of Aboriginal, French, British and more recent
immigrant customs have combined to form a Canadian culture that has also
been strongly influenced by its linguistic, geographic and economic
neighbour, the United States. Since the conclusion of the Second World War,
Canadians have supported multilateralism abroad and socioeconomic
development domestically.

Pre-colonization

See also: Timeline of Canadian history and List of years in Canada

Aboriginal peoples

Main article: Aboriginal peoples in Canada

Archeological and Aboriginal genetic evidence indicate that North and South
America were the last continents into which humans migrated.¹ During the
Wisconsin glaciation, 50,000–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed
people to move across the Bering land bridge (Beringia), from Siberia into
northwest North America.² At that point, they were blocked by the
Laurentide ice sheet that covered most of Canada, confining them to Alaska
and the Yukon for thousands of years.³ The exact dates and routes of the
peopling of the Americas are the subject of an ongoing debate.⁴ ⁵ By 16,000
years ago the glacial melt allowed people to move by land south and east
out of Beringia, and into Canada.⁶ The Queen Charlotte Islands, Old Crow
Flats, and Bluefish Caves contain some of the earliest Paleo-Indian
archaeological sites in Canada.⁷ ⁸ ⁹ Ice Age hunter-gatherers of this
period left lithic flake fluted stone tools and the remains of large
butchered mammals.

The North American climate stabilized around 8000 BCE (10,000 years ago).
Climatic conditions were similar to modern patterns; however, the receding
glacial ice sheets still covered large portions of the land, creating lakes
of meltwater.¹⁰ Most population groups during the Archaic periods were
still highly mobile hunter-gatherers.¹¹ However, individual groups started
to focus on resources available to them locally; thus with the passage of
time, there is a pattern of increasing regional generalization (i.e.:
Paleo-Arctic, Plano and Maritime Archaic traditions).¹¹

PP
S
L
Great Lakes area of the Hopewell Interaction Area
PP=Point Peninsula Complex   S=Saugeen Complex   L=Laurel Complex

The Woodland cultural period dates from about 2000 BCE to 1000 CE and
includes the Ontario, Quebec, and Maritime regions.¹² The introduction of
pottery distinguishes the Woodland culture from the previous Archaic-stage
inhabitants. The Laurentian-related people of Ontario manufactured the
oldest pottery excavated to date in Canada.¹³

The Hopewell tradition is an Aboriginal culture that flourished along
American rivers from 300 BCE to 500 CE. At its greatest extent, the
Hopewell Exchange System connected cultures and societies to the peoples on
the Canadian shores of Lake Ontario.¹⁴ Canadian expression of the
Hopewellian peoples encompasses the Point Peninsula, Saugeen, and Laurel
complexes.¹⁵

The eastern woodland areas of what became Canada were home to the
Algonquian and Iroquoian peoples. The Algonquian language is believed to
have originated in the western plateau of Idaho or the plains of Montana
and moved eastward,¹⁶ eventually extending all the way from Hudson Bay to
what is today Nova Scotia in the east and as far south as the Tidewater
region of Virginia.¹⁷

Speakers of eastern Algonquian languages included the Mi'kmaq and Abenaki
of the Maritime region of Canada and likely the extinct Beothuk of
Newfoundland.¹⁸ ¹⁹ The Ojibwa and other Anishinaabe speakers of the central
Algonquian languages retain an oral tradition of having moved to their
lands around the western and central Great Lakes from the sea, likely the
east coast.²⁰ According to oral tradition, the Ojibwa formed the Council of
Three Fires in 796 CE with the Odawa and the Potawatomi.²¹

The Iroquois (Haudenosaunee) were centred from at least 1000 CE in northern
New York, but their influence extended into what is now southern Ontario
and the Montreal area of modern Quebec.²² The Iroquois Confederacy,
according to oral tradition, was formed in 1142 CE.²³ ²⁴ On the Great
Plains the Cree or Nēhilawē (who spoke a closely related Central Algonquian
language, the plains Cree language) depended on the vast herds of bison to
supply food and many of their other needs.²⁵ To the northwest were the
peoples of the Na-Dene languages, which include the Athapaskan-speaking
peoples and the Tlingit, who lived on the islands of southern Alaska and
northern British Columbia. The Na-Dene language group is believed to be
linked to the Yeniseian languages of Siberia.²⁶ The Dene of the western
Arctic may represent a distinct wave of migration from Asia to North
America.²⁶

The Interior of British Columbia was home to the Salishan language groups
such as the Shuswap (Secwepemc), Okanagan and southern Athabaskan language
groups, primarily the Dakelh (Carrier) and the Tsilhqot'in.²⁷ The inlets
and valleys of the British Columbia Coast sheltered large, distinctive
populations, such as the Haida, Kwakwaka'wakw and Nuu-chah-nulth, sustained
by the region's abundant salmon and shellfish.²⁷ These peoples developed
complex cultures dependent on the western red cedar that included wooden
houses, seagoing whaling and war canoes and elaborately carved potlatch
items and totem poles.²⁷

In the Arctic archipelago, the distinctive Paleo-Eskimos known as Dorset
peoples, whose culture has been traced back to around 500 BCE, were
replaced by the ancestors of today's Inuit by 1500 CE.²⁸ This transition is
supported by archaeological records and Inuit mythology that tells of
having driven off the Tuniit or 'first inhabitants'.²⁹ Inuit traditional
laws are anthropologically different from Western law. Customary law was
non-existent in Inuit society before the introduction of the Canadian legal
system.³⁰

European contact

Further information: European colonization of the Americas

There are reports of contact made before the 1492 voyages of Christopher
Columbus and the age of discovery between First Nations, Inuit and those
from other continents. The Norse, who had settled Greenland and Iceland,
arrived around the year 1000 and built a small settlement at L'Anse aux
Meadows at the northernmost tip of Newfoundland (carbon dating estimate 990
– 1050 CE)³¹ L'Anse aux Meadows is also notable for its connection with the
attempted colony of Vinland established by Leif Erikson around the same
period or, more broadly, with Norse exploration of the Americas.³¹ ³²

Under letters patent from King Henry VII of England, the Italian John Cabot
became the first European known to have landed in Canada after the time of
the Vikings.³³ Records indicate that on 24 June 1497 he sighted land at a
northern location believed to be somewhere in the Atlantic provinces.³⁴
Official tradition deemed the first landing site to be at Cape Bonavista,
Newfoundland, although other locations are possible.³⁵ After 1497 Cabot and
his son Sebastian Cabot continued to make other voyages to find the
Northwest Passage, and other explorers continued to sail out of England to
the New World, although the details of these voyages are not well
recorded.³⁶

Based on the Treaty of Tordesillas, the Spanish Crown claimed it had
territorial rights in the area visited by John Cabot in 1497 and 1498 CE.³⁷
However, Portuguese explorers like João Fernandes Lavrador would continue
to visit the north Atlantic coast, which accounts for the appearance of
"Labrador" on topographical maps of the period.³⁸ In 1501 and 1502 the
Corte-Real brothers explored Newfoundland (Terra Nova) and Labrador
claiming these lands as part of the Portuguese Empire.³⁸ ³⁹ In 1506, King
Manuel I of Portugal created taxes for the cod fisheries in Newfoundland
waters.⁴⁰ João Álvares Fagundes and Pêro de Barcelos established fishing
outposts in Newfoundland and Nova Scotia around 1521 CE; however, these
were later abandoned, with the Portuguese colonizers focusing their efforts
on South America.⁴¹ The extent and nature of Portuguese activity on the
Canadian mainland during the 16th century remains unclear and
controversial.⁴² ⁴³

Canada under French Rule (1534–1763)

Main articles: New France and Former colonies and territories in Canada

French interest in the New World began with Francis I of France, who in
1524 sponsored Giovanni da Verrazzano to navigate the region between
Florida and Newfoundland in hopes of finding a route to the Pacific
Ocean.⁴⁵ Although the English had laid claims to it 1497 when John Cabot
made landfall somewhere on the North American coast (likely either
modern-day Newfoundland or Nova Scotia) and had claimed the land for
England on behalf of King Henry VII,⁴⁶ these claims were not exercised and
England did not make any attempts at permanent colonization. For the French
however, Jacques Cartier planted a cross in the Gaspé Peninsula in 1534 and
claimed the land in the name of Francis I establishing a region called
Canada.⁴⁷ Permanent settlement attempts by Cartier at Charlesbourg-Royal in
1541, at Sable Island in 1598 by Marquis de La Roche-Mesgouez, and at
Tadoussac, Quebec in 1600 by François Gravé Du Pont had all eventually
failed.⁴⁸ Despite these initial failures, French fishing fleets sailed the
Atlantic coast and into the St. Lawrence River, trading and making
alliances with First Nations,⁴⁹ as well as establishing fishing settlements
such as in Percé in 1603.⁵⁰ As a result of France's claim and activities in
the colony of Canada, the name "Canada" was present on international maps
denoting this colony within the St-Lawrence river region.⁵¹

In 1604, a North American fur trade monopoly was granted to Pierre Du Gua,
Sieur de Mons.⁵² The fur trade became one of the main economic ventures in
North America.⁵³ Du Gua led his first colonization expedition to an island
located near the mouth of the St. Croix River. Among his lieutenants was a
geographer named Samuel de Champlain, who promptly carried out a major
exploration of the northeastern coastline of what is now the United
States.⁵² In the spring of 1605, under Samuel de Champlain, the new St.
Croix settlement was moved to Port Royal (today's Annapolis Royal, Nova
Scotia).⁵⁴

In 1608 Champlain founded what is now Quebec City, one of the earliest
permanent settlements, which would become the capital of New France.⁵⁵ He
took personal administration over the city and its affairs, and sent out
expeditions to explore the interior.⁵⁶ Champlain himself discovered Lake
Champlain in 1609. By 1615, he had travelled by canoe up the Ottawa River
through Lake Nipissing and Georgian Bay to the centre of Huron country near
Lake Simcoe.⁵⁷ During these voyages, Champlain aided the Wendat (aka
"Hurons") in their battles against the Iroquois Confederacy.⁵⁸ As a result,
the Iroquois would become enemies of the French and be involved in multiple
conflicts (known as the French and Iroquois Wars) until the signing of the
Great Peace of Montreal in 1701.⁵⁹

The English, led by Humphrey Gilbert, had claimed St. John's, Newfoundland,
in 1583 as the first North American English colony by royal prerogative of
Queen Elizabeth I.⁶⁰ In the reign of King James I, the English established
additional colonies in Cupids and Ferryland, Newfoundland, and soon after
established the first successful permanent settlements of Virginia to the
south.⁶¹ On September 29, 1621, a charter for the foundation of a New World
Scottish colony was granted by King James to Sir William Alexander.⁶² In
1622, the first settlers left Scotland. They initially failed and permanent
Nova Scotian settlements were not firmly established until 1629 during the
end of the Anglo-French War.⁶² These colonies did not last long: in 1631,
under Charles I of England, the Treaty of Suza was signed, ending the war
and returning Nova Scotia to the French.⁶³ New France was not fully
restored to French rule until the 1632 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye.⁶⁴
This led to new French immigrants and the founding of Trois-Rivières in
1634.⁶⁵

During this period, in contrast to the higher density and slower moving
agricultural settlement development by the English inward from the east
coast of the colonies, New France's interior frontier would eventually
cover an immense area with a thin network centred on fur trade, conversion
efforts by missionaries, establishing and claiming an empire, and military
efforts to protect and further those efforts.⁶⁶ The largest of these canoe
networks covered much of present-day Canada and central present-day United
States.⁶⁷

After Champlain's death in 1635, the Roman Catholic Church and the Jesuit
establishment became the most dominant force in New France and hoped to
establish a utopian European and Aboriginal Christian community.⁶⁸ In 1642,
the Sulpicians sponsored a group of settlers led by Paul Chomedey de
Maisonneuve, who founded Ville-Marie, precursor to present-day Montreal.⁶⁹
In 1663 the French crown took direct control of the colonies from the
Company of New France.⁷⁰

Although immigration rates to New France remained very low under direct
French control,⁷¹ most of the new arrivals were farmers, and the rate of
population growth among the settlers themselves had been very high.⁷² The
women had about 30 per cent more children than comparable women who
remained in France.⁷³ Yves Landry says, "Canadians had an exceptional diet
for their time."⁷³ This was due to the natural abundance of meat, fish, and
pure water; the good food conservation conditions during the winter; and an
adequate wheat supply in most years.⁷³ The 1666 census of New France was
conducted by France's intendant, Jean Talon, in the winter of 1665–1666.
The census showed a population count of 3,215 Acadians and habitants
(French-Canadian farmers) in the administrative districts of Acadia and
Canada.⁷⁴ The census also revealed a great difference in the number of men
at 2,034 versus 1,181 women.⁷⁵

Wars during the colonial era

Further information: French and Indian Wars
See also: Military history of Canada

By the early 1700s the New France settlers were well established along the
shores of the Saint Lawrence River and parts of Nova Scotia, with a
population around 16,000.⁷⁶ However new arrivals stopped coming from France
in the proceeding decades,⁷⁷ ⁷⁸ ⁷⁹ resulting in the English and Scottish
settlers in Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and the southern Thirteen Colonies
to vastly outnumber the French population approximately ten to one by the
1750s.⁷¹ ⁸⁰ From 1670, through the Hudson's Bay Company, the English also
laid claim to Hudson Bay and its drainage basin known as Rupert's Land
establishing new trading posts and forts, while continuing to operate
fishing settlements in Newfoundland.⁸¹ French expansion along the Canadian
canoe routes challenged the Hudson's Bay Company claims, and in 1686,
Pierre Troyes led an overland expedition from Montreal to the shore of the
bay, where they managed to capture a handful of outposts.⁸² La Salle's
explorations gave France a claim to the Mississippi River Valley, where fur
trappers and a few settlers set up scattered forts and settlements.⁸³

There were four French and Indian Wars and two additional wars in Acadia
and Nova Scotia between the Thirteen American Colonies and New France from
1688 to 1763. During King William's War (1688 to 1697), military conflicts
in Acadia included: Battle of Port Royal (1690); a naval battle in the Bay
of Fundy (Action of July 14, 1696); and the Raid on Chignecto (1696) .⁸⁴
The Treaty of Ryswick in 1697 ended the war between the two colonial powers
of England and France for a brief time.⁸⁵ During Queen Anne's War (1702 to
1713), the British Conquest of Acadia occurred in 1710,⁸⁶ resulting in Nova
Scotia, other than Cape Breton, being officially ceded to the British by
the Treaty of Utrecht including Rupert's Land, which France had conquered
in the late 17th century (Battle of Hudson's Bay).⁸⁷ As an immediate result
of this setback, France founded the powerful Fortress of Louisbourg on Cape
Breton Island.⁸⁸

Louisbourg was intended to serve as a year-round military and naval base
for France's remaining North American empire and to protect the entrance to
the St. Lawrence River. Father Rale's War resulted in both the fall of New
France influence in present-day Maine and the British recognition of having
to negotiate with the Mi'kmaq in Nova Scotia. During King George's War
(1744 to 1748), an army of New Englanders led by William Pepperrell mounted
an expedition of 90 vessels and 4,000 men against Louisbourg in 1745.⁸⁹
Within three months the fortress surrendered. The return of Louisbourg to
French control by the peace treaty prompted the British to found Halifax in
1749 under Edward Cornwallis.⁹⁰ Despite the official cessation of war
between the British and French empires with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle;
the conflict in Acadia and Nova Scotia continued on as the Father Le
Loutre's War.⁹¹

The British ordered the Acadians expelled from their lands in 1755 during
the French and Indian War, an event called the Expulsion of the Acadians or
le Grand Dérangement.⁹² The "expulsion" resulted in approximately 12,000
Acadians being shipped to destinations throughout Britain's North America
and to France, Quebec and the French Caribbean colony of Saint-Domingue.⁹³
The first wave of the expulsion of the Acadians began with the Bay of Fundy
Campaign (1755) and the second wave began after the final Siege of
Louisbourg (1758). Many of the Acadians settled in southern Louisiana,
creating the Cajun culture there.⁹⁴ Some Acadians managed to hide and
others eventually returned to Nova Scotia, but they were far outnumbered by
a new migration of New England Planters who were settled on the former
lands of the Acadians and transformed Nova Scotia from a colony of
occupation for the British to a settled colony with stronger ties to New
England.⁹⁴ Britain eventually gained control of Quebec City and Montreal
after the Battle of the Plains of Abraham and Battle of Fort Niagara in
1759, and the Battle of the Thousand Islands and Battle of Sainte-Foy in
1760.⁹⁵

Canada under British rule (1763–1931)

Main article: Canada under British rule

With the end of the Seven Years' War and the signing of the Treaty of Paris
(1763), France ceded almost all of its remaining territory in mainland
North America, except for fishing rights off Newfoundland and the two small
islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon where its fishermen could dry their
fish. France had already secretly ceded its vast Louisiana territory to
Spain under the Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762) in which King Louis XV of
France had given his cousin King Charles III of Spain the entire area of
the drainage basin of the Mississippi River from the Great Lakes to the
Gulf of Mexico and from the Appalachian Mountains to the Rocky Mountains.
France and Spain kept the Treaty of Fontainebleau secret from other
countries until 1764.⁹⁶ In return for acquiring Canada, Britain returned to
France its most important sugar-producing colony, Guadeloupe, which the
French at the time considered more valuable than Canada. (Guadeloupe
produced more sugar than all the British islands combined, and Voltaire had
notoriously dismissed Canada as "Quelques arpents de neige", "A few acres
of snow").⁹⁷

The new British rulers of Canada retained and protected most of the
property, religious, political, and social culture of the French-speaking
habitants, guaranteeing the right of the Canadiens to practice the Catholic
faith and to the use of French civil law (now Quebec law) through the
Quebec Act of 1774.⁹⁸ The Royal Proclamation of 1763 had been issued in
October, by King George III following Great Britain's acquisition of French
territory.⁹⁹ The proclamation organized Great Britain's new North American
empire and stabilized relations between the British Crown and Aboriginal
peoples through regulation of trade, settlement, and land purchases on the
western frontier.⁹⁹

American Revolution and the Loyalists

Further information: Invasion of Quebec (1775)

During the American Revolution, there was some sympathy for the American
cause among the Acadians and the New Englanders in Nova Scotia.¹⁰⁰ Neither
party joined the rebels, although several hundred individuals joined the
revolutionary cause.¹⁰⁰ ¹⁰¹ An invasion of Quebec by the Continental Army
in 1775, with a goal to take Quebec from British control, was halted at the
Battle of Quebec by Guy Carleton, with the assistance of local militias.
The defeat of the British army during the Siege of Yorktown in October 1781
signaled the end of Britain's struggle to suppress the American
Revolution.¹⁰²

When the British evacuated New York City in 1783, they took many Loyalist
refugees to Nova Scotia, while other Loyalists went to southwestern Quebec.
So many Loyalists arrived on the shores of the St. John River that a
separate colony—New Brunswick—was created in 1784;¹⁰³ followed in 1791 by
the division of Quebec into the largely French-speaking Lower Canada
(French Canada) along the St. Lawrence River and Gaspé Peninsula and an
anglophone Loyalist Upper Canada, with its capital settled by 1796 in York,
in present-day Toronto.¹⁰⁴ After 1790 most of the new settlers were
American farmers searching for new lands; although generally favorable to
republicanism, they were relatively non-political and stayed neutral in the
War of 1812.¹⁰⁵

The signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783 formally ended the war. Britain
made several concessions to the Americans at the expense of the North
American colonies.¹⁰⁶ Notably, the borders between Canada and the United
States were officially demarcated;¹⁰⁶ all land south of the Great Lakes,
which was formerly a part of the Province of Quebec and included modern day
Michigan, Illinois and Ohio, was ceded to the Americans. Fishing rights
were also granted to the United States in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and on
the coast of Newfoundland and the Grand Banks.¹⁰⁶ The British ignored part
of the treaty and maintained their military outposts in the Great Lakes
areas it had ceded to the U.S., and they continued to supply their native
allies with munitions. The British evacuated the outposts with the Jay
Treaty of 1795, but the continued supply of munitions irritated the
Americans in the run-up to the War of 1812.¹⁰⁷

Canadian historians have had mixed views on the long-term impact of the
American Revolution. Arthur Lower in the 1950s provided the long-standard
historical interpretation that for English Canada the results were
counter-revolutionary:

  [English Canada] inherited, not the benefits, but the bitterness of the
  Revolution…. English Canada started its life with as powerful a nostalgic
  shove backward into the past as the Conquest had given to French Canada:
  two little peoples officially devoted to counter-revolution, to lost
  causes, to the tawdry ideals of a society of men and masters, and not to
  the self-reliant freedom alongside of them.¹⁰⁸

Recently Michel Ducharme has agreed that Canada did indeed oppose
"republican liberty", as exemplified by the United States and France.
However he says it did find a different path forward when it fought against
British rulers after 1837 to secure "modern liberty". That form of liberty
focused not on the virtues of citizens but on protecting their rights from
infringement by the state.¹⁰⁹ ¹¹⁰

War of 1812

Main articles: War of 1812 and Origins of the War of 1812

The War of 1812 was fought between the United States and the British, with
the British North American colonies being heavily involved.¹¹¹ Greatly
outgunned by the British Royal Navy, the American war plans focused on an
invasion of Canada (especially what is today eastern and western Ontario).
The American frontier states voted for war to suppress the First Nations
raids that frustrated settlement of the frontier.¹¹¹ The war on the border
with the United States was characterized by a series of multiple failed
invasions and fiascos on both sides. American forces took control of Lake
Erie in 1813, driving the British out of western Ontario, killing the
Native American leader Tecumseh, and breaking the military power of his
confederacy.¹¹² The war was overseen by British army officers like Isaac
Brock and Charles de Salaberry with the assistance of First Nations and
loyalist informants, most notably Laura Secord.¹¹³

The War ended with no boundary changes thanks to the Treaty of Ghent of
1814, and the Rush–Bagot Treaty of 1817.¹¹¹ A demographic result was the
shifting of the destination of American migration from Upper Canada to
Ohio, Indiana and Michigan, without fear of Indian attacks.¹¹¹ After the
war, supporters of Britain tried to repress the republicanism that was
common among American immigrants to Canada.¹¹¹ The troubling memory of the
war and the American invasions etched itself into the consciousness of
Canadians as a distrust of the intentions of the United States towards the
British presence in North America.¹¹⁴ pp. 254–255

Rebellions and the Durham Report

Further information: Rebellions of 1837

The rebellions of 1837 against the British colonial government took place
in both Upper and Lower Canada. In Upper Canada, a band of Reformers under
the leadership of William Lyon Mackenzie took up arms in a disorganized and
ultimately unsuccessful series of small-scale skirmishes around Toronto,
London, and Hamilton.¹¹⁵

In Lower Canada, a more substantial rebellion occurred against British
rule. Both English- and French-Canadian rebels, sometimes using bases in
the neutral United States, fought several skirmishes against the
authorities. The towns of Chambly and Sorel were taken by the rebels, and
Quebec City was isolated from the rest of the colony. Montreal rebel leader
Robert Nelson read the "Declaration of Independence of Lower Canada" to a
crowd assembled at the town of Napierville in 1838.¹¹⁶ The rebellion of the
Patriote movement was defeated after battles across Quebec. Hundreds were
arrested, and several villages were burnt in reprisal.¹¹⁶

British Government then sent Lord Durham to examine the situation; he
stayed in Canada only five months before returning to Britain and brought
with him his Durham Report, which strongly recommended responsible
government.¹¹⁷ A less well-received recommendation was the amalgamation of
Upper and Lower Canada for the deliberate assimilation of the
French-speaking population. The Canadas were merged into a single colony,
the United Province of Canada, by the 1840 Act of Union, and responsible
government was achieved in 1848, a few months after it was accomplished in
Nova Scotia.¹¹⁷ The parliament of United Canada in Montreal was set on fire
by a mob of Tories in 1849 after the passing of an indemnity bill for the
people who suffered losses during the rebellion in Lower Canada.¹¹⁸

Between the Napoleonic Wars and 1850, some 800,000 immigrants came to the
colonies of British North America, mainly from the British Isles, as part
of the great migration of Canada.¹¹⁹ These included Gaelic-speaking
Highland Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances to Nova Scotia and
Scottish and English settlers to the Canadas, particularly Upper Canada.
The Irish Famine of the 1840s significantly increased the pace of Irish
Catholic immigration to British North America, with over 35,000 distressed
Irish landing in Toronto alone in 1847 and 1848.¹²⁰

Pacific colonies

Further information: History of British Columbia

Spanish explorers had taken the lead in the Pacific Northwest coast, with
the voyages of Juan José Pérez Hernández in 1774 and 1775.¹²¹ By the time
the Spanish determined to build a fort on Vancouver Island, the British
navigator James Cook had visited Nootka Sound and charted the coast as far
as Alaska, while British and American maritime fur traders had begun a busy
era of commerce with the coastal peoples to satisfy the brisk market for
sea otter pelts in China, thereby launching what became known as the China
Trade.¹²² In 1789 war threatened between Britain and Spain on their
respective rights; the Nootka Crisis was resolved peacefully largely in
favor of Britain, the much stronger naval power. In 1793 Alexander
MacKenzie, a Canadian working for the North West Company, crossed the
continent and with his Aboriginal guides and French-Canadian crew, reached
the mouth of the Bella Coola River, completing the first continental
crossing north of Mexico, missing George Vancouver's charting expedition to
the region by only a few weeks.¹²³ In 1821, the North West Company and
Hudson's Bay Company merged, with a combined trading territory that was
extended by a licence to the North-Western Territory and the Columbia and
New Caledonia fur districts, which reached the Arctic Ocean on the north
and the Pacific Ocean on the west.¹²⁴

The Colony of Vancouver Island was chartered in 1849, with the trading post
at Fort Victoria as the capital. This was followed by the Colony of the
Queen Charlotte Islands in 1853, and by the creation of the Colony of
British Columbia in 1858 and the Stikine Territory in 1861, with the latter
three being founded expressly to keep those regions from being overrun and
annexed by American gold miners.¹²⁵ The Colony of the Queen Charlotte
Islands and most of the Stikine Territory were merged into the Colony of
British Columbia in 1863 (the remainder, north of the 60th Parallel, became
part of the North-Western Territory).¹²⁵

Confederation

Main article: Canadian Confederation

The Seventy-Two Resolutions from the 1864 Quebec Conference and
Charlottetown Conference laid out the framework for uniting British
colonies in North America into a federation.¹²⁶ They had been adopted by
the majority of the provinces of Canada and became the basis for the London
Conference of 1866, which led to the formation of the Dominion of Canada on
July 1, 1867.¹²⁶ The term dominion was chosen to indicate Canada's status
as a self-governing colony of the British Empire, the first time it was
used about a country.¹²⁷ With the coming into force of the British North
America Act (enacted by the British Parliament), the Province of Canada,
New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia became a federated kingdom in its own
right.¹²⁸ ¹²⁹ ¹³⁰ (According to J. McCullough, use of the phrase "Dominion
of Canada ... was gradually phased out" during the "late 1940's, 50's, and
early 60's" with the growth of "post-colonial Canadian nationalism".)¹³¹

Federation emerged from multiple impulses: the British wanted Canada to
defend itself; the Maritimes needed railroad connections, which were
promised in 1867; British-Canadian nationalism sought to unite the lands
into one country, dominated by the English language and British culture;
many French-Canadians saw an opportunity to exert political control within
a new largely French-speaking Quebec¹¹⁴ pp. 323–324 and fears of possible
U.S. expansion northward.¹²⁷ On a political level, there was a desire for
the expansion of responsible government and elimination of the legislative
deadlock between Upper and Lower Canada, and their replacement with
provincial legislatures in a federation.¹²⁷ This was especially pushed by
the liberal Reform movement of Upper Canada and the French-Canadian Parti
rouge in Lower Canada who favored a decentralized union in comparison to
the Upper Canadian Conservative party and to some degree the
French-Canadian Parti bleu, which favored a centralized union.¹²⁷ ¹³²

Early Post-Confederation Canada 1867–1914

Main article: Post-Confederation Canada (1867–1914)

Territorial Expansion

Further information: Territorial evolution of Canada

Using the lure of the Canadian Pacific Railway, a transcontinental line
that would unite the nation, Ottawa attracted support in the Maritimes and
in British Columbia. In 1866, the Colony of British Columbia and the Colony
of Vancouver Island merged into a single Colony of British Columbia; it
joined the Canadian Confederation in 1871. In 1873, Prince Edward Island
joined. Newfoundland—which had no use for a transcontinental railway—voted
no in 1869, and did not join Canada until 1949.¹³³

In 1873 John A. Macdonald (First Prime Minister of Canada) created the
North-West Mounted Police (now the Royal Canadian Mounted Police) to help
police the Northwest Territories.¹³⁴ Specifically the Mounties were to
assert Canadian sovereignty over possible American encroachments into the
sparsely populated land.¹³⁴

The Mounties' first large-scale mission was to suppress the second
independence movement by Manitoba's Métis, a mixed blood people of joint
First Nations and European descent, who originated in the mid-17th
century.¹³⁵ The desire for independence erupted in the Red River Rebellion
in 1869 and the later North-West Rebellion in 1885 led by Louis Riel.¹³⁴
¹³⁶ Suppressing the Rebellion was Canada's first independent military
action. It cost about $5 million and demonstrated the need to complete the
Canadian Pacific Railway. It guaranteed Anglophone control of the Prairies,
and demonstrated the national government was capable of decisive action.
However, it lost the Conservative Party most of their support in Quebec and
led to permanent distrust of the Anglophone community on the part of the
Francophones.¹³⁷

In 1905 when Saskatchewan and Alberta were admitted as provinces, they were
growing rapidly thanks to abundant wheat crops that attracted immigration
to the plains by Ukrainians and Northern and Central Europeans and by
settlers from the United States, Britain and eastern Canada.¹³⁸ ¹³⁹

The Alaska boundary dispute, simmering since the Alaska purchase of 1867,
became critical when gold was discovered in the Yukon during the late
1890s, with the U.S. controlling all the possible ports of entry. Canada
argued its boundary included the port of Skagway. The dispute went to
arbitration in 1903, but the British delegate sided with the Americans,
angering Canadians who felt the British had betrayed Canadian interests to
curry favour with the U.S.¹⁴⁰

In the 1890s, legal experts codified a framework of criminal law,
culminating in the Criminal Code, 1892.¹⁴¹ This solidified the liberal
ideal of "equality before the law" in a way that made an abstract principle
into a tangible reality for every adult Canadian.¹⁴² Wilfrid Laurier who
served 1896–1911 as the Seventh Prime Minister of Canada felt Canada was on
the verge of becoming a world power, and declared that the 20th century
would "belong to Canada"¹⁴³

Laurier signed a reciprocity treaty with the U.S. that would lower tariffs
in both directions. Conservatives under Robert Borden denounced it, saying
it would integrate Canada's economy into that of the U.S. and loosen ties
with Britain. The Conservative party won the Canadian federal election,
1911.¹⁴⁴

Development of Popular Culture

Canadian culture as it is understood today can be traced to its time period
of westward expansion. Contributing factors include Canada's unique
geography, climate, and cultural makeup. Being a cold country with long
winter nights for most of the year, certain unique leisure activities
developed in Canada during this period including hockey and lacrosse.¹⁴⁵
¹⁴⁶ ¹⁴⁷ During this period the churches tried to steer leisure activities,
by preaching against drinking and scheduling annual revivals and weekly
club activities.¹⁴⁸ By 1930 radio played a major role in uniting Canadians
behind their local or regional hockey teams. Play-by-play sports coverage,
especially of ice hockey, absorbed fans far more intensely than newspaper
accounts the next day. Rural areas were especially influenced by sports
coverage.¹⁴⁹ Canadians in the 19th century came to believe themselves
possessed of a unique "northern character," due to the long, harsh winters
that only those of hardy body and mind could survive. This hardiness was
claimed as a Canadian trait, and such sports as ice hockey and snowshoeing
that reflected this were asserted as characteristically Canadian.¹⁵⁰
Outside the sports arena Canadians express the national characteristics of
being peaceful, orderly and polite. Inside they scream their lungs out at
ice hockey games, cheering the speed, ferocity, and violence, making hockey
an ambiguous symbol of Canada.¹⁵¹

The Great War and interwar years 1914–1939

Main article: Canada in the World Wars and Interwar Years

First World War

Main article: Military history of Canada during World War I

The Canadian Forces and civilian participation in the First World War
helped to foster a sense of British-Canadian nationhood. The highpoints of
Canadian military achievement during the First World War came during the
Somme, Vimy, Passchendaele battles and what later became known as "Canada's
Hundred Days".¹⁵² The reputation Canadian troops earned, along with the
success of Canadian flying aces including William George Barker and Billy
Bishop, helped to give the nation a new sense of identity.¹⁵³ The War
Office in 1922 reported approximately 67,000 killed and 173,000 wounded
during the war.¹⁵⁴ This excludes civilian deaths in war-time incidents like
the Halifax Explosion.¹⁵⁴

Support for Great Britain during the First World War caused a major
political crisis over conscription, with Francophones, mainly from Quebec,
rejecting national policies.¹⁵⁵ During the crisis, large numbers of enemy
aliens (especially Ukrainians and Germans) were put under government
controls.¹⁵⁶ The Liberal party was deeply split, with most of its
Anglophone leaders joining the unionist government headed by Prime Minister
Robert Borden, the leader of the Conservative party.¹⁵⁷ The Liberals
regained their influence after the war under the leadership of William Lyon
Mackenzie King, who served as prime minister with three separate terms
between 1921 and 1949.¹⁵⁸

Women's suffrage

Further information: History of Canadian women § Feminism and woman
suffrage
See also: Canadian women during the world wars

Women's political status without the vote was vigorously promoted by the
National Council of Women of Canada from 1894 to 1918. It promoted a vision
of "transcendent citizenship" for women. The ballot was not needed, for
citizenship was to be exercised through personal influence and moral
suasion, through the election of men with strong moral character, and
through raising public-spirited sons.¹⁵⁹ The National Council position
reflected its nation-building program that sought to uphold Canada as a
White settler nation. While the woman suffrage movement was important for
extending the political rights of White women, it was also authorized
through race-based arguments that linked White women's enfranchisement to
the need to protect the nation from "racial degeneration".¹⁵⁹

Women did have a local vote in some provinces, as in Canada West from 1850,
where women owning land could vote for school trustees. By 1900 other
provinces adopted similar provisions, and in 1916 Manitoba took the lead in
extending full women's suffrage.¹⁶⁰ Simultaneously suffragists gave strong
support to the prohibition movement, especially in Ontario and the Western
provinces.¹⁶¹ ¹⁶²

The Military Voters Act of 1917 gave the vote to British women who were war
widows or had sons or husbands serving overseas. Unionists Prime Minister
Borden pledged himself during the 1917 campaign to equal suffrage for
women. After his landslide victory, he introduced a bill in 1918 for
extending the franchise to women. This passed without division, but did not
apply to Quebec provincial and municipal elections. The women of Quebec
gained full suffrage in 1940. The first woman elected to Parliament was
Agnes Macphail of Ontario in 1921.¹⁶³

Interwar

On the world stage

As a result of its contribution to Allied victory in the First World War,
Canada became more assertive and less deferential to British authority.
Convinced that Canada had proven itself on the battlefields of Europe,
Prime Minister Sir Robert Borden demanded that it have a separate seat at
the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. This was initially opposed not only by
Britain but also by the United States, which saw such a delegation as an
extra British vote. Borden responded by pointing out that since Canada had
lost nearly 60,000 men, a far larger proportion of its men, its right to
equal status as a nation had been consecrated on the battlefield. British
Prime Minister David Lloyd George eventually relented, and convinced the
reluctant Americans to accept the presence of delegations from Canada,
India, Australia, Newfoundland, New Zealand, and South Africa. These also
received their own seats in the League of Nations.¹⁶⁴ Canada asked for
neither reparations nor mandates. It played only a modest role at Paris,
but just having a seat was a matter of pride. It was cautiously optimistic
about the new League of Nations, in which it played an active and
independent role.¹⁶⁵

In 1923 British Prime Minister, David Lloyd George, appealed repeatedly for
Canadian support in the Chanak crisis, in which a war threatened between
Britain and Turkey. Canada refused.¹⁶⁶ The Department of External Affairs,
which had been founded in 1909, was expanded and promoted Canadian autonomy
as Canada reduced its reliance on British diplomats and used its own
foreign service.¹⁶⁷ Thus began the careers of such important diplomats as
Norman Robertson and Hume Wrong, and future prime minister Lester
Pearson.¹⁶⁸

Domestic affairs

In 1921 to 1926, William Lyon Mackenzie King's Liberal government pursued a
conservative domestic policy with the object of lowering wartime taxes and,
especially, cooling wartime ethnic tensions, as well as defusing postwar
labour conflicts. The Progressives refused to join the government, but did
help the Liberals defeat non-confidence motions. King faced a delicate
balancing act of reducing tariffs enough to please the Prairie-based
Progressives, but not too much to alienate his vital support in industrial
Ontario and Quebec, which needed tariffs to compete with American imports.
King and Conservative leader Arthur Meighen sparred constantly and bitterly
in Commons debates.¹⁶⁹ The Progressives gradually weakened. Their effective
and passionate leader, Thomas Crerar, resigned to return to his grain
business, and was replaced by the more placid Robert Forke. The socialist
reformer J. S. Woodsworth gradually gained influence and power among the
Progressives, and he reached an accommodation with King on policy
matters.¹⁷⁰

In 1926 Prime Minister Mackenzie King advised the Governor General, Lord
Byng, to dissolve Parliament and call another election, but Byng refused,
the only time that the Governor General has exercised such a power. Instead
Byng called upon Meighen, the Conservative Party leader, to form a
government.¹⁷¹ Meighen attempted to do so, but was unable to obtain a
majority in the Commons and he, too, advised dissolution, which this time
was accepted. The episode, the King–Byng Affair, marks a constitutional
crisis that was resolved by a new tradition of complete non-interference in
Canadian political affairs on the part of the British government.¹⁷²

Great Depression

Main article: Great Depression in Canada

Canada was hard hit by the worldwide Great Depression that began in 1929.
Between 1929 and 1933, the gross national product dropped 40% (compared to
37% in the US). Unemployment reached 27% at the depth of the Depression in
1933.¹⁷³ Many businesses closed, as corporate profits of $396 million in
1929 turned into losses of $98 million in 1933. Canadian exports shrank by
50% from 1929 to 1933. Construction all but stopped (down 82%, 1929–33),
and wholesale prices dropped 30%. Wheat prices plunged from 78c per bushel
(1928 crop) to 29c in 1932.¹⁷³

Urban unemployment nationwide was 19%; Toronto's rate was 17%, according to
the census of 1931. Farmers who stayed on their farms were not considered
unemployed.¹⁷⁴ By 1933, 30% of the labour force was out of work, and one
fifth of the population became dependent on government assistance. Wages
fell as did prices. Worst hit were areas dependent on primary industries
such as farming, mining and logging, as prices fell and there were few
alternative jobs. Most families had moderate losses and little hardship,
though they too became pessimistic and their debts became heavier as prices
fell. Some families saw most or all of their assets disappear, and suffered
severely.¹⁷⁵ ¹⁷⁶

In 1930, in the first stage of the long depression, Prime Minister
Mackenzie King believed that the crisis was a temporary swing of the
business cycle and that the economy would soon recover without government
intervention. He refused to provide unemployment relief or federal aid to
the provinces, saying that if Conservative provincial governments demanded
federal dollars, he would not give them "a five cent piece."¹⁷⁷ His blunt
wisecrack was used to defeat the Liberals in the 1930 election. The main
issue was the rapid deterioration in the economy and whether the prime
minister was out of touch with the hardships of ordinary people.¹⁷⁸ ¹⁷⁹ The
winner of the 1930 election was Richard Bedford Bennett and the
Conservatives. Bennett had promised high tariffs and large-scale spending,
but as deficits increased, he became wary and cut back severely on Federal
spending. With falling support and the depression getting only worse,
Bennett attempted to introduce policies based on the New Deal of President
Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) in the United States, but he got little passed.
Bennett's government became a focus of popular discontent. For example,
auto owners saved on gasoline by using horses to pull their cars, dubbing
them Bennett Buggies. The Conservative failure to restore prosperity led to
the return of Mackenzie King's Liberals in the 1935 election.¹⁸⁰

In 1935, the Liberals used the slogan "King or Chaos" to win a landslide in
the 1935 election.¹⁸¹ Promising a much-desired trade treaty with the U.S.,
the Mackenzie King government passed the 1935 Reciprocal Trade Agreement.
It marked the turning point in Canadian-American economic relations,
reversing the disastrous trade war of 1930–31, lowering tariffs, and
yielding a dramatic increase in trade.¹⁸²

The worst of the Depression had passed by 1935, as Ottawa launched relief
programs such as the National Housing Act and National Employment
Commission. The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation became a crown
corporation in 1936. Trans-Canada Airlines (the precursor to Air Canada)
was formed in 1937, as was the National Film Board of Canada in 1939. In
1938, Parliament transformed the Bank of Canada from a private entity to a
crown corporation.¹⁸³

One political response was a highly restrictive immigration policy and a
rise in nativism.¹⁸⁴

Times were especially hard in western Canada, where a full recovery did not
occur until the Second World War began in 1939. One response was the
creation of new political parties such as the Social Credit movement and
the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation, as well as popular protest in the
form of the On-to-Ottawa Trek.¹⁸⁵

The End of British Rule

Main article: Statute of Westminster, 1931

Following the Balfour Declaration of 1926, the British Parliament passed
the Statute of Westminster in 1931 which acknowledged Canada as coequal
with the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms. It was a crucial
step in the development of Canada as a separate state in that it provided
for nearly complete legislative autonomy from the Parliament of the United
Kingdom.¹⁸⁶ Although the United Kingdom retained authority over any
Canadian constitutional changes, this authority was later relinquished with
the passing of the Constitution Act, 1982 which was the final step in
achieving full sovereignty.

Canada during the Second World War

Further information: Military history of Canada during the Second World War

Canada's involvement in the Second World War began when Canada declared war
on Nazi Germany on September 10, 1939, delaying it one week after Britain
acted to symbolically demonstrate independence. The war restored Canada's
economic health and its self-confidence, as it played a major role in the
Atlantic and in Europe. During the war, Canada became more closely linked
to the U.S. The Americans took virtual control of Yukon in order to build
the Alaska Highway, and were a major presence in the British colony of
Newfoundland with major airbases.¹⁸⁷

Mackenzie King — and Canada — were largely ignored by Winston Churchill and
the British government despite Canada's major role in supplying food, raw
materials, munitions and money to the hard-pressed British economy,
training airmen for the Commonwealth, guarding the western half of the
North Atlantic Ocean against German U-boats, and providing combat troops
for the invasions of Italy, France and Germany in 1943–45. The government
successfully mobilized the economy for war, with impressive results in
industrial and agricultural output. The depression ended, prosperity
returned, and Canada's economy expanded significantly. On the political
side, Mackenzie King rejected any notion of a government of national
unity.¹⁸⁸ The Canadian federal election, 1940 was held as normally
scheduled, producing another majority for the Liberals.

Building up the Royal Canadian Air Force was a high priority; it was kept
separate from Britain's Royal Air Force. The British Commonwealth Air
Training Plan Agreement, signed in December 1939, bound Canada, Britain,
New Zealand, and Australia to a program that eventually trained half the
airmen from those four nations in the Second World War.¹⁸⁹

After the start of war with Japan in December 1941, the government, in
cooperation with the U.S., began the Japanese-Canadian internment, which
sent 22,000 British Columbia residents of Japanese descent to relocation
camps far from the coast. The reason was intense public demand for removal
and fears of espionage or sabotage.¹⁹⁰ The government ignored reports from
the RCMP and Canadian military that most of the Japanese were law-abiding
and not a threat.¹⁹¹

The Battle of the Atlantic began immediately, and from 1943 to 1945 was led
by Leonard W. Murray, from Nova Scotia. German U-boats operated in Canadian
and Newfoundland waters throughout the war, sinking many naval and merchant
vessels, as Canada took charge of the defenses of the western Atlantic.¹⁹²
The Canadian army was involved in the failed defence of Hong Kong, the
unsuccessful Dieppe Raid in August 1942, the Allied invasion of Italy, and
the highly successful invasion of France and the Netherlands in 1944–45.¹⁹³

The Conscription Crisis of 1944 greatly affected unity between French and
English-speaking Canadians, though was not as politically intrusive as that
of the First World War.¹⁹⁴ Of a population of approximately 11.5 million,
1.1 million Canadians served in the armed forces in the Second World War.
Many thousands more served with the Canadian Merchant Navy.¹⁹⁵ In all, more
than 45,000 died, and another 55,000 were wounded.¹⁹⁶ ¹⁹⁷

Post-war Era 1945–1960

Main article: History of Canada (1945–1960)

Prosperity returned to Canada during the Second World War and continued in
the proceeding years, with the development of universal health care,
old-age pensions, and veterans' pensions.¹⁹⁸ ¹⁹⁹ The financial crisis of
the Great Depression had led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish
responsible government in 1934 and become a crown colony ruled by a British
governor.²⁰⁰ In 1948, the British government gave voters three Newfoundland
Referendum choices: remaining a crown colony, returning to Dominion status
(that is, independence), or joining Canada. Joining the United States was
not made an option. After bitter debate Newfoundlanders voted to join
Canada in 1949 as a province.²⁰¹

The foreign policy of Canada during the Cold War was closely tied to that
of the United States. Canada was a founding member of NATO (which Canada
wanted to be a transatlantic economic and political union as well²⁰² ). In
1950, Canada sent combat troops to Korea during the Korean War as part of
the United Nations forces. The federal government's desire to assert its
territorial claims in the Arctic during the Cold War manifested with the
High Arctic relocation, in which Inuit were moved from Nunavik (the
northern third of Quebec) to barren Cornwallis Island;²⁰³ this project was
later the subject of a long investigation by the Royal Commission on
Aboriginal Peoples.²⁰⁴

In 1956, the United Nations responded to the Suez Crisis by convening a
United Nations Emergency Force to supervise the withdrawal of invading
forces. The peacekeeping force was initially conceptualized by Secretary of
External Affairs and future Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson.²⁰⁵ Pearson
was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1957 for his work in establishing the
peacekeeping operation.²⁰⁵ Throughout the mid-1950s, Louis St. Laurent
(12th Prime Minister of Canada) and his successor John Diefenbaker
attempted to create a new, highly advanced jet fighter, the Avro Arrow.²⁰⁶
The controversial aircraft was cancelled by Diefenbaker in 1959.
Diefenbaker instead purchased the BOMARC missile defense system and
American aircraft. In 1958 Canada established (with the United States) the
North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD).²⁰⁷

1960–1981

Main article: History of Canada (1960–1981)

In the 1960s, what became known as the Quiet Revolution took place in
Quebec, overthrowing the old establishment which centred on the Roman
Catholic Archdiocese of Quebec and led to modernizing of the economy and
society.²⁰⁸ Québécois nationalists demanded independence, and tensions rose
until violence erupted during the 1970 October Crisis. John Saywell says,
"The two kidnappings and the murder of Pierre Laporte were the biggest
domestic news stories in Canada's history"²⁰⁹ ²¹⁰ In 1976 the Parti
Québécois was elected to power in Quebec, with a nationalist vision that
included securing French linguistic rights in the province and the pursuit
of some form of sovereignty for Quebec. This culminated in the 1980
referendum in Quebec on the question of sovereignty-association, which was
turned down by 59% of the voters.²¹⁰

In 1965, Canada adopted the maple leaf flag, although not without
considerable debate and misgivings among large number of English
Canadians.²¹¹ The World's Fair titled Expo 67 came to Montreal, coinciding
with the Canadian Centennial that year. The fair opened April 28, 1967,
with the theme "Man and his World" and became the best attended of all
BIE-sanctioned world expositions until that time.²¹²

Legislative restrictions on Canadian immigration that had favoured British
and other European immigrants were amended in the 1960s, opening the doors
to immigrants from all parts of the world.²¹³ While the 1950s had seen high
levels of immigration from Britain, Ireland, Italy, and northern
continental Europe, by the 1970s immigrants increasingly came from India,
China, Vietnam, Jamaica and Haiti.²¹⁴ Immigrants of all backgrounds tended
to settle in the major urban centres, particularly Toronto, Montreal and
Vancouver.²¹⁴

During his long tenure in the office (1968–79, 1980–84), Prime Minister
Pierre Trudeau made social and cultural change his political goals,
including the pursuit of official bilingualism in Canada and plans for
significant constitutional change.²¹⁵ The west, particularly the
petroleum-producing provinces like Alberta, opposed many of the policies
emanating from central Canada, with the National Energy Program creating
considerable antagonism and growing western alienation.²¹⁶ Multiculturalism
in Canada was adopted as the official policy of the Canadian government
during the prime ministership of Pierre Trudeau.²¹⁷

1982–1992

Main article: History of Canada (1982–1992)

In 1982, the Canada Act was passed by the British parliament and granted
Royal Assent by Queen Elizabeth II on March 29, while the Constitution Act
was passed by the Canadian parliament and granted Royal Assent by the Queen
on April 17, thus patriating the Constitution of Canada.²¹⁸ Previously, the
constitution has existed only as an act passed of the British parliament,
and was not even physically located in Canada, though it could not be
altered without Canadian consent.²¹⁹ Canada had established complete
sovereignty as an independent country, with the Queen's role as monarch of
Canada separate from her role as the British monarch or the monarch of any
of the other Commonwealth realms.²²⁰

At the same time, the Charter of Rights and Freedoms was added in place of
the previous Bill of Rights.²²¹ The patriation of the constitution was
Trudeau's last major act as Prime Minister; he resigned in 1984.

On June 23, 1985, Air India Flight 182 was destroyed above the Atlantic
Ocean by a bomb on board exploding; all 329 on board were killed, of whom
280 were Canadian citizens.²²² The Air India attack is the largest mass
murder in Canadian history.²²³

The Progressive Conservative (PC) government of Brian Mulroney began
efforts to gain Quebec's support for the Constitution Act 1982 and end
western alienation. In 1987 the Meech Lake Accord talks began between the
provincial and federal governments, seeking constitutional changes
favourable to Quebec.²²⁴ The failure of the Meech Lake Accord resulted in
the formation of a separatist party, Bloc Québécois.²²⁵ The constitutional
reform process under Prime Minister Mulroney culminated in the failure of
the Charlottetown Accord which would have recognized Quebec as a "distinct
society" but was rejected in 1992 by a narrow margin.²²⁶

Under Brian Mulroney, relations with the United States began to grow more
closely integrated. In 1986, Canada and the U.S. signed the "Acid Rain
Treaty" to reduce acid rain. In 1989, the federal government adopted the
Free Trade Agreement with the United States despite significant animosity
from the Canadian public who were concerned about the economic and cultural
impacts of close integration with the United States.²²⁷ On July 11, 1990,
the Oka Crisis land dispute began between the Mohawk people of Kanesatake
and the adjoining town of Oka, Quebec.²²⁸ The dispute was the first of a
number of well-publicized conflicts between First Nations and the Canadian
government in the late 20th century. In August 1990, Canada was one of the
first nations to condemn Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, and it quickly agreed
to join the U.S.-led coalition. Canada deployed destroyers and later a
CF-18 Hornet squadron with support personnel, as well as a field hospital
to deal with casualties.²²⁹

Recent history: 1992–present

Main article: History of Canada (1992–present)

Following Mulroney's resignation as prime minister in 1993, Kim Campbell
took office and became Canada's first female prime minister.²³⁰ Campbell
remained in office for only a few months: the 1993 election saw the
collapse of the Progressive Conservative Party from government to two
seats, while the Quebec-based sovereigntist Bloc Québécois became the
official opposition.²³¹ Prime Minister Jean Chrétien of the Liberals took
office in November 1993 with a majority government and was re-elected with
further majorities during the 1997 and 2000 elections.²³²

In 1995, the government of Quebec held a second referendum on sovereignty
that was rejected by a margin of 50.6% to 49.4%.²³³ In 1998, the Canadian
Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession by a province to be
unconstitutional, and Parliament passed the Clarity Act outlining the terms
of a negotiated departure.²³³ Environmental issues increased in importance
in Canada during this period, resulting in the signing of the Kyoto Accord
on climate change by Canada's Liberal government in 2002. The accord was in
2007 nullified by Prime Minister Stephen Harper's Conservative government,
which proposed a "made-in-Canada" solution to climate change.²³⁴

Canada became the fourth country in the world and the first country in the
Americas to legalize same-sex marriage nationwide with the enactment of the
Civil Marriage Act.²³⁵ Court decisions, starting in 2003, had already
legalized same-sex marriage in eight out of ten provinces and one of three
territories. Before the passage of the Act, more than 3,000 same-sex
couples had married in these areas.²³⁶

The Canadian Alliance and PC Party merged into the Conservative Party of
Canada in 2003, ending a 13-year division of the conservative vote. The
party was elected twice as a minority government under the leadership of
Stephen Harper in the 2006 federal election and 2008 federal election.²³²
Harper's Conservative Party won a majority in the 2011 federal election
with the New Democratic Party forming the Official Opposition for the first
time.²³⁷

Under Harper, Canada and the United States continued to integrate state and
provincial agencies to strengthen security along the Canada–United States
border through the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative.²³⁸ From 2002 to
2011, Canada was involved in the Afghanistan War as part of the U.S.
stabilization force and the NATO-commanded International Security
Assistance Force. In July 2010, the largest purchase in Canadian military
history, totalling C$9 billion for the acquisition of 65 F-35 fighters, was
announced by the federal government.²³⁹ Canada is one of several nations
that assisted in the development of the F-35 and has invested over C$168
million in the program.²⁴⁰

On October 19, 2015, Stephen Harper's Conservatives were defeated by a
newly resurgent Liberal party under the leadership of Justin Trudeau and
which had been reduced to third party status in the 2011 elections.²⁴¹

Multiculturalism (cultural and ethnic diversity) has been emphasized in
recent decades. Ambrose and Mudde conclude that: "Canada's unique
multiculturalism policy ... which is based on a combination of selective
immigration, comprehensive integration, and strong state repression of
dissent on these policies. This unique blend of policies has led to a
relatively low level of opposition to multiculturalism".²⁴² ²⁴³

Historiography

Main article: Historiography of Canada

The Conquest of New France has always been a central and contested theme of
Canadian memory. Cornelius Jaenen argues:

  The Conquest has remained a difficult subject for French-Canadian
  historians because it can be viewed either as economically and
  ideologically disastrous or as a providential intervention to enable
  Canadians to maintain their language and religion under British rule. For
  virtually all Anglophone historians it was a victory for British
  military, political, and economic superiority which would eventually only
  benefit the conquered.²⁴⁴

Historians of the 1950s tried to explain the economic inferiority of the
French-Canadians by arguing that the Conquest:

  destroyed an integral society and decapitated the commercial class;
  leadership of the conquered people fell to the Church; and, because
  commercial activity came to be monopolized by British merchants, national
  survival concentrated on agriculture.²⁴⁵

At the other pole, are those Francophone historians who see the positive
benefit of enabling the preservation of language, and religion and
traditional customs under British rule. French Canadian debates have
escalated since the 1960s, as the Conquest is seen as a pivotal moment in
the history of Québec's nationalism. Historian Jocelyn Létourneau suggested
in the 21st century, "1759 does not belong primarily to a past that we
might wish to study and understand, but, rather, to a present and a future
that we might wish to shape and control."²⁴⁶

Anglophone historians, on the other hand, portray the Conquest as a victory
for British military, political and economic superiority that was a
permanent benefit to the French.²⁴⁷

Allan Greer argues that Whig history was once the dominant style of
scholars. He says the:

  interpretive schemes that dominated Canadian historical writing through
  the middle decades of the twentieth century were built on the assumption
  that history had a discernible direction and flow. Canada was moving
  towards a goal in the nineteenth century; whether this endpoint was the
  construction of a transcontinental, commercial, and political union, the
  development of parliamentary government, or the preservation and
  resurrection of French Canada, it was certainly a Good Thing. Thus the
  rebels of 1837 were quite literally on the wrong track. They lost because
  they had to lose; they were not simply overwhelmed by superior force,
  they were justly chastised by the God of History.²⁴⁸

See also

BC
AB
SK
MB
ON
QC
NB
PE
NS
NL
YT
NT
NU
History by province or territory
- Canada's Story
- Events of National Historic Significance (Canada)
- Heritage Minutes
- Historiography of Canada
- History of Canadian women
- History of Canadian sports
- History of Education in Canada
- History of Montreal
- History of North America
- History of Ottawa
- History of Quebec City
- History of Toronto
- History of Vancouver
- History of Winnipeg
- History Trek, Canadian History web portal designed for children
- National Historic Sites of Canada
- Persons of National Historic Significance

References

[1] Lawrence, David M. (2011). Andrea Ph.D., Alfred J., ed. Beringia and
  the Peopling of the New World. World History Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p.
  99. ISBN 978-1-85109-930-6.
[2] Goebel, Ted; Waters, Michael R.; O'Rourke, Dennis H. (2008). "The Late
  Pleistocene Dispersal of Modern Humans in the Americas" (PDF). Science.
  319 (5869): 1497–502. Bibcode:2008Sci...319.1497G.
  doi:10.1126/science.1153569. PMID 18339930. Retrieved February 5, 2010.
[3] Wynn, Graeme (2007). Canada And Arctic North America: An Environmental
  History. ABC-CLIO. p. 20. ISBN 978-1-85109-437-0.
Laurel Sefton MacDowell (2012). An Environmental History of Canada. UBC
  Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-7748-2104-9.
Guy Gugliotta (February 2013). "When Did Humans Come to the Americas?".
  Smithsonian Magazine. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved
  June 25, 2015.
[4] Fedje, Daryl W.; et al. (2004). Madsen, David B., ed. Late Wisconsin
  Environments and Archaeological Visibility on the Northern Northwest
  Coast. Entering America: Northeast Asia and Beringia Before the Last
  Glacial Maximum. University of Utah Press. p. 125. ISBN
  978-0-87480-786-8.
[5] "Introduction". Unearthing the Law: Archaeological Legislation on Lands
  in Canada. Parks Canada. April 15, 2009. Retrieved January 9, 2010.
  Canada's oldest known home is a cave in Yukon occupied not 12,000 years
  ago as at U.S. sites, but at least 20,000 years ago
[6] Dixon, E. James (2007). Johansen, Bruce E.; Pritzker, Barry M., eds.
  Archaeology and the First Americans. Encyclopedia of American Indian
  History. ABC-CLIO. p. 83. ISBN 978-1-85109-818-7.
[7] Herz, Norman; Garrison, Ervan G. (1998). Geological Methods for
  Archaeology. Oxford University Press. p. 125. ISBN 978-0-19-802511-5.
[8] Mange, Martin P.R. (1996). Carlson, Roy L.; Dalla Bona, Luke Robert,
  eds. Comparative Analysis of Microblade Cores from Haida Gwaii. Early
  Human Occupation in British Columbia. University of British Columbia
  Press. p. 152. ISBN 978-0-7748-0535-3.
[9] Bryant, Vaugh M. Jr (1998). Gibbon, Guy; et al., eds. Pre-Clovis.
  Archaeology of Prehistoric Native America: an Encyclopedia. Garland. p.
  682. ISBN 978-0-8153-0725-9.
[10] Imbrie, John; Imbrie, Katherina Palmer (1979). Ice Ages: Solving the
  Mystery. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-44075-7.
[11] Fiedel, Stuart J. (1992). Prehistory of the Americas. Cambridge
  University Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-521-42544-5.
[12] "C. Prehistoric Periods (Eras of Adaptation)". The University of
  Calgary (The Applied History Research Group). 2000. Archived from the
  original on April 12, 2010. Retrieved April 15, 2010.
[13] Fagan, Brian M. (1992). People of the Earth: An Introduction to World
  Prehistory. Harper Collins. ISBN 0-321-01457-X.
[14] Lockard, Craig A. (2010). Societies, Networks, and Transitions: A
  Global History. Volume I: to 1500 (second ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 221.
  ISBN 978-1-4390-8535-6.
[15] Hamilton, Michelle (2010). Collections and Objections: Aboriginal
  Material Culture in Southern Ontario. McGill-Queen's University Press. p.
  24. ISBN 978-0-7735-3754-5.
[16] Francis, R. Douglas; Jones, Richard; Smith, Donald B. (2009).
  Journeys: A History of Canada (second ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 11. ISBN
  978-0-17-644244-6.
[17] Brandon, William (2012). The Rise and Fall of North American Indians:
  From Prehistory through Geronimo. Roberts Rinehart. p. 236. ISBN
  978-1-57098-453-2.
[18] Marshall, Ingeborg (1996). History and Ethnography of the Beothuk.
  McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 437. ISBN 978-0-7735-6589-0.
[19] "Maliseet and Mi'kmaq Languages". Aboriginal Affairs. Government of
  New Brunswick. Retrieved January 22, 2016.
[20] Pritzker, Barry M. (2007). Johansen, Bruce E.; Pritzker, Barry M.,
  eds. Pre-Contact Indian History. Encyclopedia of American Indian History.
  ABC-CLIO. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-85109-818-7.
[21] "Background 1: Ojibwa history". Anishinaabe Arcs. Department of
  Science and Technology Studies · The Center for Cultural Design. 2003.
  Retrieved April 15, 2010.
[22] Ramsden, Peter G. (August 28, 2015). "Haudenosaunee (Iroquois)". The
  Canadian Encyclopedia (online ed.). Historica Canada. Retrieved January
  16, 2016.
[23] Johansen, Bruce E. (1995). "Dating the Iroquois Confederacy".
  Akwesasne Notes New Series. 1 (3): 62–63. Retrieved October 1, 2014.
[24] Johansen, Bruce Elliot; Mann, Barbara Alice, eds. (2000). Encyclopedia
  of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois Confederacy). Greenwood. p. 14. ISBN
  978-0-313-30880-2.
[25] Opie, John (2004). Rees, Amanda, ed. Ecology and Environment. The
  Great Plains Region. The Greenwood Encyclopedia of American Regional
  Cultures. Volume 4. Greenwood. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-313-32733-9.
[26] Bengtson, John D. (2008). "Materials for a Comparative Grammar of the
  Dene-Caucasian (Sino-Caucasian) Languages" (PDF). Aspects of Comparative
  Linguistics. Moscow: RSUH. 3: 45–118. Retrieved April 11, 2010.
[27] "First Nations – People of the Northwest Coast". B.C. Archives. 1999.
  Archived from the original on March 14, 2010. Retrieved April 11, 2010.
[28] Wurm, Stephen Adolphe; Mühlhäusler, Peter; Tyron, Darrell T., eds.
  (1996). Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific,
  Asia, and the Americas: Maps. Mouton de Gruyter. p. 1065. ISBN
  978-3-11-013417-9.
[29] Whitty, Julia (2010). Deep Blue Home: An Intimate Ecology of Our Wild
  Ocean. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 154. ISBN 978-0-547-48707-6.
[30] "Tirigusuusiit, Piqujait and Maligait: Inuit Perspectives on
  Traditional Law". Nunavut Arctic College. 1999. Retrieved August 28,
  2010.
[31] Wallace, Birgitta (2009). McManamon, Francis P.; Cordell, Linda S.;
  Lightfoot, Kent; Milner, George R., eds. L'Anse aux Meadows National
  Historic Site. Archaeology in America: An Encyclopedia. Greenwood. p. 82.
  ISBN 978-0-313-33184-8.
[32] Axel Kristinsson (2010). Expansions: Competition and Conquest in
  Europe Since the Bronze Age. ReykjavíkurAkademían. p. 216. ISBN
  978-9979-9922-1-9.
[33] Leacock, Stephen (2014) [1915]. The Dawn of Canadian History: A
  Chronicle of Aboriginal Canada: The First European Visitors. The Floating
  Press. p. 51. ISBN 978-1-77652-909-4.
[34] Mills, William James (2003). Cabot, John (1450-ca. 1498). Exploring
  Polar Frontiers: A Historical Encyclopedia. Volume1, A-L. ABC-CLIO. p.
  123. ISBN 978-1-57607-422-0.
[35] Wilson, Ian (1996). John Cabot and the Matthew. Breakwater Books. p.
  34. ISBN 978-1-55081-131-5.
[36] Grimbly, Shona, ed. (2013) [2001]. The Northwest Passage. Atlas of
  Exploration. Routledge. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-135-97006-2.
[37] Hiller, James; Higgins, Jenny (2013) [1997]. "John Cabot's voyage of
  1498". Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage Web Site. Memorial University
  of Newfoundland. Retrieved January 25, 2016.
[38] Diffie, Bailey Wallys (1977). Foundations of the Portuguese Empire:
  1415–1580. University of Minnesota Press. p. 464. ISBN 978-0-8166-0782-2.
[39] Rorabaugh, William J.; Critchlow, Donald T.; Baker, Paula C. (2004).
  America's Promise: A Concise History of the United States. Rowman &
  Littlefield. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-7425-1189-7.
[40] Carlo Sauer (1975) [1971]. The Atlantic Coast (1520-1526). Sixteenth
  Century North America: The Land and the People as Seen by the Europeans.
  University of California Press. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-520-02777-0.
[41] Freeman-Grenville, Greville Stewart Parker (1975). Chronology of World
  History: a Calendar of Principal Events from 3000 BC to AD 1973 (2nd
  ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. p. 387. ISBN 0-87471-765-5.
[42] Rompkey, Bill (2005). The Story of Labrador. McGill-Queen's University
  Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-7735-7121-1.
[43] Hiller, J.K. (August 2004) [1998]. "The Portuguese Explorers".
  Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage Web Site. Memorial University of
  Newfoundland. Retrieved June 27, 2010.
[44] "Port-Royal National Historic Site of Canada". Parks Canada
  (Government of Canada). 2009. Retrieved June 27, 2010.
[45] Litalien, Raymonde (2004). Champlain: The Birth of French America.
  McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-7735-7256-0.
[46] John R. Short (2003). The World Through Maps: A History of
  Cartography. University of Maryland,. p. 94. ISBN 978-1-55297-811-5.
[47] Loren, Diana Dipaolo (2008). In Contact: Bodies and Spaces in the
  Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-century Eastern Woodlands. Rowman Altamira. p.
  38. ISBN 978-0-7591-0661-1.
[48] Riendeau, Roger E. (2007) [2000]. A Brief History of Canada (second
  ed.). Infobase Publishing. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-4381-0822-3.
[49] Margaret F. Pickett; Dwayne W. Pickett (2011). The European Struggle
  to Settle North America: Colonizing Attempts by England, France and
  Spain, 1521–1608. McFarland. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-7864-6221-6.
[50] Louis B. Wright (2014). The Thirteen Colonies. New Word City. p. 86.
  ISBN 978-1-61230-811-1.
[51] Boswell, Randy (22 April 2013). "Putting Canada on the map:
  16th-century globe that first labeled Great White North to be auctioned
  in U.K.". Toronto: National Post.
[52] Raymonde Litalien (2004). Champlain: The Birth of French America.
  McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP. p. 242. ISBN 978-0-7735-7256-0.
[53] Harold Adams Innis (1999). The Fur Trade in Canada: An Introduction to
  Canadian Economic History. University of Toronto Press. p. 6. ISBN
  978-0-8020-8196-4.
[54] J. M. Bumsted (2003). Canada's Diverse Peoples: A Reference
  Sourcebook. ABC-CLIO. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-57607-672-9.
[55] James D. Kornwolf (2002). Architecture and Town Planning in Colonial
  North America. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 14. ISBN
  978-0-8018-5986-1.
[56] Margaret Conrad; Alvin Finkel (2005). History of the Canadian Peoples.
  Longman Publishing Group. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-321-27008-5.
[57] Magocsi, Paul R (2002). Aboriginal peoples of Canada: a short
  introduction. University of Toronto Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-8020-8469-9.
[58] Frederick Webb Hodge (2003). Handbook of American Indians North of
  Mexico. Digital Scanning Inc. p. 585. ISBN 978-1-58218-749-5.
[59] Gilles Havard (2001). The Great Peace of Montreal of 1701:
  French-native Diplomacy in the Seventeenth Century. McGill-Queen's Press.
  p. 4. ISBN 978-0-7735-6934-8.
[60] Quinn, David B. (1979) [1966]. "Gilbert, Sir Humphrey". In Brown,
  George Williams. Dictionary of Canadian Biography. I (1000–1700) (online
  ed.). University of Toronto Press.
[61] Hornsby, Stephen J (2005). British Atlantic, American frontier :
  spaces of power in early modern British America. University Press of New
  England. pp. 14, 18–19, 22–23. ISBN 978-1-58465-427-8.
[62] Fry, Michael (2001). The Scottish Empire. Tuckwell Press. p. 21. ISBN
  1-84158-259-X.
[63] "Charles Fort National Historic Site of Canada". Parks Canada. 2009.
  Retrieved June 23, 2010.
[64] William Kingsford (1888). The History of Canada. K. Paul, French,
  Trübner & Company. p. 109.
[65] John Powell (2009). Encyclopedia of North American Immigration.
  Infobase Publishing. p. 67. ISBN 978-1-4381-1012-7.
[66] Robert V. Hine; John Mack Faragher (2007). Frontiers: A Short History
  of the American West. Yale University Press. p. 20. ISBN
  978-0-300-11710-3.
[67] The Canadian Frontier 1534–1760 by W.J. Eccles University of Toronto
  Published by University of New Mexico Press ISBN 0-8263-0705-1, 1969,
  revised 1983
[68] Shenwen, Li (2001). Stratégies missionnaires des Jésuites Français en
  Nouvelle-France et en Chine au XVIIieme siècle. Les Presses de
  l'Université Laval, L'Harmattan. p. 44. ISBN 2-7475-1123-5.
[69] Miquelon, Dale (December 16, 2013). "Ville-Marie (Colony)". The
  Canadian Encyclopedia (online ed.). Historica Canada. Retrieved January
  17, 2016.
[70] Louis Hartz (1969). The Founding of New Societies: Studies in the
  History of the United States, Latin America, South Africa, Canada, and
  Australia. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 224. ISBN 0-547-97109-5.
[71] David L. Preston (2009). The Texture of Contact: European and Indian
  Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783. U of
  Nebraska Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-8032-2549-7.
[72] Thomas F. McIlwraith; Edward K. Muller (2001). North America: The
  Historical Geography of a Changing Continent. Rowman & Littlefield
  Publishers. p. 72. ISBN 978-1-4616-3960-2.
[73] Landry, Yves (Winter 1993). "Fertility in France and New France: The
  Distinguishing Characteristics of Canadian Behavior in the Seventeenth
  and Eighteenth Centuries". Social Science History. Université de
  Montréal. 17 (4): 586. JSTOR 1171305.
[74] "(Census of 1665–1666) Role-playing Jean Talon". Statistics Canada.
  2009. Retrieved June 23, 2010.
[75] "Statistics for the 1666 Census". Library and Archives Canada. 2006.
  Retrieved June 24, 2010.
[76] "Estimated population of Canada, 1605 to present". Statistics Canada.
  2009. Retrieved August 26, 2010.
[77] John Powell (2009). Encyclopedia of North American Immigration.
  Infobase Publishing. p. 203. ISBN 978-1-4381-1012-7.
[78] Ronald J. Dale (2004). The Fall of New France: How the French Lost a
  North American Empire 1754–1763. James Lorimer & Company. p. 2. ISBN
  978-1-55028-840-7.
[79] John E. Findling; Frank W. Thackeray (2011). What Happened?: An
  Encyclopedia of Events that Changed America Forever. ABC-CLIO. p. 38.
  ISBN 978-1-59884-621-8.
[80] Adam Hart-Davis (2012). History: From the Dawn of Civilization to the
  Present Day. DK Publishing. p. 483. ISBN 978-0-7566-9858-4.
[81] Andrew Neil Porter (1994). Atlas of British overseas expansion.
  Routledge. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-415-06347-0.
[82] Marsh, James (December 16, 2013). "Pierre de Troyes". The Canadian
  Encyclopedia (online ed.). Historica Canada. Retrieved November 27, 2013.
[83] "Our History: People: Explorers: Samuel Hearne". Hudson's Bay Company.
  Retrieved November 14, 2007.
[84] John Grenier (2008). The Far Reaches Of Empire: War in Nova Scotia,
  1710–1760. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-8061-3876-3.
[85] Mark Zuehlke; C. Stuart Daniel (2006). Canadian Military Atlas: Four
  Centuries of Conflict from New France to Kosovo. Douglas & McIntyre. pp.
  16–. ISBN 978-1-55365-209-0.
[86] John G. Reid (2004). The "Conquest" of Acadia, 1710: Imperial,
  Colonial, and Aboriginal Constructions. University of Toronto Press. pp.
  48–. ISBN 978-0-8020-8538-2.
[87] Alan Axelrod (2007). Blooding at Great Meadows: young George
  Washington and the battle that shaped the man. Running Press. pp. 62–.
  ISBN 978-0-7624-2769-7.
[88] Ronald J. Dale (2004). The Fall of New France: How the French Lost a
  North American Empire 1754–1763. James Lorimer & Company. p. 13. ISBN
  978-1-55028-840-7.
[89] Benjamin Irvin (2002). Samuel Adams: Son of Liberty, Father of
  Revolution. Oxford University Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-19-513225-0.
[90] Raddall, Thomas H (1971). Halifax, Warden of the North. McClelland and
  Stewart Limited. pp. 18–21. ISBN 1-55109-060-0. Retrieved January 13,
  2011.
[91] John Grenier (2008). The far reaches of empire: war in Nova Scotia,
  1710–1760. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 138–140. ISBN
  978-0-8061-3876-3.
[92] Dean W. Jobb (2008). The Acadians: A People's Story of Exile and
  Triumph. Wiley. p. 296. ISBN 978-0-470-15772-5.
[93] Jacques Lacoursière (1996). Histoire populaire du Québec: De 1841 à
  1896. III. Les éditions du Septentrion. p. 270. ISBN 978-2-89448-066-3.
[94] Jacques Lacoursière (1996). Histoire populaire du Québec: De 1841 à
  1896. III (in French). Les éditions du Septentrion. p. 270. ISBN
  978-2-89448-066-3. Retrieved May 21, 2013.
[95] Mary Beacock Fryer (1993). More battlefields of Canada. Dundurn Press
  Ltd. pp. 161–. ISBN 978-1-55002-189-9.
[96] Frentzos, Christos G.; Thompson, Antonio S. (2014). The Routledge
  Handbook of American Military and Diplomatic History: The Colonial Period
  to 1877. Routledge. p. 87. ISBN 978-1-317-81335-4.
[97] Kerr, Donald P. (Peter) (1987). Historical Atlas of Canada
  [cartographic Material]. University of Toronto Press. p. 171. ISBN
  978-0-8020-2495-4.
[98] "Original text of The Quebec Act of 1774". Canadiana (Library and
  Archives Canada). 1774. Retrieved April 11, 2010.
[99] Maton, William F (1996). "The Royal Proclamation". The Solon Law
  Archive. Retrieved April 11, 2010.
[100] McNaught, Kenneth (1976). The Pelican History of Canada. Pelican. p.
  2d ed. 53. ISBN 0-14-021083-0.
[101] Raddall, Thomas Head (2003). Halifax Warden of the North. McClelland
  and Stewart. p. 85. ISBN 1-55109-060-0.
[102] "The expansion and final suppression of smuggling in Britain".
  Smuggling.co.uk. Retrieved August 23, 2010.
[103] "Territorial Evolution, 1867". Natural Resources Canada. 2010.
  Retrieved April 12, 2010.
[104] F. H. Armstrong (1985). Handbook of Upper Canadian Chronology.
  Dundurn. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-919670-92-1.
[105] Landon, Fred (1941). Western Ontario and the American Frontier.
  Carleton University Press. pp. 17–22. ISBN 0-7710-9734-4.
[106] Howard Jones (2002). Crucible of power: a history of American foreign
  relations to 1913. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-8420-2916-2.
  Retrieved September 17, 2011.
[107] Timothy D. Willig (2008). Restoring the chain of friendship: British
  policy and the Indians of the Great Lakes, 1783–1815. U of Nebraska
  Press. pp. 243–44. ISBN 978-0-8032-4817-5.
[108] A.R.M. Lower (1958). Canadians in the making: a social history of
  Canada. Longmans, Green. pp. 135–36.
[109] Michel Ducharme, The Idea of Liberty in Canada during the Age of
  Atlantic Revolutions, 1776–1838 (2014).
[110] Jeffrey L. McNairn, "As the Tsunami of Histories of Atlantic and
  Liberal Revolutions Wash up in Upper Canada: Worries from a Colonial
  Shore". History Compass 14.9 (2016): 407–429.
[111] John Herd Thompson; Stephen J. Randall (2002). Canada and the United
  States: Ambivalent Allies. University of Georgia Press. p. 19. ISBN
  978-0-8203-2403-6.
[112] Allen, Robert S; Marshall, Tabitha (July 23, 2015). "Tecumseh". The
  Canadian Encyclopedia (online ed.). Historica Canada. Retrieved January
  17, 2016.
[113] McKenzie, Ruth (1976). "Ingersoll, Laura". In Halpenny, Francess G.
  Dictionary of Canadian Biography. IX (1861–1870) (online ed.). University
  of Toronto Press.
[114] Richard Gwyn (2008). John A: The Man Who Made Us. 1. Random House of
  Canada. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-679-31476-9.
[115] "The 1837–1838 Rebellion in Lower Canada". McCord Museum's
  collections. 1999. Retrieved December 10, 2006.
[116] Allan Greer (1993). The Patriots and the People: The Rebellion of the
  1837 in Rural Lower Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 6. ISBN
  978-0-8020-6930-6.
[117] "1839–1849, Union and Responsible Government". Canada in the Making
  project. 2005. Retrieved April 11, 2010.
[118] R. D. Francis; Richard Jones; Donald B. Smith (2009). Journeys: A
  History of Canada. Cengage Learning. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-17-644244-6.
[119] Robert Lucas, Jr. (2003). "The Industrial Revolution". Federal
  Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved November 14, 2007. it is fairly
  clear that up to 1800 or maybe 1750, no society had experienced sustained
  growth in per capita income. (Eighteenth century population growth also
  averaged one-third of 1 percent, the same as production growth.) That is,
  up to about two centuries ago, per capita incomes in all societies were
  stagnated at around $400 to $800 per year.
[120] McGowan, Mark (2009). Death or Canada: the Irish Famine Migration to
  Toronto 1847. Novalis Publishing Inc. p. 97. ISBN 2-89646-129-9.
[121] Jean Barman (1996). The West beyond the West: a history of British
  Columbia. University of Toronto Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-8020-7185-9.
[122] John Sutton Lutz (2009). Makúk: A New History of Aboriginal-White
  Relations. UBC Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-7748-5827-4.
[123] Ormsby, Margaret (1976). British Coumbia: A History. Macmillan. p.
  33. ISBN 0-7581-8813-7. Retrieved April 16, 2010.
[124] "Our History". Hudson's Bay Company. 2009. Retrieved April 16, 2010.
[125] Jean Barman (2006). The West Beyond the West: A History of British
  Columbia. University of Toronto Press. p. 67. ISBN 978-0-8020-7185-9.
  Retrieved September 8, 2013.
[126] "Introduction". Canadian Confederation. Library and Archives Canada.
  January 9, 2006. ISSN 1713-868X.
[127] Andrew Heard (1990). "Canadian Independence". Simon Fraser
  University. Retrieved April 10, 2010.
[128] Department of Canadian Heritage. "Ceremonial and Canadian Symbols
  Promotion > The crown in Canada". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved
  February 19, 2009.
[129] The Royal Household. "The Queen and the Commonwealth > Queen and
  Canada". Queen's Printer. Retrieved May 14, 2009.
[130] "Heritage Saint John > Canadian Heraldry". Heritage Resources of
  Saint John and New Brunswick Community College. Retrieved July 3, 2009.
[131] "Dominion of Canada FAQ". jjmccullough.com. Retrieved 2017-01-19.
[132] Romney, Paul (1999). Getting it Wrong: How Canadians Forgot Their
  Past and Imperiled Confederation. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-8020-8105-6.
  Retrieved August 24, 2010.
[133] Bumsted, J. M. (1992). The Peoples of Canada: A Post-Confederation
  History. Oxford University Press. pp. 8–11. ISBN 978-0-1954-0914-7.
[134] "The RCMP's History". Royal Canadian Mounted Police. 2009. Retrieved
  April 12, 2010.
[135] "What to Search: Topics-Canadian Genealogy Centre-Library and
  Archives Canada". Ethno-Cultural and Aboriginal Groups. Government of
  Canada. May 27, 2009. Retrieved October 2, 2009.
[136] Boulton, Charles A. (1886). Reminiscences of the North-West
  Rebellions. Toronto: The Grip Printing and Publishing.
[137] Flanagan, Thomas (2000). Riel and the Rebellion: 1885 Reconsidered
  (second ed.). University of Toronto Press. pp. 4–8. ISBN 9780802082824.
[138] "Territorial evolution". Atlas of Canada. Natural Resources Canada.
  Retrieved October 9, 2007.
[139] "Canada: History". Country Profiles. Commonwealth Secretariat.
  Retrieved October 9, 2007.
[140] Farr, D.M.L. (March 4, 2015). "Alaska Boundary Dispute". The Canadian
  Encyclopedia (online ed.). Historica Canada. Retrieved January 17, 2016.
[141] Criminal Code, 1892, Chap. 29. Ottawa: Printed by Samuel Edward
  Dawson. 1892.
[142] McKay, Ian (December 2000). "The Liberal Order Framework: A
  Prospectus for a Reconnaissance of Canadian History". Canadian Historical
  Review. 81 (4): 616. doi:10.3138/chr.81.4.616.
[143] Thompson, John Herd; Randall, Stephen J. (2008). Canada and the
  United States: ambivalent allies. University of Georgia Press. p. 79.
  ISBN 0-8203-2403-5.
[144] Ellis, L. Ethan (1939). Reciprocity, 1911: A Study in
  Canadian-American Relations. Yale University Press.
[145] Suzanne Morton, "Leisure," Oxford Companion to Canadian History
  (2006) pp 355-56.
[146] George Karlis, Leisure and recreation in Canadian society: An
  introduction (2011).
[147] Gerald Redmond, "Some Aspects of Organized Sport and Leisure in
  Nineteenth-Century Canada." Loisir et société/Society and Leisure 2#1
  (1979): 71-100.
[148] Lynne Sorrel Marks (1996). Revivals and Roller Rinks: Religion,
  Leisure, and Identity in Late-nineteenth-century Small-town Ontario. ISBN
  9780802078001.
[149] Stacy L. Lorenz, "A Lively Interest on the Prairies": Western Canada,
  the Mass Media, and a 'World of Sport,' 1870-1939," Journal of Sports
  History (2000) 27#2 pp 195-227
[150] Brown, Dave (1989). "The Northern Character Theme and Sport in
  Nineteenth Century Canada". Canadian Journal of History of Sport. 20 (1):
  47–56. (subscription required (help)).
[151] Robidoux, Michael A. (Spring 2002). "Imagining a Canadian Identity
  through Sport: A Historical Interpretation of Lacrosse and Hockey". The
  Journal of American Folklore. 115 (456): 209–225. JSTOR 4129220.
[152] Cook, Tim (1999). "'A Proper Slaughter': The March 1917 Gas Raid at
  Vimy" (PDF). Canadian Military History. Laurier Centre for Military
  Strategic and Disarmament Studies. 8 (2): 7–24. Retrieved April 10, 2010.
[153] Bashow, David, Lieutenant-Colonel (Autumn 2002). "The Incomparable
  Billy Bishop: The Man and the Myths" (PDF). Canadian Military Journal. 3
  (3): 55–60. Retrieved September 1, 2008.
[154] The War Office (1922). Statistics of the Military Effort of the
  British Empire During the Great War 1914–1920. Reprinted by Naval &
  Military Press. p. 237. ISBN 1-84734-681-2.
[155] "The Conscription Crisis of 1917". Historica Canada. Retrieved August
  10, 2010.
[156] "Military History: First World War: Homefront, 1917". Lermuseum.org.
  Retrieved August 10, 2010.
[157] Bothwell, Robert (1998). Canada and Quebec: one country, two
  histories. University of British Columbia Press. p. 57. ISBN
  978-0-7748-0653-4.
[158] Brown, Robert Craig; Cook, Ramsay (1974). Canada, 1896–1921 A Nation
  Transformed. McClelland & Stewart. p. ch 13. ISBN 0-7710-2268-9.
[159] Kinahan, Anne-Marie (Fall 2008). "Transcendent Citizenship: Suffrage,
  the National Council of Women of Canada, and the Politics of Organized
  Womanhood" (PDF). Journal of Canadian Studies. 42 (3): 5–27.
  (subscription required (help)).
[160] Jackel, Susan; Millette, Dominique (March 4, 2015). "Women's
  Suffrage". The Canadian Encyclopedia (online ed.). Historica Canada.
  Retrieved January 17, 2016.
[161] Thompson, John H. (1972). "'The Beginning of Our Regeneration': The
  Great War and Western Canadian Reform Movements" (PDF). Historical
  Papers. Canadian Historical Association. 7 (1): 231.
  doi:10.7202/030750ar.
[162] Voisey, Paul (Summer 1975). "The "Votes For Women" Movement". Alberta
  History. 23 (3): 10–23.
[163] Cleverdon, Catherine L. (1974). The Woman Suffrage Movement in
  Canada: The Start of Liberation, 1900–20 (2nd ed.). University of
  Toronto. ISBN 978-0-8020-6218-5.
[164] Fitzhardinge, L.F. (June 1968). "Hughes, Borden, and Dominion
  Representation at the Paris Peace Conference". Canadian Historical
  Review. 49 (2): 160. doi:10.3138/CHR-049-02-03.
[165] McMillan, Margaret (2005). Mackenzie, David, ed. Canada and the Peace
  Settlements. Canada and the First World War. University of Toronto Press.
  pp. 379–408. ISBN 978-0-8020-8445-3.
[166] Robert MacGregor Dawson (1959). William Lyon Mackenzie King:
  1874–1923. University of Toronto Press. pp. 401–22.
[167] John Hilliker; Institute of Public Administration of Canada (1990).
  Canada's Department of External Affairs: The early years, 1909–1946.
  McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-7735-0751-7.
[168] English, John (1989). Shadow of Heaven: the Life of Lester Pearson.
  Volume One: 1897-1948. Lester & Orpen Dennys. ISBN 978-0-88619-165-8.
[169] Dawson (1958) ch 14, 15
[170] Bruce Hutchison, The Incredible Canadian (1952), pp. 76–78.
[171] Peter H. Russell; Lorne Sossin (2009). Parliamentary Democracy in
  Crisis. University of Toronto Press. p. 232. ISBN 978-1-4426-9337-1.
[172] R. Peter Gillis; Roach, Thomas R (1986). Lost Initiatives: Canada's
  Forest Industries, Forest Policy, and Forest Conservation. Greenwood
  Publishing Group. p. 219. ISBN 978-0-313-25415-4.
[173] M.C. Urquhart, ed. Historical Statistics of Canada (1965) series
  F1-F13
[174] Canada, Bureau of the Census, Unemployment Vol. VI (Ottawa 1931), pp.
  1, 267
[175] Pierre Berton (2012). The Great Depression: 1929–1939. Doubleday
  Canada. pp. 2–613. ISBN 978-0-307-37486-8.
[176] H Blair Neatby (2003). The Politics of Chaos : Canada in the
  Thirties. Dundurn. pp. 1–162. ISBN 978-1-894908-01-6.
[177] Neatby, William Lyon Mackenzie King, 2:312, 318
[178] Pierre Berton (2012). The Great Depression: 1929–1939. Doubleday
  Canada. p. 54. ISBN 978-0-307-37486-8.
[179] Desmond Morton (1999). Working People: An Illustrated History of the
  Canadian Labour Movement. McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP. p. 139. ISBN
  978-0-7735-7554-7.
[180] J. R. H. Wilbur (1968). The Bennett New Deal: Fraud or Portent?. Copp
  Clark. pp. 78–112, 147–90.
[181] H. Blair Neatby, William Lyon Mackenzie King: 1932–1939 (1976) pp
  143–48.
[182] Marc T. Boucher, "The Politics of Economic Depression:
  Canadian-American Relations in the Mid-1930s." International Journal
  1985–1986 41(1): 3–36
[183] "Who we are". Bank of Canada. Retrieved June 9, 2011.
[184] "Canada and Jewish Refugees in the 1930's".
[185] "The On-to-Ottawa Trek". The University of Calgary (The Applied
  History Research Group). 1997. Retrieved April 12, 2010.
[186] Bélanger, Claude (2001). "The Statute of Westminster". Marianopolis
  College. Retrieved April 10, 2010.
[187] Galen Roger Perras, Franklin Roosevelt and the Origins of the
  Canadian-American Security Alliance, 1933–1945: Necessary, but Not
  Necessary Enough (1998) online edition
[188] J. L. Granatstein (1975). Canada's war: the politics of the Mackenzie
  King government, 1939–1945. Oxford University Press. pp. 206–7.
[189] C. P. Stacey, Arms, Men and Governments: The War Policies of Canada,
  1939–1945 (1970) pp 17–31
[190] Jean Barman (2007). "The" West Beyond the West: A History of British
  Columbia. University of Toronto Press. pp. 346–. ISBN 978-0-8020-9309-7.
  Retrieved May 21, 2013.
[191] Major General Ken Stuart told Ottawa, "I cannot see that the Japanese
  Canadians constitute the slightest menace to national security." quoted
  in Ann Gomer Sunahara, The Politics of Racism: The Uprooting of Japanese
  Canadians During the Second World War, (1981) pg. 23.
[192] "The Battle of the Atlantic" (PDF). Canadian Naval Review. 2005.
  Retrieved August 24, 2010.
[193] Brereton Greenhous,; W. A. B. Douglas (1996). Out of the Shadows:
  Canada in the Second World War. Dundurn Press Ltd. ISBN 9781554882601.
  chapters 4, 6–9
[194] R. D. Francis; Richard Jones; Donald B. Smith (2009). Journeys: A
  History of Canada. Cengage Learning. p. 428. ISBN 978-0-17-644244-6.
[195] Mac Johnston (2008). Corvettes Canada: Convoy Veterans of WWII Tell
  Their True Stories. John Wiley and Sons. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-470-15698-8.
[196] Stanley Sandler (2002). Ground Warfare: H-Q. ABC-CLIO. p. 159. ISBN
  978-1-57607-344-5.
[197] Office of the Premier (2003). "PROVINCE DONATES $1 Million TO HONOUR
  WW II VETERANS". .news.gov.bc.ca. Retrieved August 8, 2010.
[198] Stacey, C.P.; Foot, Richard (May 13, 2015). "World War II: Cost and
  Significance". The Canadian Encyclopedia (online ed.). Historica Canada.
  Retrieved January 17, 2016.
[199] "Migration | Multicultural Canada". Multicultural Canada. 2008.
  Retrieved August 23, 2010.
[200] "Dominion of Newfoundland" (PDF). Hamilton-Wentworth District School
  Board. 1999. Retrieved April 13, 2010.
[201] Karl Mcneil, Earle (1998). "Cousins of a Kind: The Newfoundland and
  Labrador Relationship with the United States". American Review of
  Canadian Studies. 28.
[202] The Economist, May 9–15, 2009, pg 80, "A 60-year-old dream "
[203] Melanie McGrath (March 12, 2009). The Long Exile: A Tale of Inuit
  Betrayal and Survival in the High Arctic. Knopf Doubleday Publishing
  Group. pp. ??. ISBN 978-0-307-53786-7. Retrieved May 21, 2013.
[204] Dussault, René; Erasmus, George (1994). "The High Arctic Relocation:
  A Report on the 1953–55 Relocation (Royal Commission on Aboriginal
  Peoples)". Canadian Government Publishing. p. 190. Retrieved June 20,
  2010.
[205] "The Nobel Peace Prize 1957". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved April 12,
  2010.
[206] "ADA-Avro Arrow Archives-AVRO CF-105 ARROW". Arrow Digital Archives.
  2009. Retrieved April 13, 2010.
[207] "North American Aerospace Defence (NORAD)". Canada's Air Force
  (National Defence). 2009. Retrieved April 13, 2010.
[208] Dickinson, John Alexander; Brian J. Young (2003). A short history of
  Quebec. McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP. p. 372. ISBN 978-0-7735-7033-7.
[209] John Saywell, ed. (1971). Canadian Annual Review for 1970. University
  of Toronto Press. pp. 3–152. ISBN 9780802001528., quote on page 3.
[210] "Chronology of the October Crisis, 1970, and its Aftermath – Quebec
  History". Retrieved April 13, 2008.
[211] "First "Canadian flags"". Department of Canadian Heritage. September
  24, 2007. Retrieved December 16, 2008.
[212] "Bid to hold the world's fair in Montreal". Expo 67 Man and His
  World. Library and Archives Canada. 2007. Retrieved June 14, 2007.
[213] Vivian Shalla (2006). Working in a global era: Canadian perspectives.
  Canadian Scholars' Press. p. 223. ISBN 978-1-55130-290-4.
[214] "Immigration Policy in the 1970s". Canadian Heritage (Multicultural
  Canada). 2004. Retrieved April 12, 2010.
[215] Mark Tushnet (2009). Weak Courts, Strong Rights: Judicial Review and
  Social Welfare Rights in Comparative Constitutional Law. Princeton
  University Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-691-14320-0.
[216] Vicente, Mary Elizabeth (2005). "The National Energy Program".
  Canada's Digital Collections. Heritage Community Foundation. Retrieved
  April 26, 2008.
[217] Duncan James S.; Ley, David (1993). Place, Culture, Representation.
  Routledge. p. 205. ISBN 978-0-415-09451-1.
[218] "Constitution Acts, 1867 to 1982". Department of Justice Canada.
  2010. Retrieved April 10, 2010.
[219] George V (2008). "Statute of Westminster". 4. Westminster: King's
  Printer (published December 11, 1931). Retrieved April 21, 2010.
[220] Trepanier, Peter (2004). "Some Visual Aspects of the Monarchical
  Tradition" (PDF). Canadian Parliamentary Review. Canadian Parliamentary
  Review. Retrieved 10 February 2017.
[221] "The Night of Long Knives". Canada: A People's History. CBC.
  Retrieved April 8, 2006.
[222] "In Depth: Air India: The Victims". CBC News. 2005. Archived from the
  original on April 13, 2009. Retrieved April 14, 2010.
[223] Gairdner, William D. (2011). The Trouble with Canada ... Still! a
  Citizen Speaks Out. BPS Books. p. 418. ISBN 978-1-926645-67-4.
[224] Scarfe, Brian L. (Winter 1981). "The Federal Budget and Energy
  Program, October 28, 1980: A Review". Canadian Public Policy. 7 (1): 1.
  doi:10.2307/3549850. JSTOR 3549850. (subscription required (help)).
[225] Trevor W. Harrison; John W. Friesen (2010). Canadian Society in the
  Twenty-first Century: An Historical Sociological Approach. Canadian
  Scholars' Press. p. 73. ISBN 978-1-55130-371-0.
[226] Núria Bosch; Marta Espasa; Albert Solé Ollé (2010). The Political
  Economy of Inter-regional Fiscal Flows: Measurement, Determinants and
  Effects on Country Stability. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 374. ISBN
  978-1-84980-323-6.
[227] Raymond B. Blake (2007). Transforming the Nation: Canada and Brian
  Mulroney. McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 22–42. ISBN
  978-0-7735-7570-7.
[228] "The Oka Crisis" (Digital Archives). Canadian Broadcasting
  Corporation. 2000. Retrieved April 16, 2010.
[229] "Canada and Multilateral Operations in Support of Peace and
  Stability". National Defence and the Canadian Armed Forces. February 27,
  1998. Retrieved January 28, 2016.
[230] "Kim Campbell". Celebrating Women's Achievements - Canadian Women in
  Government. Library and Archives Canada. September 16, 2010. Retrieved
  January 17, 2016.
[231] Moffat, Charles (November 2007). "The Roots of Quebec Separatism".
  The Lilith Gallery of Toronto. Retrieved April 16, 2010.
[232] Dyck, Rand (2011). Canadian Politics (Concise fifth ed.). Cengage
  Learning. p. 211. ISBN 978-0-17-650343-7.
[233] John A. Dickinson; Brian Young (2008). A Short History of Quebec.
  McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-7735-7726-8.
[234] A Climate Change Plan for the Purposes of the Kyoto Protocol
  Implementation Act - 2007 (PDF) (Report). Environment Canada. 2007. ISBN
  978-0-662-46496-9. Retrieved April 16, 2010.
[235] Pierceson, Jason; Piatti-Crocker, Adriana; Schulenberg, Shawn (2010).
  Same-Sex Marriage in the Americas: Policy Innovation for Same-Sex
  Relationships. Lexington Books. p. 169. ISBN 978-0-7391-4657-6.
[236] "Canada passes bill to legalize gay marriage". The New York Times
  Company. 2005. Retrieved April 10, 2010.
[237] "Preliminary Results". Elections Canada. Retrieved May 3, 2011.
[238] Konrad, Victor; Nicol, Heather N. (2008). Beyond Walls: Re-inventing
  the Canada-United States Borderlands. Ashgate Publishing. p. 189. ISBN
  978-0-7546-7202-9.
[239] "Row over Canada F-35 fighter jet order". BBC News. July 16, 2010.
  Retrieved July 20, 2010.
[240] Stone, Laura (July 16, 2010). "Conservatives announce $9B purchase of
  military fighter jets". Vancouver Sun. Canada. Retrieved July 20, 2010.
[241] Gollom, Mark (October 19, 2015). "Justin Trudeau pledges 'real
  change' as Liberals leap ahead to majority government". CBC News.
  Retrieved November 13, 2015.
[242] Ambrose, Emma; Mudde, Cas (2015). "Canadian Multiculturalism and the
  Absence of the Far Right". Nationalism and Ethnic Politics. 21 (2): 213.
  doi:10.1080/13537113.2015.1032033.
[243] "A literature review of Public Opinion Research on Canadian attitudes
  towards multiculturalism and immigration, 2006-2009". Citizenship and
  Immigration Canada. 2011. Retrieved December 18, 2015.
[244] Cornelius J. Jaenen, "Canada during the French regime", in D. A.
  Muise, ed. A Reader's Guide to Canadian History: 1: Beginnings to
  Confederation (1982), p.40.
[245] Berger, Carl (1986). The Writing of Canadian History: Aspects of
  English-Canadian Historical Writing Since 1900. University of Toronto
  Press. pp. 185–186. ISBN 978-0-8020-6568-1.
[246] Letourneau, Jocelyn (2012). Buckner, Phillip; Reid, John G., eds.
  What is to be done with 1759?. Remembering 1759: The Conquest of Canada
  in Historical Memory. University of Toronto Press. p. 279. ISBN
  978-1-4426-4411-3.
[247] Jaenen, "Canada during the French regime" (1982), p. 40.
[248] Allan Greer, "1837–38: Rebellion reconsidered" Canadian Historical
  Review (1995) 76#1 pp 1–18, quotation on page 3.

Further reading

Main article: Bibliography of Canadian history
- For an annotated bibliography and evaluation of major books, see Canada:
  A Reader's Guide, (2nd ed., 2000) by J. André Senécal, online, 91pp.
- Black, Conrad. Rise to Greatness: The History of Canada From the Vikings
  to the Present (2014), 1120pp excerpt
- Brown, Craig, ed. Illustrated History of Canada (McGill-Queen's
  Press-MQUP, 2012), Chapters by experts
- Bumsted, J.M. The Peoples of Canada: A Pre-Confederation History; The
  Peoples of Canada: A Post-Confederation History (2 vol. 2014), University
  textbook
- Chronicles of Canada Series (32 vol. 1915-1916) edited by G. M. Wrong and
  H. H. Langton online detailed popular history
- Conrad, Margaret, Alvin Finkel and Donald Fyson. Canada: A History
  (Toronto: Pearson, 2012)
- Crowley, Terence Allan; Terry Crowley; Rae Murphy (1993). The Essentials
  of Canadian History: Pre-colonization to 1867—the Beginning of a Nation.
  Research & Education Assoc. ISBN 978-0-7386-7205-2.
- Felske, Lorry William; Beverly Jean Rasporich (2004). Challenging
  Frontiers: the Canadian West. University of Calgary Press. ISBN
  978-1-55238-140-3.
- Francis, R. D.; Richard Jones; Donald B. Smith (2009). Journeys: A
  History of Canada. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-17-644244-6.
- Lower, Arthur R. M. (1958). Canadians in the Making: A Social History of
  Canada. Longmans, Green.
- McNaught, Kenneth. The Penguin History of Canada (Penguin books, 1988)
- Morton, Desmond (2001). A short history of Canada. McClelland & Stewart
  Limited. ISBN 978-0-7710-6509-5.
- Morton, Desmond (1999). A Military History of Canada: from Champlain to
  Kosovo. McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 9780771065149.
- Norrie, Kenneth, Douglas Owram and J.C. Herbert Emery. (2002) A History
  of the Canadian Economy (4th ed. 2007)
- Riendeau, Roger E. (2007). A Brief History of Canada. Infobase
  Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4381-0822-3.

Scholarly article collections

- Bumsted, J. M. and Len Keffert, eds. Interpreting Canada's Past (2 vol.
  2011)
- Conrad, Margaret and Alvin Finkel, eds. Nation and Society: Readings in
  Pre-Confederation Canadian History; Nation and Society: Readings in
  Post-Confederation Canadian History (2nd ed. 2008)
- Francis, R. Douglas and Donald B Smith, eds. Readings in Canadian History
  (7th ed. 2006)

Primary sources and statistics

- Kennedy, W.P.M., ed. (1918). Documents of the Canadian Constitution,
  1759-1915. Oxford UP.; 707pp
- Urquhart, Malcolm Charles and F.H. Leacy, eds. Historical statistics of
  Canada (2nd ed. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 1983). 800 p. ISBN
  0-660-11259-0
- Reid, J.H. Stewart; et al., eds. (1964). A Source-book of Canadian
  History: Selected Documents and Personal Papers. Longmans Canada.; 484pp;
  primary sources on 200+ topics

Historiography

- Berger, Carl. Writing Canadian History: Aspects of English Canadian
  Historical Writing since 1900 (2nd ed. 1986), 364pp evaluates the work of
  most of the leading 20th century historians of Canada.
- Careless, J. M. S. "Canadian Nationalism — Immature or Obsolete?" Report
  of the Annual Meeting of the Canadian Historical Association / Rapports
  annuels de la Société historique du Canada (1954) 33#1 pp: 12-19. online
- Muise D. A. ed. A Reader's Guide to Canadian History: 1, Beginnings to
  Confederation (1982); (1982) Topical articles by leading scholars
  + Granatstein J.L. and Paul Stevens, ed. A Reader's Guide to Canadian
    History: vol 2: Confederation to the present (1982), Topical articles
    by leading scholars
- Taylor, Martin Brook; Douglas Owram (1994). Canadian History: A Reader's
  Guide: Beginnings to Confederation. University of Toronto Press. ISBN
  978-0-8020-6826-2.; essays by experts evaluate the scholarly literature
  + Martin Brook Taylor; Douglas Owram (1994). Canadian history. 2.
    Confederation to the present. University of Toronto Press. ISBN
    978-0-8020-7676-2.; essays by experts evaluate the scholarly literature

External links

- The Canadian Encyclopedia
- National Historic Sites of Canada
- The Dictionary of Canadian Biography
- Canadian Studies – Guide to the Sources
- The Quebec History encyclopedia by Marianopolis College
- History of Canada at DMOZ
- The Historica-Dominion Institute, includes Heritage Minutes
- H-CANADA, daily academic discussion email list
- Canadian History & Knowledge – Association for Canadian Studies

Historiography of Canada

The historiography of Canada deals with the manner in which historians have
depicted analyzed and debated the History of Canada. It also covers the
popular memory of critical historical events, ideas and leaders, as well as
the depiction of those events in museums, monuments, reenactments, pageants
and historic sites.

Amateur historians

Amateur historians, self-taught in the knowledge of the sources but with a
limited knowledge of the historiography, dominated publications until the
late 19th century.

The most influential of the amateur historians was François-Xavier Garneau
(1809–1866), a self-educated poor boy who defined the essence of Quebec
nationalistic history for a century with his Histoire du Canada depuis sa
découverte jusqu' à nos jours (3 vol., multiple editions from 1845 onward).
The first edition came under attack from Catholic Church officials for its
touch of liberalism; after he revised the work the Church gave its
blessing.¹ He taught the profound linkage of language, laws, and customs,
and how the Catholic faith was essential to the French Canadian
nationality. His ideas became dogma across Quebec, and were continued deep
into the 20th century by Abbe Lionel Groulx (1878-1967), the first
full-time university professor of Quebec history.² ³ ⁴ ⁵

In Anglophone Canada the most prominent amateur of his day was William
Kingsford (1819 – 1898), whose History of Canada (1887-1898) was widely
read by the upper middle class, as well as Anglophone teachers, despite its
poor organization and pedestrian writing style. Kingsford believed that the
Conquest guaranteed victory for British constitutional liberty and that it
ensured material progress. He assumed the assimilation of French Canadians
into a superior British culture was inevitable and desirable, for he
envisioned Canada as one nation with one anglophone population.⁶ ⁷

Lovers of the past set up local historical societies and museums preserve
the documents and artifacts. Amateurs are still quite important, especially
as journalists write biographies of politicians and studies of major
political developments.

By far the most popular of the amateurs was the Harvard-based American
Francis Parkman (1823-1893), whose nine volumes on "France and England in
North America" (Boston, 1865–92) are still widely read as literary
masterpieces.⁸

Organizations of professional historians

Main article: Canadian Historical Association

Professionalism emerged after 1890 with the founding of academic history
departments at universities, and the practice of sending graduate students
to Britain for advanced training in preparation for a university
professorship. In 1896, George McKinnon Wrong, an Anglican clergyman,
introduced modern Canadian history to the University of Toronto. He
launched the Review of Historical Publications Relating to Canada, which
was the forerunner of the Canadian Historical Review. Professionalization
climaxed with the 1922 founding of the Canadian Historical Association
(CHA). The language became technical, and scientific, with an emphasis on
gathering facts from primary sources, and avoiding grandiose patriotic
claims. Women, who had been quite active in historical societies and
museums, were largely excluded from professional history.⁹

The CHA has a journal and an annual convention, and gives out numerous
awards For the best publications. Much of the work is done by specialized
committees. For example, the Canadian Committee on Labour History,
publishes its own journal Labour/Le Travail and holds an annual conference
as part of the Congress of the Canadian Federation for the Humanities and
Social Sciences (the "Learneds").

Other topical interest committees include:

- Committee on Women's History
- Canadian Committee on History and Computing
- Graduate Students' Committee
- Canadian Committee on the History of Sexuality
- History of Children and Youth Group
- Committee on the Second World War
- Economic Historians in Canada
- Canadian Urban History Association
- Business History Group
- Native History Study Group
- Oral History Group/Oral History Forum
- Public History Group
- Environmental History Group
- Political History Group

Political history

Much of the teaching and writing of the first generation of professional
historians dealt with Canadian political history, or more exactly
constitutional history. Donald Wright says:

  Neither sophisticated nor particularly interesting, English-Canadian
  historical writing was what it was: traditional, political,
  constitutional, at times sentimental, and too focused on the story of
  self-government, its development over time, and its ultimate
  achievement.... If it wasn't dry-as-dust constitutional history, it was
  after-dinner expressions of loyalty to Great Britain, heroic accounts of
  great men, and patriotic renderings of the Plains of Abraham and General
  Wolfe or of Queenston Heights and General Brock.¹⁰

The Conquest

The Conquest of New France has always been a central and contested theme of
Canadian memory—as exemplified by an episode in 2009 when re-enactors were
prevented from restaging the decisive 1759 battles in Quebec.¹¹ Cornelius
Jaenen argues:

  The Conquest has remained a difficult subject for French-Canadian
  historians because it can be viewed either as economically and
  ideologically disastrous or as a providential intervention to enable
  Canadians to maintain their language and religion under British rule. For
  virtually all Anglophone historians it was a victory for British
  military, political, and economic superiority which would eventually only
  benefit the conquered.¹²

Historians of the 1950s tried to explain the economic inferiority of the
French-Canadians by arguing that the Conquest:

  destroyed an integral society and decapitated the commercial class;
  leadership of the conquered people fell to the Church; and, because
  commercial activity came to be monopolized by British merchants, national
  survival concentrated on agriculture.¹³

At the other pole, are those Francophone historians who see the positive
benefit of enabling the preservation of language, and religion and
traditional customs under British rule.¹⁴ Scholars such as Donald Fyson
have pointed to the legal system as a success, with the continuation of
French civil law and the introduction of liberal modernity.¹⁵ French
Canadian debates have escalated since the 1960s, as the Conquest is seen as
a pivotal moment in the history of Québec's nationalism. Historian Jocelyn
Létourneau suggested in the 21st century, "1759 does not belong primarily
to a past that we might wish to study and understand, but, rather, to a
present and a future that we might wish to shape and control."¹⁶

"The Monument des Braves," begun in Quebec in 1863, commemorated the Battle
of Sainte-Foy the last victory won by the French in Canada during the Seven
Years' War. It began a wave Of commemorations that took place across Canada
between 1850 and 1930. They were designed to create memories and left out
the harshness of the British conquest and bring Anglophones and
Francophones closer together.¹⁷

Anglophone historians, in sharp contrast, typically celebrated the Conquest
as a victory for British military, political and economic superiority that
was a permanent benefit to the French.¹⁴

Loyalists

Main article: United Empire Loyalist

The Loyalists paid attention to their history, developing an image of
themselves that they took great pride in. In 1898, Henry Coyne provided a
glowing depiction:

  The Loyalists, to a considerable extent, were the very cream of the
  population of the Thirteen Colonies. They represented in very large
  measure the learning, the piety, the gentle birth, the wealth and good
  citizenship of the British race in America, as well its devotion to law
  and order, British institutions, and the unity of the Empire. This was
  the leaven they brought to Canada, which has leavened the entire Dominion
  of this day.¹⁸

According to Margaret Conrad and Alvin Finkel, Coyne's memorial expresses
essential themes that have often been incorporated into patriotic
celebrations. The Loyalist tradition, as explicated by Murray Barkley and
Norman Knowles, includes:

  The elite origins of the refugees, their loyalty to the British Crown,
  their suffering and sacrifice in the face of hostile conditions, their
  consistent anti-Americanism, and their divinely inspired sense of
  mission.¹⁹

Conrad and Finkel point up some exaggerations. They note that a few
Loyalists were part of the colonial elite, and most were loyal to all
things British. A few suffered violence and hardship. However about 20
percent returned to the United States, and other Loyalists supported the
United States in the War of 1812. Conrad and Finkel conclude:

  in using their history to justify claims to superiority, descendants of
  the Loyalists abuse the truth and actually diminish their status in the
  eyes of their non-Loyalists neighbours....The scholars who argue that the
  Loyalists planted the seeds of Canadian liberalism or conservatism in
  British North America usually fail to take into account not only the
  larger context of political discussion that prevailed throughout the
  North Atlantic world, but also the political values brought to British
  North America by other immigrants in the second half of the 18th
  century.²⁰

War of 1812

Main article: Origins of the War of 1812

Canadian historian C.P. Stacey famously remarked that memories of the War
of 1812 makes everybody happy. The Americans think they whipped the
British.

  Canadians think of it equally pridefully as a war of defense in which
  their brave fathers, side-by-side, turned back the massed might of the
  United States and saved the country from conquest. And the English are
  the happiest of all, because they don't even know it happened.²¹

In a 2012 poll, 25% of all Canadians ranked their victory in the War of
1812 as the second most important part of their identity after free health
care (53 per cent).²²

The Canadian government spent $28 million on three years of bicentennial
events, exhibits, historic sites, re-enactments, and a new national
monument.²³ The official goal was to make Canadians aware that:

  Canada would not exist had the American invasion of 1812-15 been
  successful.The end of the war laid the foundation for Confederation and
  the emergence of Canada as a free and independent nation.Under the Crown,
  Canada's society retained its linguistic and ethnic diversity, in
  contrast to the greater conformity demanded by the American Republic.²⁴

In Toronto the "1812 Great Canadian Victory Party will bring the War of
1812...to life," promised the sponsors of a festival in November 2009.²⁵
More specifically, Ontario celebrates the war, and Quebec largely ignores
it. Nationwide in 2009, 37% of Canadians thought Canada won the war, 15%
thought it was a tie. But 39% know too little about it to say, including
63% in Quebec.²⁶

The memory of the war of 1812 was not especially important in the decades
that followed it. A powerful oligarchy closely tied to Britain controlled
Upper Canada (Ontario), and their criteria for legitimacy was loyalty to
London, rather than heroic episodes in the war of 1812. As result they did
not promote the memory of the war.²⁷

First Nations

The War of 1812 is often celebrated in Ontario as a British victory for
what would become Canada in 1867, but Canadian historians in recent decades
look at it as a defeat for the First Nations of Canada, and also for the
merchants of Montreal (who lost the fur trade of the Michigan-Minnesota
area).²⁸ The British had a long-standing goal of building a "neutral" but
pro-British Indian buffer state in the American Midwest.²⁹ ³⁰ They demanded
a neutral Indian state at the peace conference in 1814 but failed to gain
any of it because they had lost control of the region in the Battle of Lake
Erie and the Battle of the Thames in 1813, where Tecumseh was killed. The
British then abandoned the Indians south of the lakes. The royal elite of
(what is now) Ontario gained much more power in the aftermath and used that
power to repel American ideas such as democracy and republicanism,
especially in those areas of Ontario settled primarily by Americans. Many
of those settlers returned to the states and were replaced by immigrants
from Britain who were imperial-minded.³¹ W. L. Morton says the war was a
"stalemate" but the Americans "did win the peace negotiations."³² Arthur
Ray says the war made "matters worse for the native people" as they lost
military and political power.³³ Bumsted says the war was a stalemate but
regarding the Indians "was a victory for the American expansionists."³⁴
Thompson and Randall say "the War of 1812's real losers were the Native
peoples who had fought as Britain's ally."³⁵

Economic history

Economic history was central to the new interpretations developing after
1900, in part because the economists and historians were collaborating
using evidence from Canadian history.

Staples thesis

Main articles: Staples thesis and Harold Innis and the cod fishery

Harold Innis (1894-1952), based in the history department at the University
of Toronto,³⁶ and William Archibald Mackintosh (1895-1970), based in the
economics department at Queen's University developed the Staples thesis.
They argued that the Canadian Economy ( beyond the level of subsistence
farming) was primarily based on exports of a series of staples—fish, fur,
timber, wheat—that shipped to Britain and the British Empire.
Industrialization came much later. The thesis explains Canadian economic
development as a lateral, east-west conception of trade. Innis argued that
Canada developed as it did because of the nature of its staple commodities:
raw materials, such as fish, fur, lumber, agricultural products and
minerals. This trading link cemented Canada's cultural links to Britain.
The search for and exploitation of these staples led to the creation of
institutions that defined the political culture of the nation and its
regions. Innis, Influenced by the Frontier thesis of American historian
Frederick Jackson Turner,³⁷ added a sociological dimension. Innis argued
that different staples led to the emergence of regional economies (and
societies) within Canada. For instance, the staple commodity in Atlantic
Canada was cod fishing. This industry was very decentralized, but also very
co-operative. In western Canada the central staple was wheat. Wheat farming
was a very independent venture, which led to a history of distrust of
government and corporations in that part of the country. (Also important,
however, were the shocks caused by volatility in the market for wheat and
by the weather itself on the growing season.) In Central Canada, the main
staple was fur, and the fur trade dominated the economy for many years.
This fur trade was controlled by large firms, such as the Hudson's Bay
Company and thus produced the much more centralized, business-oriented
society that today characterizes Montreal and Toronto.

Donald Creighton (1902–1979) was a leading historian who built upon the
Staples thesis in his The Commercial Empire of the St-Lawrence: 1760-1850
(1937). His Laurentian thesis showed how the English merchant class Came to
dominate Canadian business through their control of the export of staples
via the St-Lawrence River. They made Montreal economic, business and
financial capital of Canada.³⁸ ³⁹ In his enormously influential biography
of John A. McDonald, Creighton argued that McDonald had built upon and
extended the Laurentian model by his creation of the transcontinental
railway. More than that, Creighton transformed Canadian political history.
For years scholars had complained about the old-fashioned, narrow,
constitutional approach. They hoped Creighton could modernize the field and
he came through, by adding not just biography, but also social, cultural,
and especially long-term economic patterns as the matrix on which Canadian
politics was played out.⁴⁰

Core-periphery model

Innis depicted the relationship between regions of Canada as one of
"heartland" to "hinterland":The periphery, or hinterland, is dominated by
the core, or heartland. Because the heartland was dependent upon the search
for and accumulation of staples (which were located in the hinterland) to
perpetuate the economy, it sought to gain economic and political power by
exploiting the hinterland.⁴¹ Historians continue to use elements of the
Innis model, applying it for example to British Columbia. That provinces
economic structure exemplifies the "core-periphery" structure of
intra-regional relationships. The core is metropolitan Vancouver, with its
concentration of corporate management and transportation functions and
manufacturing growth. It dominates an underdeveloped periphery that depends
on production and export of staple commodities.⁴²

Keynesian version

In the 1950s, Mackintosh revised the staples theory to position it inside
the framework of Keynesian analysis. He Argued that government expenditures
on infrastructure for staple exports were a special case of Keynesian
counter cyclical fiscal policy. It amounted to priming of the economic pump
to induce private sector investment.At the University of Saskatchewan, a
team of economists led by George Britnell, Mabel Timlin, Kenneth Buckley
and Vernon Fowke, were followers of Innis and developed this approach into
a "Saskatchewan school" of economic history. Fowke's Canadian Agricultural
Policy: The Historical Pattern (1966), showed that agriculture was promoted
as an "investment frontier," the profits from which were to go to interests
other than agriculture. Canadian policy was never to develop agriculture so
as to improve the conditions of those who cultivated the soil but to aid
imperial military and political goals and provide profits for commercial
interests.⁴³

Whig history: Political history with a definite goal

Historian Allan Greer argues that Whig history Was once the dominant style
of scholarship. He says the:

  interpretive schemes that dominated Canadian historical writing through
  the middle decades of the twentieth century were built on the assumption
  that history had a discernible direction and flow. Canada was moving
  towards a goal in the nineteenth century; whether this endpoint was the
  construction of a transcontinental, commercial, and political union, the
  development of parliamentary government, or the preservation and
  resurrection of French Canada, it was certainly a Good Thing. Thus the
  rebels of 1837 were quite literally on the wrong track. They lost because
  they had to lose; they were not simply overwhelmed by superior force,
  they were justly chastised by the God of History.⁴⁴

With the decline of Whig history, Canadian scholarship since the late 20th
century has avoided overarching themes and concentrated on specialized
research topics. No longer do they minimize conflict and violence. Military
historians map troop movements in 1837-38.⁴⁵ Imperial specialists explain
how London approached the crisis.⁴⁶ Economic historians measure the depth
of financial and agrarian distress that soured the mood.⁴⁷ Social
historians reveal how ordinary people were caught up in the Rebellion.⁴⁸
Greer concludes that:

  The result has been a great advance in empirical knowledge: myths have
  been punctured, generalizations of the and qualified, and a wealth of
  factual data has been accumulated.⁴⁹

The downside in this minute particularism has been a loss of a broad
overview or a sense of what it all meant, such as the Whig approach
offered.

Confederation

There is extensive scholarly debate on the role of political ideas in
Canadian Confederation. Traditionally, historians regarded Canadian
Confederation an exercise in political pragmatism that was essentially
non-ideological. In the 1960s, historian Peter Waite derided the references
to political philosophers in the legislative debates on Confederation as
"hot air". In Waite's view, Confederation was driven by pragmatic brokerage
politics and competing interest groups.⁵⁰

In 1987, political scientist Peter J. Smith challenged the view that
Canadian Confederation was non-ideological. Smith argued that Confederation
was motivated by new political ideologies as much as the American and
French Revolutions and that Canadian Confederation was driven by a Court
Party ideology. Smith traces the origins of this ideology to eighteenth and
nineteenth-century Britain, where political life was polarized between
defenders of classical republican values of the Country Party and
proponents of a new pro-capitalist ideology of the Court Party, which
believed in centralizing political power. In British North America in the
1860s, the Court Party tradition was represented by the supporters of
Confederation, whereas the anti-capitalist and agrarian Country Party
tradition was embodied by the Anti-Confederates.⁵¹

In a 2000 journal article, historian Ian McKay argued that Canadian
Confederation was motivated by the ideology of liberalism and the belief in
the supremacy of individual rights. McKay described Confederation as part
of the classical liberal project of creating a "liberal order" in northern
North America.⁵² Many Canadian historians have adopted McKay's liberal
order framework as a paradigm for understanding Canadian history.⁵³

In 2008, historian Andrew Smith advanced a very different view of
Confederation's ideological origins. He argues that in the four original
Canadian provinces, the politics of taxation were a central issue in the
debate about Confederation. Taxation was also central to the debate in
Newfoundland, the tax-averse colony that rejected it. Smith argued
Confederation was supported by many colonists who were sympathetic to a
relatively interventionist, or statist, approach to capitalist development.
Most classical liberals, who believed in free trade and low taxes, opposed
Confederation because they feared that it would result in Big Government.
The struggle over Confederation involved a battle between a staunchly
individualist economic philosophy and a comparatively collectivist view of
the state's proper role in the economy. According to Smith, the victory of
the statist supporters of Confederation over their anti-statist opponents
prepared the way for Sir John A. Macdonald's government to enact the
protectionist National Policy and to subsidize major infrastructure
projects such the Intercolonial and Pacific Railways.⁵⁴

In 2007, political scientist Janet Ajzenstat connected Canadian
Confederation to the individualist ideology of John Locke. She argued that
the union of the British North American colonies was motivated by a desire
to protect individual rights, especially the rights to life, liberty, and
property. She contends that the Fathers of Confederation were motivated by
the values of the Enlightenment of the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries. She argues that their intellectual debts to Locke are most
evident when one looks at the 1865 debates in the Province of Canada's
legislature on whether or not union with the other British North American
colonies would be desirable.⁵⁵

Ethnic history

Roberto Perin looks at the historiography of Canadian ethnic history and
finds two alternative methodologies. One is more static and emphasizes how
closely immigrant cultures replicate the Old World. This approach tends to
be filiopietistic. The alternative approach has been influenced by the
recent historiography on labor, urban, and family history. It sees the
immigrant community as an essentially North American phenomenon and
integrates it into the mainstream of Canadian culture.⁵⁶

Historians change their perspective

Since the 1980s, historians have sharply revise their approach to Canadian
history. Political history had been the dominant mode. The flagship
Canadian Historical Review was heavily weighted toward political history,
giving priority to macro themes such as elite politicians and statesmen,
public institutions, and national issues. By 2000, however, the same
journal gave two-thirds of its space to social history. Furthermore, micro
topics with a narrow geographical and chronological focus have largely
replaced wide-lens macro themes. Glassford argues that:

  The Big Questions are now seen to be societally based, and emanate from a
  cultural interpretation of such fundamental concepts as social class,
  gender, ethnicity, race, religion, and sexual orientation. Micro-analysis
  has at least as much validity in the new model as macro.⁵⁷

A backlash erupted from conservative historians, typified by political and
military specialist Jack Granatstein who charged that social historians had
"killed" Canadian history by displacing the traditional Whig narrative of
upward political, diplomatic, and military progress with microscopic
studies of the underclass, the trivial, and the inconsequential.".⁵⁸ ⁵⁹
Granatstein recalls the backlash:

  As the old white males rallied themselves and fought back, the resulting
  war produced heavy casualties, much bloodshed, and vast expenditures of
  time and effort. The political historians believed that narrative was
  important, that chronology mattered, and that the study of the past could
  not neglect the personalities of the leaders and the nations they lead.
  The social historians had no interest in the history of the "elites" and
  almost none in political history, except to denounce repressiveness of
  Canadian governments and business....Blame had to be allocated. Canada
  was guilty of genocide against the Indians, the bombing of Germany, the
  ecological rape of the landscape, and so on. Their aim was to use
  history, or their version of it, to cure white males of their sense of
  superiority.⁶⁰

Women

Main article: History of Canadian women

The woman's history movement began in the 1970s and grew rapidly across
Canadian universities, attracting support from history departments and
other disciplines as well. The Canadian Committee on Women's History (CCWH)
was founded in 1975. Franca Iacovetta reported in 2007:

  Although the most prestigious awards and endowed chairs still go mostly
  to men, and men still outnumber women at the full professor rank, the
  greater influence of feminist historians within the wider profession is
  evident in their increased presence as journal and book series editors,
  the many scholarly prizes, the strong presence of women's and gender
  history on conference programs, and the growing number of their students
  who are in full-time positions.⁶¹

Quebec

The history of women in Québec was generally neglected before 1980.⁶² ⁶³
The advent of the feminist movement, combined with the "New social history"
that featured the study of ordinary people, created a new demand for a
historiography of women. The first studies, emerged from a feminist
perspective, and stressed their role as the terms who had been reduced to
inferiority in a world controlled by men. Feminists sought the family
itself as the centerpiece of the patriarchal system where fathers and
husbands oppressed and alienated women. The second stage came when
historians presented a more positive and balanced view.⁶⁴ Research has
often been interdisciplinary, using insights from feminist theory,
literature, anthropology and sociology to study gender relations,
socialization, reproduction, sexuality, and unpaid work. Labour and family
history have proved particularly open to these themes.⁶⁵

Environmental history

Canadian historians have always paid close attention to geography, but
until the 1980s they largely ignored the Canadian environment, except to
point how cold the northerly nation is. More recently, explorers have
ventured into new areas, but no overarching or major reinterpretation has
swept the field. Two of the most widely noted books are Tina Loo, States of
Nature: Conserving Canada's Wildlife in the Twentieth Century (2006), and
John Sandlos, Hunters at the Margin: Native People and Wildlife
Conservation in the NorthwestTerritories (2007).⁶⁶ ⁶⁷ ⁶⁸

Publications

Scholarly articles and in-depth reviews of new historical studies appear in
these journals:

- Acadiensis, covers Atlantic Canada
- Alberta history⁶⁹
- American Review of Canadian Studies⁷⁰
- British Columbia History⁷¹
- Canada's History, Formerly The Beaver (1920 – 2010)
- Canadian Historical Review, the major scholarly journal
- Histoire sociale/Social History, focus on Canada⁷²
- Labour/Le Travail
- London Journal of Canadian Studies⁷³
- Manitoba History⁷⁴
- Ontario History⁷⁵
- Quebec Studies⁷⁶
- Revue d'histoire de l'Amérique française focus on Quebec⁷⁷
- Saskatchewan History
- Urban History Review - Revue d'histoire urbaine⁷⁸

See also

- Bibliography of Canadian history
- Canada Vignettes
- Canadian identity
- Heritage Minutes
- List of Canadian historians
- List of museums in Canada
- National Historic Sites of Canada
- War of 1812 Bicentennial

Notes

[1] Saint-Martin,, Louis-Ph. (1954). "L'histoire du Canada de F.-X. Garneau
  et la critique". Revue d'histoire de l'Amérique française. 8 (3):
  380–394. doi:10.7202/301665ar.
[2] Martin Brook Taylor; Doug Owram (1994). Canadian History: Beginnings to
  Confederation. p. 117.]
[3] Pierre Savard and Paul Wyczynski, "GARNEAU, FRANÇOIS-XAVIER, in
  Dictionary of Canadian Biography vol. 9, December 15, 2015
[4] Serge Gagnon, Quebec and Its Historians: 1840 To 1920 (1981)
[5] The influence of Garneau and Groulx extends well into the 21st century
  in Québec's school textbooks. Olivier Lemieux and Catherine Côté. "Étude
  des programmes et des manuels d'histoire du Québec de 1967 à 2012."
  Bulletin d'histoire politique 22#3 (2014): 145-157. abstract
[6] M. Brook Taylor, "KINGSFORD, WILLIAM," Dictionary of Canadian Biography
  vol. 12, (2003), accessed December 15, 2015.
[7] James K. McConica, "Kingsford and Whiggery in Canadian History."
  Canadian Historical Review 40#2 (1959): 108-120.
[8] Daniel R. Woolf (1998). A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing. p.
  696.
[9] Donald Wright, The Professionalization of History in English Canada (U.
  of Toronto Press, 2005); 1999 PhD dissertation version
[10] Donald Wright (2015). Donald Creighton: A Life in History. p. 162.
[11] Phillip Buckner and John G. Reid (2012). Remembering 1759: The
  Conquest of Canada in Historical Memory. pp. 263–66.
[12] Jaenen, Cornelius J. "Canada during the French regime", in D.A. Muise,
  ed. A Reader's Guide to Canadian History: 1: Beginnings to Confederation
  (1982), p.40.
[13] Carl Berger (1986). The writing of Canadian history: aspects of
  English-Canadian historical writing since 1900. U of Toronto Press. pp.
  185–86.
[14] Jaenen, "Canada during the French regime," (1982) p 40
[15] Donald Fyson, "Between the Ancien Régime and Liberal Modernity: Law,
  Justice and State Formation in colonial Quebec, 1760-1867," History
  Compass (2014), 1#5 pp 412-432
[16] Buckner and Reid, eds., Remembering 1759: The Conquest of Canada in
  Historical Memory (2012) p 279
[17] Patrice Groulx, "La Commemoration de la Bataille de Sainte-Foy: du
  discours de la Loyaute a la 'Fusion des Races," ["Commemoration of the
  Battle of Sainte-Foy: from the discourse of loyalty to the "fusion of the
  races"] Revue d'histoire de L'Amerique francaise (2001) 55#1 pp 45-83.
[18] Henry Coyne (1904). Memorial to the United Empire Loyalists.
  Publications of the Niagara Historical Society. p. 30.
[19] Margaret Conrad and Alvin Finkel, History of the Canadian Peoples:
  Beginnings to 1867 (vol 1, 2006) p 202.
[20] Conrad and Finkel, History of the Canadian Peoples: Beginnings to 1867
  (vol 1, 2006) p 203.
[21] Michael Lucas; Julie M Schablitsky (2014). Archaeology of the War of
  1812. Left Coast Press. p. 33.
[22] Jasper Trautsch, "Review of Whose War of 1812? Competing Memories of
  the Anglo-American Conflict," Reviews in History (review no. 1387) 2013;
  Revise 2014, accessed: 10 December 2015
[23] Trautsch, "Review of Whose War of 1812? Competing Memories of the
  Anglo-American Conflict,"
[24] Government of Canada, "The War of 1812, Historical Overview, Did You
  Know?"
[25] There is no mention of the historians in the announcement of "Great
  1812 Canadian Victory Party"
[26] Jack Jedwab, "Most Canadians say we won the War of 1812; But Quebecers
  uncertain," Association for Canadian Studies December 6, 2009
[27] Martin Brook Taylor (1989). Promoters, Patriots, and Partisans:
  Historiography in Nineteenth-century English Canada. p. 137.
[28] "The Indians and the fur merchants of Montreal had lost in the end,"
  says Randall White, Ontario: 1610-1985 p. 75
[29] Dwight L. Smith, "A North American Neutral Indian Zone: Persistence of
  a British Idea" Northwest Ohio Quarterly 1989 61(2-4): 46-63
[30] Francis M. Carroll (2001). A Good and Wise Measure: The Search for the
  Canadian-American Boundary, 1783-1842. U of Toronto Press. p. 24.
[31] Fred Landon, Western Ontario and the American Frontier (1941) p. 44;
  see also Gerald M. Craig, Upper Canada: The Formative Years, 1784-1841
  (1963)
[32] Morton, Kingdom of Canada 1969 pp 206-7
[33] Arthur Ray in Craig Brown ed. Illustrated History of Canada (2000) p
  102.
[34] J. M. Bumsted, Peoples of Canada (2003) 1:244-45
[35] John Herd Thompson and Stephen J. Randall, Canada and the United
  States (2008) p. 23
[36] Carl Berger, "The Writing of Canadian History (1976) pp. 85–111.
[37] Morris Zaslow, "The Frontier Thesis in Recent Historiography",
  Canadian Historical Review (1948) 29#1 pp 153-67.
[38] Donald Wright (2015). Donald Creighton: A Life in History. p. 358.
[39] Donald A. Wright, "Review of 'The Empire of the St.Lawrence: A Study
  in Commerce and Politicsm'" in Canadian Historical Review (2004) 85#3 pp.
  555-558
[40] Wright (2015). Donald Creighton. p. 211.
[41] "Staples Theory" in Old Messengers, New Media: The Legacy of Innis and
  McLuhan, from Library and Archives Canada
[42] Thomas A. Hutton, "The Innisian core-periphery revisited: Vancouver's
  changing relationships with British Columbia's staple economy." BC
  Studies: The British Columbian Quarterly 113 (1997): 69-100. online
[43] Robin Neill, "Economic Historiography in the 1950s: The Saskatchewan
  School," Journal of Canadian Studies (1999) online
[44] Allan Greer, "1837-38: Rebellion reconsidered" Canadian Historical
  Review (1995) 76#1 pp 1-18, quotation on page 3.
[45] Mary Beacock Fryer, Volunteers and Redcoats, Raiders and Rebels: A
  Military History of the Rebellions of Upper Canada (1987).
[46] Peter Burroughs, The Canadian crisis and British colonial policy,
  1828-1841 (1972).
[47] Fernand Ouellet, Economic and social history of Quebec, 1760-1850:
  structures and conjonctures (1980).
[48] Allan Greer, The patriots and the people: The rebellion of 1837 in
  Rural Lower Canada (1993).
[49] Greer, "1837-38: Rebellion reconsidered" Canadian Historical Review
  (1995) 76#1 pp 4-5.
[50] See Introduction by Ged Martin in Peter B. Waite, The Confederation
  Debates in the Province of Canada, 1865 A Selection (McGill-Queen's
  University Press, 2006)
[51] Peter J. Smith, "The Ideological Origins of Canadian Confederation",
  Canadian Journal of Political Science / Revue Canadienne De Science
  Politique (1987) 20#1: 3–29.
[52] I. Mckay, "The Liberal Order Framework: A Prospectus for a
  Reconnaissance of Canadian History". Canadian Historical Review (2000)
  81: 617–645.
[53] Michel Ducharme and Jean-François Constant, Liberalism and Hegemony:
  Debating the Canadian Liberal Revolution (University of Toronto Press,
  2009)
[54] Andrew Smith, "Toryism, Classical Liberalism, and Capitalism: The
  Politics of Taxation and the Struggle for Canadian Confederation".
  Canadian Historical Review (2008) 89#1 : 1–25.
[55] Janet Ajzenstat, The Canadian Founding: John Locke and Parliament
  (McGill-Queen's University Press, 2007)
[56] Roberto Perin, "Clio as Ethnic: The Third Force in Canadian
  Historiography," Canadian Historical Review, (1983) 64#4: 441-467
[57] Larry A. Glassford, "The Evolution of 'New Political History' in
  English-Canadian Historiography: From Cliometrics to Cliodiversity,"
  American Review of Canadian Studies (2002) 32#3 online
[58] J. L. Granatstein, Who Killed Canadian History (1st ed. 1998, 2nd ed.
  2007) pp 53-78
[59] Franca Iacovetta, "Gendering Trans/National Historiographies:
  Feminists Rewriting Canadian History." Journal of Women's History (2007)
  p 210
[60] Granatstein, Who Killed Canadian History p 59 quoted in Peter
  Farrugia, ed. (2005). The River of History: Trans-national and
  Trans-disciplinary Perspectives on the Immanence of the Past. U of
  Calgary Press. p. 9.
[61] Franca Iacovetta, "Gendering Trans/National Historiographies:
  Feminists Rewriting Canadian History." Journal of Women's History (2007)
  19#1 pp 206-213.
[62]
  - Lévesque, Andrée. "Historiography: History of Women in Québec Since
    1985." Quebec Studies 12 (1991): 83-91.
[63] Clio Collective, Micheline Dumont and Michele Jean, Quebec Women: A
  History (1987)
[64] Fernand Ouellet, "The Social Condition of Women and the Women's
  Movement," in Ouellet, Economy, Class, and Nation in Québec: Interpretive
  Essays (1991) pp 265-89
[65] Andrée Lévesque, "Reflexions sur l'histoire des Femmes sans l'histoire
  du Quebec," [Reflections on the history of women in the history of
  Quebec] Revue d'histoire de L'Amerique francaise (1997) 51#2 pp 271-284
[66] Sverker Sörlin, "The Historiography of the Enigmatic North" Canadian
  Historical Review (2014) 95#4 pp 555-566.
[67] the first efforts appear in Chad Gaffield and Pam Gaffield, eds.,
  Consuming Canada: Readings in environmental history (1995)
[68] 3 David Freeland Duke, ed., Canadian Environmental History: Essential
  Readings (Toronto: Canadian Scholars' Press, 2006)
[69] See website
[70] See Website
[71] See website
[72] See website
[73] Annual since 1984; see website
[74] See website
[75] see website
[76] see homepage
[77] See French Wikipedia
[78] See website

Further reading

Main articles: Bibliography of Canadian history and List of Canadian
historians
- Artibise, Alan F. J., ed. Interdisciplinary Approaches to Canadian
  Society: A Guide to the Literature. (1990). 156 pp.
- Bell, C. Elizabeth. "A Historiography of Canadian Aboriginal Activism in
  the 20th Century." Waterloo Historical Review 7 (2015).
- Berger, Carl. Writing Canadian History: Aspects of English Canadian
  Historical Writing since 1900 (2nd ed. 1986), 364pp evaluates the work of
  most of the leading 20th century historians of Canada.
- Berger, Carl, ed. Contemporary Approaches to Canadian Writing (1987)
- Bliss, Michael. "Privatizing the Mind: The Sundering of Canadian History,
  the Sundering of Canada," Journal of Canadian Studies 26 (Winter
  1991-92): 5-17
- Brandt, Gail Cuthbert. "National Unity and the Politics of Political
  History," Journal of the Canadian Historical Association 3 (1992): 3-11
- Buckner, Phillip and John G. Reid, eds. Remembering 1759: The Conquest of
  Canada in Historical Memory (U of Toronto Press, 2012)
- Careless, J. M. S. "Canadian Nationalism — Immature or Obsolete?" Report
  of the Annual Meeting of the Canadian Historical Association / Rapports
  annuels de la Société historique du Canada (1954) 33#1 pp: 12-19. online
- Conrad, Margaret and Alvin Finkel. History of the Canadian Peoples (2 vol
  2006); university textbook with historiographical section at the end of
  most chapters.
- Conrad, Margaret et al. Canadians and Their Pasts (University of Toronto
  Press, 2013) Uses telephone surveys with 3,419 respondents in 2007 to ask
  how they "use history to situate themselves in the present and plan for
  the future"
- Cook, Ramsay. "Some French-Canadian Interpretations of the British
  Conquest: une quatrième dominante de la pensée canadienne-française."
  Historical Papers/Communications historiques 1.1 (1966): 70-83. online
- Dick, Lyle. "A Growing Necessity for Canada: W. L. Morton's Centenary
  Series and the Forms of National History, 1955-80," Canadian Historical
  Review 82#2 (2001), 223-252.
- Edwards, Justin D.l and Douglas Ivison. Downtown Canada: Writing Canadian
  Cities (2005)
- Frenette, Yves. "Conscripting Canada's Past: The Harper Government and
  the Politics of Memory" Canadian Journal of History (2014) 49#2: 49–65
- Fulford, Robert, David Godfrey, and Abraham Rotstein. Read Canadian: a
  book about Canadian books (1972) 275pp; topical chapters that comment on
  the best historical and current studies
- Gagnon, Serge. Quebec and its Historians: 1840 to 1920 (English ed. 1982;
  French ed. 1978)
- Gagnon, Serge. Quebec and its Historians: The Twentieth Century (English
  ed. 1985)
- Glassford, Larry A. "The Evolution of 'New Political History' in
  English-Canadian Historiography: From Cliometrics to Cliodiversity."
  American Review of Canadian Studies. 32#3 (2002).
- Granatstein, J. L. Who Killed Canadian History? (2000)
- Granatstein, J. L. and Paul Stevens, eds. A Reader's Guide to Canadian
  History: Confederation to the Present (1982)
- Greer, Allan. "National, Transnational, and Hypernational
  Historiographies: New France Meets Early American History." Canadian
  Historical Review 91#4 (2010): 695-724. online
- Hulan, Renée (2014). Canadian Historical Writing: Reading the Remains.
  Palgrave Macmillan., focus on Canadian novelists
- Iacovetta, Franca. "Gendering Trans/National Historiographies: Feminists
  Rewriting Canadian History." Journal of Women's History (2007) 19#1 pp
  206–213.
- Kealey, Gregory S. "Class in English-Canadian Historical Writing: Neither
  Privatizing, Nor Sundering," Journal of Canadian Studies 27 (Summer
  1992):
- Kealey, Linda, Ruth Pierson, Joan Sangster, and Veronica Strong-Boag.
  "Teaching Canadian History in the 1990s: Whose 'National' History Are We
  Lamenting?," Journal of Canadian Studies 27 (Summer 1992):
- Miquelon, Dale, ed. Society and Conquest: The Debate on the Bourgeoisie
  and Social Change in French Canada, 1700-1850 (Copp Clark Pub., 1977);
  Exurbs from primary sources and historians
- Muise, D. A. ed., A Reader's Guide to Canadian History: i, Beginnings to
  Confederation (1982); essays by scholars
  + Granatstein and Stevens, eds. A Reader's Guide to Canadian History:
    Confederation to the Present v2 (1982); Essays by scholars
- Osborne, Ken. "'Our History Syllabus Has Us Gasping': History in Canadian
  Schools--Past, Present, and Future," The Canadian Historical Review 81
  (September 2000):
- Parr, Joy. "Gender History and Historical Practice," The Canadian
  Historical Review 76 (September 1995): 354-376
- Read, Colin. "Canada's Twin 'Revolutionary' Traditions"
  Australian-Canadian Studies (1997) 15#1 pp 7–35 online
- Taylor, M. Brook, ed. Canadian History: A Reader's Guide. Vol. 1. Doug
  Owram, ed. Canadian History: A Reader's Guide. Vol. 2. Toronto: 1994.
  historiography
- Rudin, Ronald. Making History in Twentieth Century Quebec (1997)
- Schultz, John. ed. Writing About Canada: A Handbook for Modern Canadian
  History (1990), chapters by experts on politics, economics, ideas,
  regions, agriculture, business, labor, women, ethnicity and war.
- Sholdice, Mark. "'A Rather Stupid Sort of Game Played by the Bald and
  Obese Middle-aged': Partisanship and Patronage in Late Nineteenth- and
  Early-Twentieth-Century English Canadian Historical Writing." American
  Review of Canadian Studies (2015) 45#3 pp 365–377. online
- Strong-Boag, Veronica, Mona Gleason, and Adele Perry. Rethinking Canada:
  The Promise of Women's History (2003)
- Strong-Boag, Veronica. "Contested Space: The Politics of Canadian
  Memory," Journal of the Canadian Historical Association 5 (1994): 3-16
- Taylor, Martin Brook (1989). Promoters, Patriots, and Partisans:
  Historiography in Nineteenth-century English Canada. U of Toronto Press.
  p. 9.
- Trautsch, Jasper M. "The Causes of the War of 1812: 200 Years of Debate,"
  Journal of Military History (2013) 77#1 pp 273–293
- Trautsch, Jasper. "Whose War of 1812? Competing Memories of the
  Anglo-American Conflict" Reviews and History (2013; updated 2014) online
- Warkentin, John, ed. So Vast and Various: Interpreting Canada's Regions
  in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (2010); looks at 150 years of
  writings about Canada's regions.
- Wright, Donald. The Professionalization of History in English Canada
  (2005) 280pp; 1999 complete PhD dissertation version
- Wright, Donald (2015). Donald Creighton: A Life in History., Scholarly
  biography of major historian.
- Wyile, Herb (2007). Speaking in The Past Tense: Canadian Novelists on
  Writing Historical Fiction (2007 ed.). Wilfrid Laurier University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-88920-511-6.

External links

- Historiography in English - The Canadian Encyclopedia
- Historiography of Canada (Quebec History) - Marianopolis College
- "Economic history," from Canadian Encyclopedia
  + "Railway History" from Canadian Encyclopedia
  + "Staple Thesis" from Canadian Encyclopedia
- "Oral History" from Canadian Encyclopedia

National symbols

National symbols of Canada

National symbols of Canada are the symbols that are used in Canada and
abroad to represent the country and its people. Prominently, the use of the
maple leaf as a Canadian symbol dates back to the early 18th century, and
is depicted on its current and previous flags, the penny, and on the coat
of arms (or royal arms).

The Crown symbolizes the Canadian monarchy,¹ and appears on the coat of
arms (used by parliamentarians and government ministries), the flag of the
Governor General,¹ the coats of arms of many provinces and territories; the
badges of several federal departments, the Canadian Forces, Royal Military
College of Canada, Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), many regiments,
and other police forces; on buildings, as well as some highway signs and
licence plates. Also, the Queen's image appears in Canadian government
buildings, military installations and schools; and on Canadian stamps, $20
bank notes, and all coins.

List of symbols

Canada does not have a floral emblem,² and none of the tartan, maple leaf,
or Great Seal emblems are official symbols.³

National bird

In 2015, the Royal Canadian Geographical Society launched a National Bird
Project in order to declare a national bird in time for Canada's
sesquicentennial in 2017.⁸ In November 2016 they selected the Grey jay
(formerly known as the Canada jay) and are currently lobbying the
government to make it an official national symbol before the end of 2017.

See also

- List of Canadian provincial and territorial symbols
- List of Canadian flags
- Canadian royal symbols

References

[1] "The Crown in Canada". Department of Canadian Heritage. Retrieved
  2011-07-27.
[2] "Floral Emblems of Canada – A Bouquet". Canadian Heritage. 21 March
  2009. Retrieved 2013-04-03.
[3] "Other symbols of Canada". The Department of Canadian Heritage.
  Retrieved 2011-07-27.
[4] "Official symbols of Canada". The Department of Canadian Heritage.
  Retrieved 2011-07-27.
[5] "The arms of Canada". Department of Canadian Heritage. Retrieved
  2011-07-27.
[6] http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/great-seal-of-canada/
[7] "National Sports of Canada Act, CHAPTER N-16.7". Code of Canada.
  Government of Canada. 12 May 1994.
[8] "The National Bird Project - Canadian Geographic". Canadian Geographic.
  Retrieved 2017-01-24.

Further reading

- Department of Canadian Heritage (2002). Symbols of Canada. Ottawa, ON:
  Queen's Printer for Canada. ISBN 0-660-18615-2.
- Ross, David; Hook, Richard (1988). The Royal Canadian Mounted Police
  1873–1987. London: Osprey. ISBN 0-85045-834-X.
- Hutchins, Donna; Hutchins, Nigel (2006). The Maple Leaf Forever: A
  Celebration of Canadian Symbols. Erin: The Boston Mills Press. ISBN
  978-1-55046-474-0.

External links

- Canadian Heritage: The Symbols of Canada

Culture

Culture of Canada

The culture of Canada is a term that embodies the artistic, culinary,
literary, humour, musical, political and social elements that are
representative of Canada and Canadians. Throughout Canada's history, its
culture has been influenced by European culture and traditions, especially
British and French, and by its own indigenous cultures.¹ Over time,
elements of the cultures of Canada's immigrant populations have become
incorporated into mainstream Canadian culture.¹ ² The population has also
been influenced by American culture because of a shared language, proximity
and migration between the two countries.³ ⁴

Canada is often characterized as being "very progressive, diverse, and
multicultural".⁵ Canada's federal government has often been described as
the instigator of multicultural ideology because of its public emphasis on
the social importance of immigration.⁶ Canada's culture draws from its
broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote a just
society are constitutionally protected.⁷ Canadian Government policies—such
as publicly funded health care; higher and more progressive taxation;
outlawing capital punishment; strong efforts to eliminate poverty; an
emphasis on cultural diversity; strict gun control; and most recently,
legalizing same-sex marriage—are social indicators of Canada's political
and cultural values.⁸ Canadians identify with the country's institutions of
health care, military peacekeeping, the National park system and the
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.⁹ ¹⁰

The Canadian government has influenced culture with programs, laws and
institutions. It has created crown corporations to promote Canadian culture
through media, such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) and the
National Film Board of Canada (NFB), and promotes many events which it
considers to promote Canadian traditions. It has also tried to protect
Canadian culture by setting legal minimums on Canadian content in many
media using bodies like the Canadian Radio-television and
Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).¹¹

Development of Canadian culture

Historical influences

Main articles: Canadians and History of Canada

For tens of thousands of years, Canada was inhabited by Aboriginal peoples
from a variety of different cultures and of several major linguistic
groupings.¹² Although not without conflict and bloodshed, early European
interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations in what is now Canada
were arguably peaceful.¹³ First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical
part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for
their role in assisting European coureur des bois and voyageurs in the
exploration of the continent during the North American fur trade.¹⁴
Combined with late economic development in many regions, this comparably
nonbelligerent early history allowed Aboriginal Canadians to have a lasting
influence on the national culture (see: The Canadian Crown and Aboriginal
peoples).¹⁵ Over the course of three centuries, countless North American
Indigenous words, inventions, concepts, and games have become an everyday
part of Canadian language and use.¹⁶ Many places in Canada, both natural
features and human habitations, use indigenous names. The name "Canada"
itself derives from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word meaning "village" or
"settlement".¹⁷ The name of Canada's capital city Ottawa comes from the
Algonquin language term "adawe" meaning "to trade".¹⁷

The French originally settled New France along the shores of the Atlantic
Ocean and Saint Lawrence River during the early part of the 17th century.¹⁸
Themes and symbols of pioneers, trappers, and traders played an important
part in the early development of French Canadian culture.¹⁹ The British
conquest of New France during the mid-18th century brought 70,000
Francophones under British rule, creating a need for compromise and
accommodation.²⁰ The migration of 40,000 to 50,000 United Empire Loyalists
from the Thirteen Colonies during the American Revolution (1775–1783)
brought American colonial influences.²⁰ Following the War of 1812 a large
wave of Irish, Scottish and English settlers arrived in Upper Canada and
Lower Canada.²⁰

The Canadian Forces and overall civilian participation in the First World
War and Second World War helped to foster Canadian nationalism;²¹ however,
in 1917 and 1944, conscription crises highlighted the considerable rift
along ethnic lines between Anglophones and Francophones.²² As a result of
the First and Second World Wars, the Government of Canada became more
assertive and less deferential to British authority.²³ Canada until the
1940s saw itself in terms of English and French cultural, linguistic and
political identities, and to some extent aboriginal.²⁴

Legislative restrictions on immigration (such as the Continuous journey
regulation and Chinese Immigration Act) that had favoured British, American
and other European immigrants (such as Dutch, German, Italian, Polish,
Swedish and Ukrainian) were amended during the 1960s,²⁵ ²⁶ resulting in an
influx of diverse people from Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean.²⁷ By the end
of the 20th century, immigrants were increasingly Chinese, Indian,
Vietnamese, Jamaican, Filipino, Lebanese and Haitian.²⁸ As of 2006, Canada
has grown to have thirty four ethnic groups with at least one hundred
thousand members each, of which eleven have over 1,000,000 people and
numerous others are represented in smaller numbers.²⁹ 16.2% of the
population self identify as a visible minority.²⁹ The Canadian public
as-well as the major political parties support immigration.³⁰

Canada has also evolved to be religiously and linguistically diverse,
encompassing a wide range of dialects, beliefs and customs.³¹ ³² The 2011
Canadian census reported a population count of 33,121,175 individuals of
whom 67.3% identify as being Christians; of these, Catholics make up the
largest group, accounting for 38.7 percent of the population.³³ The largest
Protestant denomination is the United Church of Canada (accounting for 6.1%
of Canadians), followed by Anglicans (5.0%), and Baptists (1.9%).³³ About
23.9% of Canadians declare no religious affiliation, including agnostics,
atheists, humanists, and other groups.³³ The remaining are affiliated with
non-Christian religions, the largest of which is Islam (3.2%), followed by
Hinduism (1.5%), Sikhism (1.4%) Buddhism (1.1%) and Judaism (1.0%).³³
English and French are the first languages of approximately 60% and 20% of
the population; however in 2011, nearly 6.8 million Canadians listed a
non-official language as their mother tongue.³⁴ Some of the most common
non-official first languages include Chinese (mainly Cantonese with
1,072,555 first-language speakers); Punjabi (430,705); Spanish (410,670);
German (409,200); and Italian (407,490).³⁵

Evolution of legislation

Main articles: Official bilingualism in Canada, Human rights in Canada, and
Multiculturalism in Canada

French Canada's early development was relatively cohesive during the 17th
and 18th centuries, and this was preserved by the Quebec Act of 1774, which
allowed Roman Catholics to hold offices and practice their faith.³⁶ In
1867, the Constitution Act was thought to meet the growing calls for
Canadian autonomy while avoiding the overly strong decentralization that
contributed to the Civil War in the United States.³⁷ The compromises
reached during this time between the English- and French-speaking Fathers
of Confederation set Canada on a path to bilingualism which in turn
contributed to an acceptance of diversity.³⁸ The English and French
languages have had limited constitutional protection since 1867 and full
official status since 1969.³⁹ Section 133 of the Constitution Act of 1867
(BNA Act) guarantees that both languages may be used in the Parliament of
Canada.³⁹ Canada adopted its first Official Languages Act in 1969, giving
English and French equal status in the government of Canada.⁴⁰ Doing so
makes them "official" languages, having preferred status in law over all
other languages used in Canada.⁴⁰

Prior to the advent of the Canadian Bill of Rights in 1960 and its
successor the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms in 1982, the laws of
Canada did not provide much in the way of civil rights and this issue was
typically of limited concern to the courts.⁴¹ Canada since the 1960s has
placed emphasis on equality and inclusiveness for all people.⁴² For
example, in 1995, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled in Egan v. Canada that
sexual orientation should be "read in" to Section Fifteen of the Canadian
Charter of Rights and Freedoms, a part of the Constitution of Canada
guaranteeing equal rights to all Canadians.⁴³ Following a series of
decisions by provincial courts and the Supreme Court of Canada, on July 20,
2005, the Civil Marriage Act (Bill C-38) received Royal Assent, legalizing
same-sex marriage in Canada.⁴⁴ Canada thus became the fourth country to
officially sanction same-sex marriage worldwide, after The Netherlands,
Belgium, and Spain.⁴⁵ Furthermore, sexual orientation was included as a
protected status in the human-rights laws of the federal government and of
all provinces and territories.⁴⁶

Today, Canada has a diverse makeup of ethnicities and nationalities and
constitutional protection for policies that promote multiculturalism rather
than cultural assimilation or a single national myth.⁴⁷ In Quebec, cultural
identity is strong, and many French-speaking commentators speak of a Quebec
culture as distinguished from English Canadian culture⁴⁸ and other French
Canadian cultures. However, as a whole, Canada is in theory, a cultural
mosaic—a collection of several regional, aboriginal, and ethnic
subcultures.⁴⁹ ⁵⁰ Celtic influences have allowed survival of non-English
dialects in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland;⁵¹ Canada's Pacific trade has also
brought a large Chinese influence into British Columbia and other areas.⁵²
Multiculturalism in Canada was adopted as the official policy of the
Canadian government during the prime ministership of Pierre Trudeau, and is
enshrined in Section 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.⁵³
⁵⁴ In parts of Canada, especially the major cities of Montreal, Vancouver,
Ottawa and Toronto, multiculturalism itself is the cultural norm in many
urban communities.⁵⁵

Values

Main article: Canadian values

Canadian values are the commonly shared ethical and human values of Canada.
The major political parties have claimed explicitly that they uphold these
values, but use generalities to specify them. Justin Trudeau after taking
office as Prime Minister in 2015 tried to redefine what it means to be
Canadian, saying that Canada lacks a core identity but does have shared
values:

  There is no core identity, no mainstream in Canada....There are shared
  values — openness, respect, compassion, willingness to work hard, to be
  there for each other, to search for equality and justice. Those qualities
  are what make us the first postnational state.⁵⁶

Numerous scholars, beginning with Seymour Martin Lipset in the 1940s, have
tried to identify, measure and compare them with other countries,
especially the United States..⁵⁷ ⁵⁸ However, there are critics who say that
such a task is practically impossible.⁵⁹

Identity

Main article: Canadian identity

Canada's large geographic size, the presence of a significant number of
indigenous peoples, the conquest of one European linguistic population by
another and relatively open immigration policy have led to an extremely
diverse society. As a result, the issue of Canadian identity remains under
scrutiny.⁶⁰ Journalist and author Richard Gwyn has suggested that
"tolerance" has replaced "loyalty" as the touchstone of Canadian
identity.⁶¹ Journalist and professor Andrew Cohen wrote in 2007:

  The Canadian Identity, as it has come to be known, is as elusive as the
  Sasquatch and Ogopogo. It has animated—and frustrated—generations of
  statesmen, historians, writers, artists, philosophers, and the National
  Film Board...Canada resists easy definition.
  — Andrew Cohen, The Unfinished Canadian: The People We Are⁶²

The question of Canadian identity was traditionally dominated by three
fundamental themes: first, the often conflicted relations between English
Canadians and French Canadians stemming from the French Canadian imperative
for cultural and linguistic survival; secondly, the generally close ties
between English Canadians and the British Empire, resulting in a gradual
political process towards complete independence from the imperial power;
and finally, the close proximity of English-speaking Canadians to the
United States.⁶³ In the 20th century, immigrants from African, Caribbean
and Asian nationalities have shaped the Canadian identity, a process that
continues today with the ongoing arrival of large numbers of immigrants
from non-British or non-French backgrounds, adding the theme of
multiculturalism to the debate.⁶⁴ ⁶⁵ Much of the debate over contemporary
Canadian identity is argued in political terms, and defines Canada as a
country defined by its government policies, which are thought to reflect
deeper cultural values.⁶⁶

Nationalism and protectionism

Main articles: Canadian nationalism, Quebec nationalism, and Canadian
cultural protectionism

In general, Canadian nationalists are highly concerned about the protection
of Canadian sovereignty and loyalty to the Canadian State, placing them in
the civic nationalist category. It has likewise often been suggested that
anti-Americanism plays a prominent role in Canadian nationalist
ideologies.⁶⁷ A unified, bi-cultural, tolerant and sovereign Canada remains
an ideological inspiration to many Canadian nationalists.⁶⁸ Alternatively
French Canadian nationalism and support for maintaining French Canadian
culture would inspire Quebec nationalists, many of whom were supporters of
the Quebec sovereignty movement during the late-20th century.⁶⁹

Cultural protectionism in Canada has, since the mid-20th century, taken the
form of conscious, interventionist attempts on the part of various Canadian
governments to promote Canadian cultural production.⁷⁰ Sharing a large
border and (for the majority) a common language with the United States,
Canada faces a difficult position in regard to American culture, be it
direct attempts at the Canadian market or the general diffusion of American
culture in the globalized media arena. While Canada tries to maintain its
cultural differences, it also must balance this with responsibility in
trade arrangements such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT) and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).⁷¹

Symbols

Main articles: National symbols of Canada and Canadian royal symbols

Official symbols of Canada include the maple leaf, beaver, and the Canadian
Horse.⁷² ⁷³ ⁷⁴ Many official symbols of the country such as the Flag of
Canada have been changed or modified over the past few decades to
'Canadianize' them and de-emphasise or remove references to the United
Kingdom.⁷⁵ Other prominent symbols include the Canada goose, common loon
and more recently, the totem pole and inuksuk.⁷⁶ Symbols of the monarchy in
Canada continue to be featured in, for example, the Arms of Canada, the
armed forces and the prefix Her Majesty's Canadian Ship. The designation
'Royal' remains for institutions as varied as the Royal Canadian Mounted
Police and the Royal Winnipeg Ballet. During unification of the forces in
the 1960s, a renaming of the branches took place, resulting in the
abandonment of "royal designations" of the navy and air force.⁷⁷ On August
16, 2011, the Government of Canada announced that the name "Air Command"
was re-assuming the air force's original historic name, Royal Canadian Air
Force; "Land Command" was re-assuming the name Canadian Army; and "Maritime
Command" was re-assuming the name Royal Canadian Navy.⁷⁸ These name changes
were made to better reflect Canada's military heritage and align Canada
with other key Commonwealth of Nations whose militaries use the royal
designation.⁷⁸

Humour

Main article: Canadian humour

Canadian humour is an integral part of the Canadian Identity. There are
several traditions in Canadian humour in both English and French.⁷⁹ ⁸⁰
While these traditions are distinct and at times very different, there are
common themes that relate to Canadians' shared history and geopolitical
situation in the Western Hemisphere and the world. Various trends can be
noted in Canadian comedy. One trend is the portrayal of a "typical"
Canadian family in an ongoing radio or television series.⁸¹ Other trends
include outright absurdity,⁸² and political and cultural satire.⁸³ Irony,
parody, satire, and self-deprecation are arguably the primary
characteristics of Canadian humour.⁸⁴ ⁸⁵ ⁸⁶

The beginnings of Canadian radio comedy date to the late 1930s with the
debut of The Happy Gang, a long-running weekly variety show that was
regularly sprinkled with corny jokes in between tunes.⁸⁷ Canadian
television comedy begins with Wayne and Shuster, a sketch comedy duo who
performed as a comedy team during the Second World War, and moved their act
to radio in 1946 before moving on to television.⁸⁸ Second City Television,
otherwise known as SCTV, Royal Canadian Air Farce, This Hour Has 22
Minutes, The Kids in the Hall and more recently Trailer Park Boys are
regarded as television shows which were very influential on the development
of Canadian humour.⁸⁹ Canadian comedians have had great success in the film
industry and are amongst the most recognized in the world.⁸⁹

Humber College in Toronto and the École nationale de l'humour in Montreal
offer post-secondary programmes in comedy writing and performance.⁹⁰
Montreal is also home to the bilingual (English and French) Just for Laughs
festival and to the Just for Laughs Museum, a bilingual, international
museum of comedy.⁹¹ Canada has a national television channel, The Comedy
Network, devoted to comedy. Many Canadian cities feature comedy clubs and
showcases, most notable, The Second City branch in Toronto (originally
housed at The Old Fire Hall) and the Yuk Yuk's national chain.⁹² The
Canadian Comedy Awards were founded in 1999 by the Canadian Comedy
Foundation for Excellence, a not-for-profit organization.⁹³

Arts

Visual arts

Main article: Canadian art

Aboriginal artists were producing art in the territory that is now called
Canada for thousands of years prior to the arrival of European settler
colonists and the eventual establishment of Canada as a nation state.⁹⁴
Like the peoples that produced them, indigenous art traditions spanned
territories that extended across the current national boundaries between
Canada and the United States.⁹⁵ The majority of indigenous artworks
preserved in museum collections date from the period after European contact
and show evidence of the creative adoption and adaptation of European trade
goods such as metal and glass beads.⁹⁶ Canadian sculpture has been enriched
by the walrus ivory, muskox horn and caribou antler and soapstone carvings
by the Inuit artists.⁹⁷ These carvings show objects and activities from the
daily life, myths and legends of the Inuit.⁹⁸ Inuit art since the 1950s has
been the traditional gift given to foreign dignitaries by the Canadian
government.⁹⁹

The works of most early Canadian painters followed European trends.¹⁰⁰
During the mid-19th century, Cornelius Krieghoff, a Dutch-born artist in
Quebec, painted scenes of the life of the habitants (French-Canadian
farmers). At about the same time, the Canadian artist Paul Kane painted
pictures of aboriginal life in western Canada. A group of landscape
painters called the Group of Seven developed the first distinctly Canadian
style of painting.¹⁰¹ All these artists painted large, brilliantly coloured
scenes of the Canadian wilderness.

Since the 1930s, Canadian painters have developed a wide range of highly
individual styles. Emily Carr became famous for her paintings of totem
poles in British Columbia.¹⁰² Other noted painters have included the
landscape artist David Milne, the painters Jean-Paul Riopelle, Harold Town
and Charles Carson and multi-media artist Michael Snow. The abstract art
group Painters Eleven, particularly the artists William Ronald and Jack
Bush, also had an important impact on modern art in Canada.¹⁰³ Government
support has played a vital role in their development enabling visual
exposure through publications and periodicals featuring Canadian art, as
has the establishment of numerous art schools and colleges across the
country.¹⁰⁴

Literature

Main article: Canadian literature

Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language
literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and
Britain, respectively.¹⁰⁵ Canada's early literature, whether written in
English or French, often reflects the Canadian perspective on nature,
frontier life, and Canada's position in the world, for example the poetry
of Bliss Carman or the memoirs of Susanna Moodie and Catherine Parr Traill.
These themes, and Canada's literary history, inform the writing of
successive generations of Canadian authors, from Leonard Cohen to Margaret
Atwood.

By the mid-20th century, Canadian writers were exploring national themes
for Canadian readers. Authors were trying to find a distinctly Canadian
voice, rather than merely emulating British or American writers. Canadian
identity is closely tied to its literature. The question of national
identity recurs as a theme in much of Canada's literature, from Hugh
MacLennan's Two Solitudes (1945) to Alistair MacLeod's No Great Mischief
(1999). Canadian literature is often categorized by region or province; by
the socio-cultural origins of the author (for example, Acadians, Aboriginal
peoples, LGBT, and Irish Canadians); and by literary period, such as
"Canadian postmoderns" or "Canadian Poets Between the Wars."

Canadian authors have accumulated numerous international awards.¹⁰⁶ In
1992, Michael Ondaatje became the first Canadian to win the Man Booker
Prize for The English Patient.¹⁰⁷ Margaret Atwood won the Booker in 2000
for The Blind Assassin¹⁰⁸ and Yann Martel won it in 2002 for the Life of
Pi.¹⁰⁹ Carol Shields's The Stone Diaries won the Governor General's Awards
in Canada in 1993, the 1995 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction, and the 1994
National Book Critics Circle Award.¹¹⁰ In 2013, Alice Munro was the first
Canadian to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for her work as
"master of the modern short story".¹¹¹ Munro is also a recipient of the Man
Booker International Prize for her lifetime body of work, and three-time
winner of Canada's Governor General's Award for fiction.¹¹²

Theatre

Main article: Theatre of Canada

Canada has had a thriving stage theatre scene since the late 1800s.¹¹³
Theatre festivals draw many tourists in the summer months, especially the
Stratford Shakespeare Festival in Stratford, Ontario, and the Shaw Festival
in Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario. The Famous People Players are only one of
many touring companies that have also developed an international
reputation.¹¹⁴ Canada also hosts one of the largest fringe festival the
Edmonton International Fringe Festival.¹¹⁵

Canada's largest cities host a variety of modern and historical venues. The
Toronto Theatre District is Canada's largest, as well as being the third
largest English-speaking theatre district in the world.¹¹⁶ In addition to
original Canadian works, shows from the West End and Broadway frequently
tour in Toronto. Toronto's Theatre District includes the venerable Roy
Thomson Hall; the Princess of Wales Theatre; the Tim Sims Playhouse; The
Second City; the Canon Theatre; the Panasonic Theatre; the Royal Alexandra
Theatre; historic Massey Hall; and the city's new opera house, the Sony
Centre for the Performing Arts.¹¹⁷ Toronto's Theatre District also includes
the Theatre Museum Canada.

Montreal's theatre district ("Quartier des Spectacles") is the scene of
performances that are mainly French-language, although the city also boasts
a lively anglophone theatre scene, such as the Centaur Theatre.¹¹⁸ Large
French theatres in the city include Theatre Saint-Denis, Theatre du Nouveau
Monde, and EXcentris.¹¹⁹

Vancouver is host to, among others, the Vancouver Fringe Festival, the Arts
Club Theatre Company, Carousel Theatre, Bard on the Beach, Theatre Under
the Stars and Studio 58.¹²⁰ It also home of Vancouver Theatresports League,
the improvisational theatre company, world-known for providing an impetus
for the present worldwide interest in theatresports at Expo in 1986.

Calgary is home to Theatre Calgary, a mainstream regional theatre; Alberta
Theatre Projects, a major centre for new play development in Canada; the
Calgary Animated Objects Society; and One Yellow Rabbit, a touring
company.¹²¹

There are three major theatre venues in Ottawa; the Ottawa Little Theatre,
originally called the Ottawa Drama League at its inception in 1913, is the
longest-running community theatre company in Ottawa.¹²² Since 1969, Ottawa
has been the home of the National Arts Centre, a major performing-arts
venue that houses four stages and is home to the National Arts Centre
Orchestra, the Ottawa Symphony Orchestra and Opera Lyra Ottawa.¹²³
Established in 1975, the Great Canadian Theatre Company specializes in the
production of Canadian plays at a local level.¹²⁴

Television

Main article: Television in Canada

Canadian television, especially supported by the Canadian Broadcasting
Corporation,¹²⁵ is the home of a variety of locally produced shows.
French-language television, like French Canadian film, is buffered from
excessive American influence by the fact of language, and likewise supports
a host of home-grown productions.¹²⁶ The success of French-language
domestic television in Canada often exceeds that of its English-language
counterpart. In recent years nationalism has been used to prompt products
on television. The I Am Canadian campaign by Molson beer, most notably the
commercial featuring Joe Canadian, infused domestically brewed beer and
nationalism.¹²⁷

Canada's television industry is in full expansion as a site for Hollywood
productions.¹²⁸ Since the 1980s, Canada, and Vancouver in particular, has
become known as Hollywood North.¹²⁹ The American TV series Queer as Folk
was filmed in Toronto. Canadian producers have been very successful in the
field of science fiction since the mid-1990s, with such shows as The
X-Files, Stargate SG-1, Highlander: The Series, the new Battlestar
Galactica, My Babysitter's A Vampire, Smallville, and The Outer Limits, all
filmed in Vancouver.¹³⁰

The CRTC's Canadian content regulations dictate that a certain percentage
of a domestic broadcaster's transmission time must include content that is
produced by Canadians, or covers Canadian subjects.¹³¹ These regulations
also apply to US cable television channels such as MTV and the Discovery
Channel, which have local versions of their channels available on Canadian
cable networks. Similarly, BBC Canada, while showing primarily BBC shows
from the United Kingdom, also carries Canadian output.

Film

Main articles: Cinema of Canada and Cinema of Quebec

A number of Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood significantly contributed
to the creation of the motion picture industry in the early days of the
20th century.¹³² Over the years, many Canadians have made enormous
contributions to the American entertainment industry, although they are
frequently not recognized as Canadians.¹³³

Canada has developed a vigorous film industry that has produced a variety
of well-known films, actors, and auteurs.¹³⁴ In fact, this eclipsing may
sometimes be creditable for the bizarre and innovative directions of some
works,¹³⁴ such as auteurs Atom Egoyan (The Sweet Hereafter, 1997) and David
Cronenberg (The Fly, Naked Lunch, A History of Violence). Also, the
distinct French-Canadian society permits the work of directors such as
Denys Arcand and Denis Villeneuve. At the 76th Academy Awards, Arcand's The
Barbarian Invasions became Canada's first film to win the Academy Award for
Best Foreign Language Film.¹³⁵ James Cameron is a very successful Canadian
filmmaker, having been nominated for and received many Academy Awards.¹³⁶

The National Film Board of Canada is 'a public agency that produces and
distributes films and other audiovisual works which reflect Canada to
Canadians and the rest of the world'.¹³⁷ Canada has produced many popular
documentaries such as The Corporation, Nanook of the North, Final Offer,
and Canada: A People's History. The Toronto International Film Festival
(TIFF) is considered by many to be one of the most prevalent film festivals
for Western cinema. It is the première film festival in North America from
which the Oscars race begins.¹³⁸

Music

Main article: Music of Canada

The music of Canada has reflected the multi-cultural influences that have
shaped the country. Aboriginals, the French, and the British have all made
contributions to the musical heritage of Canada. The country has produced
its own composers, musicians and ensembles since the mid-1600s.¹³⁹ ¹⁴⁰ From
the 17th century onward, Canada has developed a music infrastructure that
includes church halls; chamber halls; conservatories; academies; performing
arts centres; record companys; radio stations, and television music-video
channels.¹⁴¹ ¹⁴² The music has subsequently been heavily influenced by
American culture because of its proximity and migration between the two
countries.¹⁴³ ¹⁴⁴ ¹⁴⁵ Canadian rock has had a considerable impact on the
development of modern popular music and the development of the most popular
subgenres.¹⁴⁶

Patriotic music in Canada date back over 200 years as a distinct category
from British patriotism, preceding the first legal steps to independence by
over 50 years. The earliest known song, "The Bold Canadian", was written in
1812.¹⁴⁷ The national anthem of Canada, O Canada adopted in 1980,¹⁴⁸ was
originally commissioned by the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec, the
Honourable Théodore Robitaille, for the 1880 St. Jean-Baptiste Day
ceremony.¹⁴⁹ Calixa Lavallée wrote the music, which was a setting of a
patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier.
The text was originally only in French, before it was translated to English
in 1906.¹⁵⁰

Music broadcasting in the country is regulated by the Canadian
Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC). The Canadian
Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences presents Canada's music industry
awards, the Juno Awards, which were first awarded in a ceremony during the
summer of 1970.¹⁵¹

Video games

Main article: Video gaming in Canada

Canada has one of the largest video-game industries in terms of employment
numbers, right behind the USA and Japan,¹⁵² with 16,000 employees, 348
companies, and a direct annual economic impact of nearly $2 billion.¹⁵³
Canada has grown from a minor player in the video-games industry to a major
industry player.¹⁵⁴ ¹⁵⁵ In part, this prominence is made possible by a
large pool of university-educated talent and a high quality of life, but
favourable government policies towards digital media companies also play a
role in making Canada an attractive location for game development
studios.¹⁵⁶

Media

Main article: Media in Canada

Canada has a well-developed media sector, but its cultural
output—particularly in English films, television shows, and magazines—is
often overshadowed by imports from the United States.¹⁵⁷ Television,
magazines, and newspapers are primarily for-profit corporations based on
advertising, subscription, and other sales-related revenues. Nevertheless,
both the television broadcasting and publications sectors require a number
of government interventions to remain profitable, ranging from regulation
that bars foreign companies in the broadcasting industry to tax laws that
limit foreign competition in magazine advertising.¹⁵⁸

The promotion of multicultural media in Canada began in the late 1980s as
the multicultural policy was legislated in 1988.¹⁵⁹ In the Multiculturalism
Act, the federal government proclaimed the recognition of the diversity of
Canadian culture.¹⁵⁹ Thus, multicultural media became an integral part of
Canadian media overall. Upon numerous government reports showing lack of
minority representation or minority misrepresentation, the Canadian
government stressed separate provision be made to allow minorities and
ethnicities of Canada to have their own voice in the media.¹⁶⁰

Sport

See also: Sports in Canada

Sports in Canada consists of a variety of games. Although there are many
contests that Canadians value, the most common are Ice hockey, Lacrosse,
Canadian football, basketball, soccer, curling, baseball and ringette. All
but curling and soccer are considered domestic sports as they were either
invented by Canadians or trace their roots to Canada.¹⁶¹

Ice hockey, referred to as simply "hockey", is Canada's most prevalent
winter sport, its most popular spectator sport, and its most successful
sport in international competition. It is Canada's official national winter
sport.¹⁶² Lacrosse, a sport with indigenous origins, is Canada's oldest and
official summer sport.¹⁶² Canadian football is Canada's second most popular
spectator sport,¹⁶³ and the Canadian Football League's annual championship,
the Grey Cup, is the country's largest annual sports event.¹⁶⁴

While other sports have a larger spectator base, association football,
known in Canada as soccer in both English and French, has the most
registered players of any team sport in Canada, and is the most played
sport with all demographics, including ethnic origin, ages and genders.¹⁶⁵
Professional teams exist in many cities in Canada — with a trio of teams in
North America's top pro league, Major League Soccer — and international
soccer competitions such as the FIFA World Cup, UEFA Euro and the UEFA
Champions League attract some of the biggest audiences in Canada.¹⁶⁶ Other
popular team sports include curling, street hockey, cricket, rugby league,
rugby union, softball and Ultimate frisbee. Popular individual sports
include auto racing, boxing, karate, kickboxing, hunting, Sport shooting,
fishing, cycling, golf, hiking, horse racing, ice skating, skiing,
snowboarding, swimming, triathlon, disc golf, water sports, and several
forms of wrestling.

As a country with a generally cool climate, Canada has enjoyed greater
success at the Winter Olympics than at the Summer Olympics, although
significant regional variations in climate allow for a wide variety of both
team and individual sports. Great achievements in Canadian sports are
recognized by Canada's Sports Hall of Fame,¹⁶⁷ while the Lou Marsh Trophy
is awarded annually to Canada's top athlete by a panel of journalists.¹⁶⁸
There are numerous other Sports Halls of Fame in Canada.¹⁶⁷

Cuisine

Main article: Canadian cuisine

Canadian cuisine varies widely depending on the region. The former Canadian
prime minister Joe Clark has been paraphrased to have noted: "Canada has a
cuisine of cuisines. Not a stew pot, but a smorgasbord."¹⁶⁹ There are
considerable overlaps between Canadian food and the rest of the cuisine in
North America, many unique dishes (or versions of certain dishes) are found
and available only in the country. Common contenders for the Canadian
national food include poutine¹⁷⁰ ¹⁷¹ ¹⁷² and butter tarts.¹⁷³ ¹⁷⁴ Other
popular Canadian made foods include the Aboriginal fried bread bannock,
French tourtière, Kraft Dinner, ketchup chips, date squares, and the
cocktail bloody caesar.¹⁷⁵ Canada is the world's largest producer of maple
syrup.¹⁷⁶

The three earliest cuisines of Canada have First Nations, English, and
French roots, with the traditional cuisine of English Canada closely
related to British and American cuisine, while the traditional cuisine of
French Canada has evolved from French cuisine and the winter provisions of
fur traders.¹⁷⁷ With subsequent waves of immigration in the 18th and 19th
century from Central, Southern, and Eastern Europe, and then from Asia,
Africa and Caribbean, the regional cuisines were subsequently augmented.¹⁷⁷
The Jewish immigrants to Canada during the late 1800s also play a
significant role to foods in Canada. The Montreal-style bagel and
Montreal-style smoked meat are both food items originally developed by
Jewish communities living in Montreal.¹⁷⁸

Outside views

In 1984, Baron Moran, the British High Commissioner to Canada, described
Canadians as "moderate, comfortable...decent and reasonable", but added
that, due to the absence of competition, "Anyone who is even moderately
good at what they do—in literature, the theater, skiing or whatever—tends
to become a national figure. And anyone who stands out at all from the
crowd tends to be praised to the skies and given the Order of Canada at
once." ¹⁷⁹

In a 2002 interview with the Globe and Mail, Aga Khan, the 49th Imam of the
Ismaili Muslims, described Canada as "the most successful pluralist society
on the face of our globe",¹⁸⁰ citing it as "a model for the world".¹⁸¹ A
2007 poll ranked Canada as the country with the most positive influence in
the world. 28,000 people in 27 countries were asked to rate 12 countries as
either having a positive or negative worldwide influence. Canada's overall
influence rating topped the list with 54 per cent of respondents rating it
mostly positive and only 14 per cent mostly negative.¹⁸²

The United States is home to a number of perceptions about Canadian
culture, due to the countries' partially shared heritage and the relatively
large number of cultural features common to both the US and Canada.¹⁸³ For
example, the average Canadian may be perceived as more reserved than his or
her American counterpart.¹⁸⁴ Canada and the United States are often
inevitably compared as sibling countries, and the perceptions that arise
from this oft-held contrast have gone to shape the advertised worldwide
identities of both nations: the United States is seen as the rebellious
child of the British Crown, forged in the fires of violent revolution;
Canada is the calmer offspring of the United Kingdom, known for a more
relaxed national demeanour.¹⁸⁵ ¹⁸⁶

See also

- Canadiana
- Canadian folklore
- Culture of Alberta
- Culture of Manitoba
- Culture of Saskatchewan
- Culture of Quebec
- History of free speech in Canada
- Public holidays in Canada
- List of Canadians

References

[1] Sana Loue; Martha Sajatovic (2011). Encyclopedia of Immigrant Health.
  Springer. p. 337. ISBN 978-1-4419-5655-2.
[2] Paul R. Magocsi; Multicultural History Society of Ontario (1999).
  Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples. University of Toronto Press. pp.
  1186–1187. ISBN 978-0-8020-2938-6.
[3] Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (1999). Economic
  and cultural transition towards a learning city: the case of Jena. OECD
  Publishing. p. 48. ISBN 978-92-64-17015-5.
[4] Christopher Ricks; Leonard Michaels (1990). The State of the language.
  University of California Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-520-05906-1.
[5] Anne-Marie Mooney Cotter (2011). Culture clash: an international legal
  perspective on ethnic discrimination. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 176.
  ISBN 978-1-4094-1936-5.
[6] Wayland, Shara (1997). "Immigration, Multiculturalism and National
  Identity in Canada" (PDF). University of Toronto Department of Political
  Science. Retrieved 2010-09-12.
[7] Sheila Petty; Garry Sherbert; Annie Gérin (2006). Canadian Cultural
  Poesis: Essays on Canadian Culture. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. p. 348.
  ISBN 978-0-88920-486-7.
[8] Darrell Bricker; John Wright; Ipsos-Reid (Firm) (2005). What Canadians
  think- about almost- everything. Doubleday Canada. pp. 8–20. ISBN
  978-0-385-65985-7.
[9] The Environics Institute (2010). "Focus Canada (Final Report)" (pdf).
  Queen's University. p. 4 (PDF page 8). Retrieved December 12, 2015.
[10] Nanos Research, (October 2016). "Exploring Canadian values" (PDF).
  Retrieved February 1, 2017.
[11] National Film Board of Canada (2005). "Mandate of the National Film
  Board". Archived from the original on April 21, 2006. Retrieved March 15,
  2006.
[12] Trevor W. Harrison, John W. Friesen; Trevor Harrison; John W. Friesen
  (2010). Canadian Society in the Twenty-first Century: An Historical
  Sociological Approach. Canadian Scholars' Press. p. 186. ISBN
  978-1-55130-371-0.
[13] David L. Preston (2009). The Texture of Contact: European and Indian
  Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783. U of
  Nebraska Press. pp. 43–44. ISBN 978-0-8032-2549-7.
[14] J.R. Miller (2009). Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal
  Treaty-Making in Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 34. ISBN
  978-1-4426-9227-5.
[15] Patrick Macklem (2001). Indigenous difference and the Constitution of
  Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-8020-8049-3.
[16] Newhouse, David. "Hidden in Plain Sight Aboriginal Contributions to
  Canada and Canadian Identity Creating a new Indian Problem" (PDF). Centre
  of Canadian Studies, University of Edinburgh. Archived from the original
  (PDF) on July 23, 2011. Retrieved October 17, 2009.
[17] "Aboriginal place names contribute to a rich tapestry". Indian and
  Northern Affairs Canada. Retrieved October 17, 2009.
[18] John C. Hudson (2002). Across this land: a regional geography of the
  United States and Canada. JHU Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-8018-6567-1.
[19] "Canada in the Making: Pioneers and Immigrants". The History Channel.
  August 25, 2005. Retrieved November 30, 2006.
[20] John Powell (2009). Encyclopedia of North American Immigration.
  Infobase Publishing. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-4381-1012-7.
[21] Edited by R. Douglas Francis (2011-11-01). Canada and the British
  World: Culture, Migration, and Identity. UBC Press. p. 2. ISBN
  978-0-7748-4031-6.
[22] Christopher Edward Taucar (2002). Canadian Federalism and Quebec
  Sovereignty. 47. American university studies: Political science. pp.
  47–48. ISBN 978-0-8204-6242-4.
[23] Wayne C. Thompson (2013). Canada World Today. Rowman & Littlefield. p.
  61. ISBN 978-1-4758-0474-4.
[24] Guy M. Robinson (1991). A Social geography of Canada. Dundurn Press
  Ltd. p. 86. ISBN 978-1-55002-092-2.
[25] Peter Kivisto (2008). Multiculturalism in a Global Society. John Wiley
  & Sons. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-470-69480-0.
[26] Patricia E.. Bromley (2011). Human Rights, Diversity, and National
  Identity: Changes in Civic Education Textbooks Cross-nationally
  (1970–2008) and in British Columbia (1871–2008). Stanford University. pp.
  107–108. STANFORD:XT006FZ3167.
[27] Edward Ksenych; David Liu (2001). Conflict, order and action: readings
  in sociology. Canadian Scholars' Press. p. 407. ISBN 978-1-55130-192-1.
[28] "Immigration Policy in the 1970s". Canadian Heritage (Multicultural
  Canada). 2004. Retrieved April 12, 2010.
[29] "2006 Census release topics". Statistics Canada. Retrieved January 16,
  2011.
[30] James Hollifield; Philip Martin; Pia Orrenius (2014). Controlling
  Immigration: A Global Perspective, Third Edition. Stanford University
  Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-8047-8627-0.
[31] Dianne R. Hales; Lara Lauzon (April 2009). An Invitation to Health.
  Cengage Learning. p. 440. ISBN 978-0-17-650009-2.
[32] William Downes (1998). Language and society. Cambridge University
  Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-521-45663-0.
[33] "Religions in Canada—Census 2011". Statistics Canada/Statistique
  Canada.
[34] "What Languages Do Canadians Speak? Language Statistics From the 2011
  Census of Canada". About.com: Canada Online. October 31, 2012. Retrieved
  November 26, 2012.
[35] "Population by mother tongue, by province and territory". Statistics
  Canada. January 2013. Retrieved July 4, 2013.
[36] "Quebec". The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
  Columbia University Press. 2003. Retrieved November 30, 2006.
[37] "American Civil war". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Founcation.
  2003. Retrieved November 30, 2006.
[38] François Vaillancourt, Olivier Coche (2009). Official Language
  Policies at the Federal Level in Canada:costs and Benefits in 2006. The
  Fraser Institute. p. 11. GGKEY:B3Y7U7SKGUD.
[39] Paul André Linteau; René Durocher; Jean-Claude Robert (1983). Quebec,
  a history, 1867–1929. James Lorimer & Company. p. 219. ISBN
  978-0-88862-604-2.
[40] Jochen Kosel (2010). The Language Situation in Canada with Special
  Regard to Quebec. GRIN Verlag. p. 15. ISBN 978-3-640-65926-5.
[41] Joan Church; Christian Schulze; Hennie Strydom (2007). Human rights
  from a comparative and international law perspective. Unisa Press. p. 82.
  ISBN 978-1-86888-361-5.
[42] Christopher MacLennan (2004). Toward the Charter: Canadians and the
  Demand for a National Bill of Rights, 1929–1960. McGill-Queen's
  University Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-7735-2536-8.
[43] Linda Silver Dranoff (2011). Every Canadian's Guide to the Law: Fourth
  Edition. HarperCollins Canada. pp. 373–. ISBN 978-1-4434-0559-1.
  Retrieved February 3, 2012.
[44] Paul Ubaldo Angelini (2011). Our Society: Human Diversity in Canada.
  Cengage Learning. p. 315. ISBN 978-0-17-650354-3.
[45] Anne-Marie Mooney Cotter (2010). Ask no questions: an international
  legal analysis on sexual orientation discrimination. Ashgate Publishing,
  Ltd. p. 140. ISBN 978-0-7546-7791-8.
[46] Shirley R. Steinberg (2009). Diversity and Multiculturalism. Peter
  Lang. p. 184. ISBN 978-1-4331-0345-2.
[47] David DeRocco; John F. Chabot (2008). From Sea to Sea to Sea: A
  Newcomer's Guide to Canada. Full Blast Productions. p. 13. ISBN
  978-0-9784738-4-6.
[48] Daniel Franklin; Michael J. Baun (1995). Political culture and
  constitutionalism: a comparative approach. M.E. Sharpe. p. 61. ISBN
  978-1-56324-416-2.
[49] Allan D. English (2004). Understanding Military Culture: A Canadian
  Perspective. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 111. ISBN
  978-0-7735-7171-6.
[50] Burgess, Ann Carroll; Burgess, Tom (2005). Guide to Western Canada.
  Globe Pequot Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-7627-2987-6.
[51] John Thomas Koch (2006). Celtic culture: a historical encyclopedia.
  ABC-CLIO. p. 376. ISBN 978-1-85109-440-0.
[52] Fen Osler Hampson (1997). Canada Among Nations, 1997: Asia Pacific
  Face-Off. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 234. ISBN
  978-0-88629-327-7.
[53] Jonathan L. Black-Branch; Canadian Education Association (1995).
  Making Sense of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Canadian
  Education Association. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-920315-78-1.
[54] James S. Duncan; David Ley (1993). Place/culture/representation.
  Routledge. pp. 205–. ISBN 978-0-415-09451-1.
[55] Marcia Wallace (1999). "Planning Amidst Diversity: The Challenges of
  Multiculturalism in Urban and Suburban Greater Toronto". University of
  Waterloo. Retrieved November 30, 2006.
[56] Quoted in Guy Lawson, "Trudeau's Canada, Again: With support from
  President Obama and the legacy of his father on his side, Justin Trudeau
  sets out to redefine what it means to be Canadian," New York Times Dec.
  8, 2015
[57] Doug Baer, et al. "The values of Canadians and Americans: A critical
  analysis and reassessment." Social Forces 68.3 (1990): 693-713.
[58] Seymour Martin Lipset, Continental divide: The values and institutions
  of the United States and Canada (Psychology Press, 1991).
[59] Neil MacDonald (September 13, 2016). "A very short list of Canadian
  values: Neil Macdonald". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 31
  December 2016.
[60] MacGregor, p.39
[61] Richard J. Gwyn (2008). John A: The Man Who Made Us. Random House
  Digital, Inc. p. 265. ISBN 978-0-679-31476-9.
[62] Andrew Cohen (2008). The Unfinished Canadian: The People We Are.
  McClelland & Stewart. pp. 3–. ISBN 978-0-7710-2286-9.
[63] Martin N. Marger (2011). Race and Ethnic Relations: American and
  Global Perspectives. Cengage Learning. p. 433. ISBN 978-1-111-18638-8.
[64] Philip Resnick (2005). The European Roots Of Canadian Identity.
  University of Toronto Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-1-55111-705-8.
[65] Roy MacGregor (2008). Canadians. Penguin Group (Canada). ISBN
  978-0-14-318162-0.
[66] Steven Alexander Kennett (1998). Securing the Social Union: A
  Commentary on the Decentralized Approach. IIGR, Queen's University. p. 6.
  ISBN 978-0-88911-767-9.
[67] Brendon O'Connor (2007). Anti-Americanism: Comparative perspectives.
  Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 59. ISBN 978-1-84645-026-6.
[68] Peter H. Russell (2004). Constitutional odyssey: can Canadians become
  a sovereign people?. University of Toronto Press. p. 156. ISBN
  978-0-8020-3777-0.
[69] Dominique Clift (1982). Quebec nationalism in crisis. McGill-Queen's
  University Press. pp. 106–108. ISBN 978-0-7735-0383-0.
[70] John Carlos Rowe (2010). A Concise Companion to American Studies. John
  Wiley and Sons. p. 393. ISBN 978-1-4051-0924-6.
[71] Marc Raboy (1990). Missed opportunities: the story of Canada's
  broadcasting policy. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 301. ISBN
  978-0-7735-0775-3.
[72] "National Horse of Canada Act". Canlii.org. Retrieved February 25,
  2011.
[73] "The beaver". Pch.gc.ca. December 17, 2008. Retrieved February 25,
  2011.
[74] "The Maple Leaf". Pch.gc.ca. November 17, 2008. Retrieved February 25,
  2011.
[75] Phillip Alfred Buckner (2005). Canada and the end of empire. UBC
  Press. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-7748-0916-0.
[76] Ruhl, Jeffrey (January 2008). "Inukshuk Rising". Canadian Journal of
  Globalization. 1 (1): 25–30.
[77] Douglas J. Murray; Paul R. Viotti (1994). The defense policies of
  nations: a comparative study. JHU Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-8018-4794-3.
[78] "Restoration of traditional military service names welcomed".
  Government of New Brunswick (Intergovernmental Affairs Office of the
  Premier). 2011. Retrieved January 1, 2012.
[79] Scobie, Stephen "Humorous Writing in English". The Canadian
  Encyclopedia. Retrieved on: April 23, 2010.
[80] Lacombe, Michelle "Humorous Writing in French". The Canadian
  Encyclopedia. Retrieved on: April 23, 2010.
[81] Doug Owram (1997). Born at the right time: a history of the baby-boom
  generation. University of Toronto Press. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-8020-8086-8.
[82] Charles Boberg (2010). The English Language in Canada: Status, History
  and Comparative Analysis. Cambridge University Press. p. 45. ISBN
  978-0-521-87432-8.
[83] William H. New (2002). Encyclopedia of literature in Canada.
  University of Toronto Press. p. 516. ISBN 978-0-8020-0761-2.
[84] Tim Nieguth (2015). The Politics of Popular Culture: Negotiating
  Power, Identity, and Place. MQUP. p. 188. ISBN 978-0-7735-9685-6.
[85] Serra Ayse Tinic (2005). On location: Canada's television industry in
  a global market. University of Toronto Press. p. 131. ISBN
  978-0-8020-8548-1.
[86] Stephen Brooks (2002). The challenge of cultural pluralism. Greenwood
  Publishing Group. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-275-97001-7.
[87] Gil Murray (2003). Nothing on but the radio: a look back at radio in
  Canada and how it changed the world. Dundurn Press Ltd. p. 39. ISBN
  978-1-55002-479-1.
[88] Doug Hill, Jeff Weingrad (2011-12-15). Saturday Night: A Backstage
  History of Saturday Night Life. Untreed Reads. p. 27. ISBN
  978-1-61187-218-7.
[89] Maurice Charney (2005). Comedy: a geographic and historical guide.
  Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 210–213. ISBN 978-0-313-32714-8.
[90] "Organisation Members". Cultural Human Resources Council. 2010.
  Retrieved February 2, 2012.
[91] John Robert Colombo (2001). 1000 questions about Canada: places,
  people, things, and ideas : a question-and-answer book on Canadian facts
  and culture. Dundurn Press Ltd. p. 213. ISBN 978-0-88882-232-1.
[92] Robert A. Stebbins (1990). The laugh-makers: stand-up comedy as art,
  business, and life-style. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 25. ISBN
  978-0-7735-0735-7.
[93] "History". The Canadian Comedy Awards & Festival. 2012. Retrieved
  February 3, 2012.
[94] Ruth B. Phillips (2011). Museum Pieces: Toward the Indigenization of
  Canadian Museums. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 267. ISBN
  978-0-7735-3905-1.
[95] John W. Friesen; Virginia Agnes Lyons Friesen (2006). Canadian
  Aboriginal Art and Spirituality: A Vital Link. Calgary, AB: Detselig
  Enterprises. pp. xxi – Intro. ISBN 9781550593044. OCLC 62129850.
[96] J. Russell Harper (1977). Painting in Canada: a history. University of
  Toronto Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-8020-6307-6.
[97] Nicola Förg (1999). Canada: Pacific coast, the Rockies, Prairie
  Provinces, and the Territories. Hunter Publishing, Inc. p. 233. ISBN
  978-3-88618-368-5.
[98] Patricia Randolph Leigh (2010). International Exploration of
  Technology Equity and the Digital Divide: Critical, Historical and Social
  Perspectives. Idea Group Inc (IGI). p. 93. ISBN 978-1-61520-793-0.
[99] Pamela R. Stern (2010). Daily life of the Inuit. ABC-CLIO. p. 151.
  ISBN 978-0-313-36311-5.
[100] Roshen Dalal (2011). The Illustrated Timeline of the History of the
  World. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 147. ISBN 978-1-4488-4797-6.
[101] Lynda Jessup (2001). Antimodernism and artistic experience: policing
  the boundaries of modernity. University of Toronto Press. p. 146. ISBN
  978-0-8020-8354-8.
[102] Cheryl MacDonald (2009). Celebrated Pets: Endearing Tales of
  Companionship and Loyalty. Heritage House Publishing Co. pp. 57–. ISBN
  978-1-894974-81-3.
[103] Iris Nowell (2011). Painters Eleven: The Wild Ones of Canadian Art.
  Douglas & McIntyre. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-55365-590-9.
[104] Sarah M. Corse (1997). Nationalism and literature: the politics of
  culture in Canada and the United States. Cambridge University Press. p.
  60. ISBN 978-0-521-57912-4.
[105] W. J. Keith (2006). Canadian literature in English. The Porcupine's
  Quill. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-88984-283-0.
[106] "Robert Fulford's column about the international success of Canadian
  literature". Robertfulford.com. June 6, 2001. Retrieved February 25,
  2011.
[107] Mary Virginia Brackett; Victoria Gaydosik (2006). The Facts on File
  Companion to the British Novel: Beginnings through the 19th century.
  Infobase Publishing. p. 323. ISBN 978-0-8160-5133-5.
[108] Shannon Eileen Hengen; Ashley Thomson (2007). Margaret Atwood: a
  reference guide, 1988–2005. Scarecrow Press. p. 272. ISBN
  978-0-8108-5904-3.
[109] Yann Martel (2010). Beatrice and Virgil. Random House Digital, Inc.
  p. 212. ISBN 978-0-8129-8197-1.
[110] Abby H. P. Werlock (2001). Carol Shields's The stone diaries: a
  reader's guide. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 69. ISBN
  978-0-8264-5249-8.
[111] "The Nobel Prize in Literature 2013" (PDF) (Press release). 2013.
  Retrieved October 10, 2013.
[112] Julia Gaunce; Suzette Mayr; Don LePan; Marjorie Mather; Bryanne
  Miller (July 25, 2012). The Broadview Anthology of Short Fiction, second
  edition. Broadview Press. p. 236. ISBN 978-1-55481-076-5.
[113] Beth Osnes (2001). Acting: an International encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO.
  p. 57. ISBN 978-0-87436-795-9.
[114] Guek Cheng Pang (2004). Canada. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 102–. ISBN
  978-0-7614-1788-0.
[115] Guek Cheng Pang (2004). Canada. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 121–. ISBN
  978-0-7614-1788-0.
[116] Angelini, Paul Ubaldo (2011). Our Society: Human Diversity in Canada.
  Cengage Learning. p. 34. ISBN 9780176503543.
[117] "Toronto Theatre District". Showmetoronto.com. Retrieved 2013-02-12.
[118] "Discover". Quartier des spectacles. Retrieved 2013-02-12.
[119] "Montreal Festival | Just For Laughs". Hahaha.com. Retrieved
  2013-02-12.
[120] Theatre BC. "Theatre Links". Theatre BC. Retrieved 2013-02-13.
[121] "2011 Operating Grant Recipients" (PDF). Calgary Arts Development
  (CADA). 2011. Retrieved 2013-02-13.
[122] Hale, James (2011). Frommer's Ottawa. John Wiley and Sons. p. 60.
  ISBN 978-0-470-68158-9.
[123] "NAC History | National Arts Centre". Nac-cna.ca. 1970-03-17.
  Retrieved 2011-06-07.
[124] "Great Canadian Theatre Company". Canadian Theatre Encyclopedia.
  2011-01-13. Retrieved 2011-09-01.
[125] Julie K. Petersen (2002). The telecommunications illustrated
  dictionary. CRC Press. p. 152. ISBN 978-0-8493-1173-4.
[126] Patrick James; Mark J. Kasoff (2008). Canadian Studies in the New
  Millennium. University of Toronto Press. p. 157. ISBN 978-0-8020-9468-1.
[127] José Eduardo Igartua (2006). The other quiet revolution: national
  identities in English Canada, 1945–71. UBC Press. p. 229. ISBN
  978-0-7748-1088-3.
[128] Vincent Mosco; Dan Schiller (2001). Continental order?: integrating
  North America for cybercapitalism. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 208. ISBN
  978-0-7425-0954-2.
[129] John Punter (2003). The Vancouver achievement: urban planning and
  design. UBC Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-7748-0971-9.
[130] Mike Resnick (2007). Nebula Awards Showcase 2007. Penguin. p. 111.
  ISBN 978-1-4406-2261-8.
[131] Jay G. Blumler; T. J. Nossiter (1991). Broadcasting Finance in
  Transition: A Comparative Handbook. Oxford University Press. p. 32. ISBN
  978-0-19-505089-9.
[132] Dana Rasmussen (2011). Canada's Influence on the Film Industry:
  Canada's Pioneers in Early Hollywood. BiblioBazaar. pp. iix (intro).
[133] Charles Foster (2000). Stardust and shadows: Canadians in early
  Hollywood. Dundurn Press Ltd. pp. 27–34. ISBN 978-1-55002-348-0.
[134] Gorham Anders Kindem (2000). The international movie industry. SIU
  Press (reprint). pp. 304–307. ISBN 978-0-8093-2299-2.
[135] Graham Fraser (2007). Sorry, I Don't Speak French: Confronting the
  Canadian Crisis That Won't Go Away. Random House Digital, Inc. p. 227.
  ISBN 978-0-7710-4767-1.
[136] Mark Kearney; Randy Ray (1998). The Great Canadian Trivia Book 2.
  Dundurn Press Ltd. pp. 80–. ISBN 978-0-88882-197-3.
[137] Ewan Ferlie; Laurence E. Lynn; Christopher Pollitt (2007). The Oxford
  handbook of public management. Oxford Handbooks Online. p. 457. ISBN
  978-0-19-922644-3.
[138] "Toronto International Film Festival". Tiff.net. Retrieved February
  25, 2011.
[139] Music in Canada 1600–1800. by Amtmann, Willy. Cambridge, Ont. :
  Habitex Books, 1975. 320 p.(ISBN 0-88912-020-X)
[140] La Musique au Québec 1600–1875. by Michelle Pharand. Montreal: Les
  Éditions de l'Homme (1976) (ISBN 0-7759-0517-8)
[141] Carl Morey (1997). Music in Canada: a research and information guide.
  Garland Pub. pp. ??. ISBN 978-0-8153-1603-9.
[142] "The history of broadcasting in Canada". The Canadian Communications
  Foundation.
[143] Profiles of Canada. edited by Kenneth G. Pryke, Walter C. Soderlund.
  Boulder, Colo. : NetLibrary, 2000.(ISBN 0-585-27925-X)
[144] "History of Canada in music". Historica Foundation of Canada.
[145] Canadian Music: Issues of Hegemony & Identity, eds Beveley Diamond &
  Robert Witmer. Canadian Scholars Press, 1994.
[146] Joan Nicks; Jeannette Sloniowski (2002). Slippery pastimes: reading
  the popular in Canadian culture. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. p. 219.
  ISBN 978-0-88920-388-4.
[147] Adam Jortner (2011). The Gods of Prophetstown: The Battle of
  Tippecanoe and the Holy War for the American Frontier. Oxford University
  Press. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-19-976529-4.
[148] Government of Canada (2008-06-23). "Hymne national du Canada".
  Canadian Heritage. Government of Canada. Retrieved 2008-06-26.
[149] "'O Canada'". Historica-Dominion. Retrieved October 28, 2009.
[150] "Hymne national du Canada". Canadian Heritage. June 23, 2008.
  Retrieved June 26, 2008.
[151] Edwardson, Ryan (2008). Canadian content, culture and the quest for
  nationhood. University of Toronto Press. p. 127. ISBN 978-0-8020-9759-0.
[152] "Canada boasts the third-largest video game industry".
  Networkworld.com. April 6, 2010. Retrieved May 12, 2011.
[153] "Canada's Video Game Industry in 2011". Tech Vibes. Retrieved
  November 10, 2011.
[154] "The evolution of video games in Canada". CBC News. September 13,
  2010. Retrieved May 11, 2011.
[155] "Canadian-made games and the question of outsourcing". CBC News.
  February 20, 2011. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
[156] "Canada's gaming industry is kicking butt | FP Tech Desk | Financial
  Post". Business.financialpost.com. Retrieved February 3, 2012.
[157] Mike Brake (1990). Comparative Youth Culture: The Sociology of Youth
  Cultures and Youth Subcultures in America, Britain, and Canada.
  Routledge. p. 160. ISBN 978-0-415-05108-8.
[158] Steven Globerman; Institute for Research on Public Policy (1983).
  Cultural Regulation in Canada. IRPP. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-920380-81-9.
[159] Robin Mansell; Marc Raboy (2011). The Handbook of Global Media and
  Communication Policy. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-9542-6.
[160] Paul Attallah; Leslie Regan Shade (2006). Mediascapes: new patterns
  in Canadian communication. Thomson Nelson. p. 227. ISBN
  978-0-17-640652-3.
[161] Don Morrow; Kevin B. Wamsley (2013). Sport in Canada: A History.
  Oxford University Press. pp. 1–4. ISBN 978-0-19-544672-2.
[162] Bruce Kidd (1996). The struggle for Canadian sport. University of
  Toronto Press. pp. 189–. ISBN 978-0-8020-7664-9.
[163] Canadian Press (June 8, 2006). "Survey: Canadian interest in pro
  football is on the rise". Globe and Mail. Canada. Retrieved June 8, 2006.
[164] Glenn M. Wong (2009). The comprehensive guide to careers in sports.
  Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-7637-2884-7.
[165] "Canada's hockey obsession leading to burnout among young players".
  Canada.com. September 16, 2008.
[166] "World Cup TV ratings and soccer championships show huge rise". CBC
  News.
[167] Victor J. Danilov (1997). Hall of fame museums: a reference guide.
  Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-313-30000-4.
[168] Edward Zawadzki (2001). The Ultimate Canadian Sports Trivia Book.
  Dundurn Press Ltd. p. 190. ISBN 978-0-88882-237-6.
[169] Pandi, George (April 5, 2008), "Let's eat Canadian, but is there
  really a national dish?", The Gazette (Montreal) Also published as
  "Canadian cuisine a smorgasbord of regional flavours"
[170] Trillin, Calvin (November 23, 2009), "Canadian Journal, 'Funny
  Food'", The New Yorker: 68–70
[171] Wong, Grace (October 2, 2010), Canada's national dish: 740
  calories—and worth every bite?, CNN
[172] Sufrin, Jon (April 22, 2010), "Is poutine Canada's national food? Two
  arguments for, two against", Toronto Life
[173] Baird, Elizabeth (June 30, 2009), "Does Canada Have a National
  Dish?", Canadian Living
[174] DeMONTIS, RITA (June 21, 2010), "Canadians butter up to this tart",
  Toronto Sun
[175] Jennifer Andrews (2015). "34 Uniquely Canadian Foods (Other Than
  Poutine)". Ricotta & Radishes. Retrieved December 1, 2015.
[176] "Maple Syrup." Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural
  Affairs. Accessed July 2011.
[177] Linda Civitello (2011). Cuisine and Culture: A History of Food and
  People. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 401–402. ISBN 978-0-470-40371-6.
[178] Gail Simmons (2012). Talking with My Mouth Full: My Life as a
  Professional Eater. Hyperion. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-4013-0415-7.
[179] (Associated Press), "Letters reveal candid views of UK diplomats",
  WTOP, October 18, 2009.
[180] Linda A. White; Richard Simeon (2009). The Comparative Turn in
  Canadian Political Science. UBC Press. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-7748-1428-7.
[181] Stackhouse, John; Martin, Patrick (February 2, 2002), "Canada: 'A
  model for the world'", The Globe and Mail, Toronto, p. F3, retrieved June
  29, 2009, Canada is today the most successful pluralist society on the
  face of our globe, without any doubt in my mind. . . . That is something
  unique to Canada. It is an amazing global human asset
[182] "Canada – A Good Influence on the World". Canadavisa.com. March 7,
  2007. Retrieved June 30, 2010.
[183] "Americans and Canadians -The North American Not-so-odd Couple". Pew
  Research Center. 2004.
[184] Mercer Human Res Consulting, Inc. (2009). The Global Manager's Guide
  to Living and Working Abroad: Western Europe and the Americas: Western
  Europe and the Americas. ABC-CLIO. p. 67. ISBN 978-0-313-35884-5.
[185] "The Myths that Made Canada". SeacoastNH.com. As I Please (column).
  March 14, 2004. Retrieved June 10, 2011.
[186] Mel Atkey (2006). Broadway North: The Dream of a Canadian Musical
  Theatre. Dundurn. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-4597-2120-3.

Further reading

Main article: Bibliography of Canada
- Bart Beaty; Derek Briton; Gloria Filax (2010). How Canadians Communicate
  III: Contexts of Canadian Popular Culture. Athabasca University Press.
  ISBN 978-1-897425-59-6.
- David Carment; David Bercuson (2008). The World in Canada: Diaspora,
  Demography, and Domestic Politics. McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN
  978-0-7735-7455-7.
- Dominique Clément (2009). Canada's Rights Revolution: Social Movements
  and Social Change, 1937–82. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-5843-4.
- David H. Flaherty; Frank E. Manning (1993). Beaver Bites Back?.
  McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-6429-9.
- Anne Howells (2004). Where are the voices coming from?: Canadian culture
  and the legacies of history. Rodopi. ISBN 978-90-420-1623-1.
- Mark Kearney; Randy Ray (2009). The Big Book of Canadian Trivia. Dundurn.
  ISBN 978-1-77070-614-9.
- Kearney, Mark; Ray, Randy (1999). Great Canadian Book of Lists. Dundurn.
  ISBN 978-0-88882-213-0.
- Andrew Podnieks (2006). A Canadian Saturday Night: Hockey and the Culture
  of a Country. Greystone Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1-926812-05-2.
- David Morton Rayside; Clyde Wilcox (2011). Faith, Politics, and Sexual
  Diversity in Canada and the United States. UBC Press. ISBN
  978-0-7748-2009-7.
- Nelson Wiseman (2011). In Search of Canadian Political Culture. UBC
  Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-4061-3.

External links

- Canadian Heritage
- Culture.CA - Canadian cultural portal online
- Cultural Information - Canada - Global Affairs Canada

Canadians

"Canadian" redirects here. For other uses, see Canadian (disambiguation).

Canadians (French: Canadiens) are people identified with the country of
Canada. This connection may be residential, legal, historical, or cultural.
For most Canadians, several (or all) of these connections exist and are
collectively the source of their being Canadian.

Canada is a bilingual and multicultural society home to people of many
different ethnic, religious and national origins, with the majority of the
population made up of Old World immigrants and their descendants. Following
the initial period of French and then the much larger British colonization,
different waves (or peaks) of immigration and settlement of non-aboriginal
peoples took place over the course of nearly two centuries and continue
today. Elements of Aboriginal, French, British and more recent immigrant
customs, languages and religions have combined to form the culture of
Canada and thus a Canadian identity. Canada has also been strongly
influenced by its linguistic, geographic and economic neighbour, the United
States.

Canadian independence from the United Kingdom grew gradually over the
course of many years since the formation of the Canadian Confederation in
1867. World War I and World War II in particular gave rise to a desire
among Canadians to have their country recognized as a fully-fledged
sovereign state with a distinct citizenship. Legislative independence was
established with the passage of the Statute of Westminster 1931, the
Canadian Citizenship Act of 1946 took effect on January 1, 1947, and full
sovereignty was achieved with the patriation of the constitution in 1982.
Canada's nationality law closely mirrored that of the United Kingdom.
Legislation since the mid 20th century represents Canadians' commitment to
multilateralism and socioeconomic development.

Population

See also: Population of Canada

As of 2010, Canadians make up 0.5% of the world's total population,⁶ having
relied upon immigration for population growth and social development.⁷
Approximately 41% of current Canadians are first- or second-generation
immigrants,⁸ and 20 percent of Canadian residents in the 2000s were not
born in the country.⁹ Statistics Canada projects that, by 2031, nearly
one-half of Canadians above the age of 15 will be foreign-born or have one
foreign-born parent.¹⁰ Aboriginal peoples, according to the 2011 Canadian
Census, numbered at 1,400,685 or 4.3% of the country's 33,476,688
population.¹¹

Immigration

Main article: Immigration to Canada

The French originally settled New France, in present-day Quebec and
Ontario; and Acadia, in present-day Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, during
the early part of the 17th century.¹² ¹³

Approximately 100 Irish-born families would settle the Saint Lawrence
Valley by 1700, assimilating into the Canadien population and culture.¹⁴ ¹⁵
During the 18th and 19th century; immigration westward (to the area known
as Rupert's Land) was carried out by "Voyageurs"; French settlers working
for the North West Company; and by British settlers (English and Scottish)
representing the Hudson's Bay Company, coupled with independent
entrepreneurial woodsman called "Coureur des bois".¹⁶ This arrival of
newcomers led to the creation of the Métis, an ethnic group of mixed
European and First Nations parentage.¹⁷

The British conquest of New France was preceded by a small number of
Germans and Swedes who settled alongside the Scottish in Port Royal, Nova
Scotia,¹⁸ while some Irish immigrated to the Colony of Newfoundland.¹⁹ In
the wake of the British Conquest of 1760 and the Expulsion of the Acadians,
many families from the British colonies in the New England over into Nova
Scotia and other colonies in Canada where the British made farmland
available to British settlers on easy terms. More settlers arrived during
and after the American Revolutionary War, when approximately 60,000 United
Empire Loyalist fled to British North America, a large portion of whom
settled in New Brunswick.²⁰ After the War of 1812, British (including
British army regulars), Scottish and Irish immigration was encouraged
throughout Rupert's Land, Upper Canada and Lower Canada.²¹

Between 1815 and 1850, some 800,000 immigrants came to the colonies of
British North America, mainly from the British Isles as part of the great
migration of Canada.²² These new arrivals included some Gaelic-speaking
Highland Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances to Nova Scotia.²³ The
Irish Potato Famine of the 1840s significantly increased the pace of Irish
immigration to Prince Edward Island and the Province of Canada, with over
35,000 distressed individuals landing in Toronto in 1847 and 1848.²⁴ ²⁵
Descendants of Francophone and Anglophone northern Europeans who arrived in
the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries are often referred to as old stock
Canadians.

Beginning in the late 1850s, the immigration of Chinese into the Colony of
Vancouver Island and Colony of British Columbia peaked with the onset of
the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush.²⁶ The Chinese Immigration Act of 1885
eventually placed a head tax on all Chinese immigrants, in hopes of
discouraging Chinese immigration after completion of the Canadian Pacific
Railway.²⁷

The population of Canada has consistently risen, doubling approximately
every 40 years, since the establishment of the Canadian Confederation in
1867.²⁹ From the mid- to late 19th century, Canada had a policy of
assisting immigrants from Europe, including an estimated 100,000 unwanted
"Home Children" from Britain.³⁰ Block settlement communities were
established throughout western Canada between the late 19th and early 20th
centuries. Some were planned and others were spontaneously created by the
settlers themselves.³¹ Canada was now receiving a large number of European
immigrants, predominantly Italians, Germans, Scandinavians, Dutch, Poles,
and Ukrainians.³² Legislative restrictions on immigration (such as the
Continuous journey regulation and Chinese Immigration Act) that had
favoured British and other European immigrants were amended in the 1960s,
opening the doors to immigrants from all parts of the world.³³ While the
1950s had still seen high levels of immigration by Europeans, by the 1970s,
immigrants were increasingly Chinese, Indian, Vietnamese, Jamaican and
Haitian.³⁴ During the late 1960s and early 1970s, Canada received many
American Vietnam War draft dissenters.³⁵ Throughout the late 1980s and
1990s, Canada's growing Pacific trade brought with it a large influx of
South Asians, who tended to settle in British Columbia.³⁶ Immigrants of all
backgrounds tend to settle in the major urban centres.³⁷ ³⁸ The Canadian
public as-well as the major political parties support immigration.³⁹

The majority of illegal immigrants come from the southern provinces of the
People's Republic of China, with Asia as a whole, Eastern Europe,
Caribbean, Africa and the Middle East all contributing to the illegal
population.⁴⁰ Estimates of numbers of illegal immigrants range between
35,000 and 120,000.⁴¹ A 2008 report by the Auditor General of Canada Sheila
Fraser stated that Canada has lost track of approximately 41,000 illegal
immigrants whose visas have expired.⁴²

Citizenship and diaspora

Main article: Canadian nationality law

Canadian citizenship is typically obtained by birth in Canada or by birth
or adoption abroad when at least one biological parent or adoptive parent
is a Canadian citizen who was born in Canada or naturalized in Canada (and
did not receive citizenship by being born outside of Canada to a Canadian
citizen).⁴³ It can also be granted to a permanent resident who lives in
Canada for three out of four years and meets specific requirements.⁴⁴
Canada established its own nationality law in 1946 with the enactment of
the Canadian Citizenship Act which took effect on January 1, 1947.⁴⁵ The
Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, was passed by the Parliament of
Canada in 2001 as Bill C-11, which replaced the Immigration Act of 1976 as
the primary federal legislation regulating immigration.⁴⁶ Prior to the
conferring of legal status on Canadian citizenship, Canada's naturalization
laws consisted of a multitude of Acts beginning with the Immigration Act of
1910.⁴⁷

According to Citizenship and Immigration Canada, there are three main
classifications for immigrants: Family class (persons closely related to
Canadian residents), Economic class (admitted on the basis of a point
system that accounts for age, health and labour-market skills required for
cost effectively inducting the immigrants into Canada's labour market) and
Refugee class (those seeking protection by applying to remain in the
country by way of the Canadian immigration and refugee law).⁴⁸ In 2008,
there were 65,567 immigrants in the family class, 21,860 refugees, and
149,072 economic immigrants amongst the 247,243 total immigrants to the
country.⁸ Canada resettles over one in 10 of the world's refugees⁴⁹ and has
one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world.⁵⁰

As of a 2010 report by the Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada, there were
2.8 million Canadian citizens abroad.⁵¹ This represents about 8% of the
total Canadian population. Of those living abroad, the United States, Hong
Kong, the United Kingdom, Taiwan, China, Lebanon, United Arab Emirates and
Australia have the largest Canadian diaspora. Canadians in the United
States constitute the greatest single expatriate community at over 1
million in 2009, representing 35.8% of all Canadians abroad.⁵² Under
current Canadian law, Canada does not restrict dual citizenship but
Passport Canada encourages its citizens to travel abroad on their Canadian
passport, so they can access Canadian consular services.⁵³

Ethnic ancestry

Main article: Ethnic origins of people in Canada

Canada has 34 ethnic groups with at least 100,000 members each, of which 11
have over 1 million people and numerous others are represented in smaller
amounts.[lower-alpha 1] According to the 2006 census, the largest
self-reported ethnic origin is "Canadian" (32%),[lower-alpha 2] followed by
English (21%), French (15.8%), Scottish (15.1%), Irish (13.9%), German
(10.2%), Italian (4.6%), Chinese (4.3%), North American Indian
(4.0%),[lower-alpha 3] Ukrainian (3.9%), and Dutch (Netherlands) (3.3%).⁵⁴
In the 2006 census, over five million Canadians identified themselves as a
member of a visible minority. Together, they make up 16.2% of the total
population: most numerous among these are South Asian (4.0%), Black (2.5%),
and Filipino (1.1%).⁵⁴ Aboriginal peoples are not considered a visible
minority under the Employment Equity Act,⁵⁵ and this is the definition that
Statistics Canada also uses.

        For a complete list see: Canadian ethnic groups

Culture

Main article: Culture of Canada

Canada's culture is a product of its ethnicities, languages, religions,
political and legal system(s). Canada has been shaped by waves of migration
that have combined to form a unique blend of art, cuisine, literature,
humour and music.⁵⁶ Today, Canada has a diverse makeup of nationalities and
constitutional protection for policies that promote multiculturalism rather
than cultural assimilation.⁵⁷ In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and
many French-speaking commentators speak of a Quebec culture distinct from
English Canadian culture.⁵⁸ However, as a whole, Canada is a cultural
mosaic: a collection of several regional, aboriginal, and ethnic
subcultures.⁵⁹ ⁶⁰

Canadian government policies such as official bilingualism; publicly funded
health care; higher and more progressive taxation; outlawing capital
punishment; strong efforts to eliminate poverty; strict gun control;
leniency in regard to drug use, and, most recently, legalizing same-sex
marriage are social indicators of Canada's political and cultural values.⁶¹
⁶² American media and entertainment are popular, if not dominant, in
English Canada; conversely, many Canadian cultural products and
entertainers are successful in the United States and worldwide.⁶³ The
Government of Canada has also influenced culture with programs, laws and
institutions. It has created Crown corporations to promote Canadian culture
through media and has also tried to protect Canadian culture by setting
legal minimums on Canadian content.⁶⁴

Canadian culture has historically been influenced by Aboriginal, French and
British cultures and traditions. Most of Canada's territory was inhabited
and developed later than other European colonies in the Americas, with the
result that themes and symbols of pioneers, trappers, and traders were
important in the early development of the Canadian identity.⁶⁵ First
Nations played a critical part in the development of European colonies in
Canada, particularly for their role in assisting exploration of the
continent during the North American fur trade.⁶⁶ The British conquest of
New France in the mid-1700s brought a large Francophone population under
British Imperial rule, creating a need for compromise and accommodation.⁶⁷
The new British rulers left alone much of the religious, political, and
social culture of the French-speaking habitants, guaranteeing through the
Quebec Act of 1774 the right of the Canadiens to practise the Catholic
faith and to use French civil law (now Quebec law).⁶⁸

The Constitution Act of 1867 was designed to meet the growing calls of
Canadians for autonomy from British rule, while avoiding the overly strong
decentralization that contributed to the Civil War in the United States.⁶⁹
The compromises made by the Fathers of Confederation set Canadians on a
path to bilingualism, and this in turn contributed to an acceptance of
diversity.⁷⁰ ⁷¹

The Canadian Forces and overall civilian participation in the First World
War and Second World War helped to foster Canadian nationalism,⁷² ⁷³
however in 1917 and 1944 conscription crisis' highlighted the considerable
rift along ethnic lines between Anglophones and Francophones.⁷⁴ As a result
of the First and Second World Wars, the Government of Canada became more
assertive and less deferential to British authority.⁷⁵ With the gradual
loosening of political ties to the United Kingdom and the modernization of
Canadian immigration policies, 20th-century immigrants with African,
Caribbean and Asian nationalities have added to the Canadian identity and
its culture.⁷⁶ The multiple-origins immigration pattern continues today
with the arrival of large numbers of immigrants from non-British or
non-French backgrounds.⁷⁷

Multiculturalism in Canada was adopted as the official policy of the
government during the premiership of Pierre Elliot Trudeau in the 1970s and
1980s.⁷⁸ The Canadian government has often been described as the instigator
of multicultural ideology because of its public emphasis on the social
importance of immigration.⁷⁹ Multiculturalism is administered by the
Department of Citizenship and Immigration and reflected in the law through
the Canadian Multiculturalism Act⁸⁰ and section 27 of the Canadian Charter
of Rights and Freedoms.⁸¹

Religion

Main article: Religion in Canada

Religion in Canada (2011 National Household Survey)⁸²

Catholic (38.7%)
Other Christian (28.6%)
Non-religious (23.9%)
Islam (3.2%)
Hinduism (1.5%)
Sikhism (1.4%)
Buddhism (1.1%)
Judaism (1.0%)
Other religions (0.6%)

Canada as a nation is religiously diverse, encompassing a wide range of
groups, beliefs and customs.⁸³ The preamble to the Canadian Charter of
Rights and Freedoms references "God", and the monarch carries the title of
"Defender of the Faith".⁸⁴ However Canada has no official religion, and
support for religious pluralism (Freedom of religion in Canada) is an
important part of Canada's political culture.⁸⁵ ⁸⁶ With the role of
Christianity in decline, having once been central and integral to Canadian
culture and daily life;⁸⁷ commentators have suggested that Canada has come
to enter a post-Christian period in a secular state,⁸⁸ ⁸⁹ with irreligion
in Canada on the rise.⁹⁰ The majority of Canadians consider religion to be
unimportant in their daily lives, but still believe in God.⁹¹ > The
practice of religion is now generally considered a private matter
throughout society and within the state.⁹²

The 2011 Canadian census reported that 67.3% of Canadians identify as being
Christians; of this number, Catholics make up the largest group, accounting
for 38.7 percent of the population.⁸² The largest Protestant denomination
is the United Church of Canada (accounting for 6.1% of Canadians); followed
by Anglicans (5.0%), and Baptists (1.9%).⁸² About 23.9% of Canadians
declare no religious affiliation, including agnostics, atheists, humanists,
and other groups.⁸² The remaining are affiliated with non-Christian
religions, the largest of which is Islam (3.2%), followed by Hinduism
(1.5%), Sikhism (1.4%), Buddhism (1.1%), and Judaism (1.0%).⁸²

Before the arrival of European colonists and explorers, First Nations
followed a wide array of mostly animistic religions.⁹³ During the colonial
period, the French settled along the shores of the Saint Lawrence River,
specifically Latin Rite Roman Catholics, including a number of Jesuits
dedicated to converting Aboriginals; an effort that eventually proved
successful.⁹⁴ The first large Protestant communities were formed in the
Maritimes after the British conquest of New France, followed by American
Protestant settlers displaced by the American Revolution.⁹⁵ The late
nineteenth century saw the beginning of a substantive shift in Canadian
immigration patterns. Large numbers of Irish and Southern Europeans
immigrants were creating new Roman Catholic communities in English
Canada.¹⁹ The settlement of the west brought significant Eastern Orthodox
immigrants from Eastern Europe and Mormon and Pentecostal immigrants from
the United States.⁹⁶

The earliest documentation of Jewish presence in Canada occurs in the 1754
British Army records from the French and Indian War.⁹⁷ In 1760, General
Jeffrey Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst attacked and won Montreal for the
British. In his regiment there were several Jews, including four among his
officer corps, most notably Lieutenant Aaron Hart who is considered the
father of Canadian Jewry.⁹⁷ The Islamic, Jains, Sikh, Hindu and Buddhist
communities, although small, are as old as the nation itself. The 1871
Canadian Census (first "Canadian" national census) indicated thirteen
Muslims among the populace,⁹⁸ with approximately 5000 Sikh by 1908.⁹⁹ The
first Canadian mosque was constructed in Edmonton, in 1938, when there were
approximately 700 Muslims in Canada.¹⁰⁰ Buddhism first arrived in Canada
when Japanese immigrated during the late 19th century.¹⁰¹ The first
Japanese Buddhist temple in Canada was built in Vancouver in 1905.¹⁰² The
influx of immigrants in the late 20th century, with Sri Lankan, Japanese,
Indian and Southeast Asian customs, has contributed to the recent expansion
of the Jain, Sikh, Hindu and Buddhist communities.¹⁰³

Languages

Main article: Languages of Canada

A multitude of languages are used by 35 million Canadians, with English and
French (the official languages) being the mother tongues of approximately
60% and 20% of Canadians respectively.¹⁰⁴ In 2011, nearly 6.8 million
Canadians listed a non-official language as their mother tongue.¹⁰⁵ Some of
the most common non-official first languages include Chinese (mainly
Cantonese; 1,072,555 first-language speakers), Punjabi (430,705), Spanish
(410,670), German (409,200), and Italian (407,490).¹⁰⁶ Less than one
percent of Canadians (just over 250,000 individuals) can speak an
aboriginal language. About half this number (129,865) reported using an
aboriginal language on a daily basis.¹⁰⁷ Additionally, Canadians speak
several sign languages; it is unknown the number of speakers of the most
spoken languages, ASL and LSQ,¹⁰⁸ nor of Maritime Sign Language or of
Plains Sign Talk.¹⁰⁹ There are only 47 speakers of the Inuit language
Inuiuuk.¹¹⁰

English and French are recognized by the Constitution of Canada as official
languages.¹¹¹ Thus all federal government laws are enacted in both English
and French with government services available in both languages.¹¹¹ Two of
Canada's territories give official status to indigenous languages. In
Nunavut, Inuktitut and Inuinnaqtun are official languages alongside the
national languages of English and French, and Inuktitut is a common
vehicular language in territorial government.¹¹² In the Northwest
Territories, the Official Languages Act declares that there are eleven
different languages: Chipewyan, Cree, English, French, Gwich'in,
Inuinnaqtun, Inuktitut, Inuvialuktun, North Slavey, South Slavey and
Tłįchǫ.¹¹³ Multicultural media are widely accessible across the county and
offer specialty television channels, newspapers and other publications in
many minority languages.¹¹⁴

In Canada, as elsewhere in the world of European colonies, the frontier of
European exploration and settlement tended to be a linguistically diverse
and fluid place, as cultures using different languages met and interacted.
The need for a common means of communication between the indigenous
inhabitants and new arrivals for the purposes of trade, and (in some cases)
intermarriage, led to the development of Mixed languages.¹¹⁵ Languages like
Michif, Chinook Jargon and Bungi creole tended to be highly localized and
were often spoken by only a small number of individuals who were frequently
capable of speaking another language.¹¹⁶ Reaching across Canada, the United
States and into Mexico existed Plains Sign Talk which functioned originally
as a trade language used to communicate internationally and across
linguistic borders.¹¹⁷

See also

- Canuck
- Demographics of Canada
- List of Canadians
- Persons of National Historic Significance
- List of Prime Ministers of Canada
- Canada – Wikipedia book

Notes

[1] Data for ethnic origin were collected by self-declaration, so labels
  may not necessarily describe the true (genetic) ancestry of respondents.
  Many respondents also acknowledged multiple ancestries, thus the data
  reflect both single and multiple responses and may exceed the total
  population count.
Source: "Ethnocultural Portrait of Canada - Data table". Statistics Canada.
  Retrieved January 16, 2011.
Additional data: "2006 Census release topics". Statistics Canada. Retrieved
  January 16, 2011.
[2] All citizens of Canada are classified as "Canadians" as defined by
  Canada's nationality laws. However since 1996, "Canadian" as an ethnic
  group has been added to census questionnaires for possible ancestry.
  "Canadian" was included as an example on the English questionnaire and
  "Canadien" as an example on the French questionnaire. "The majority of
  respondents to this selection are from the eastern part of the country
  that was first settled. Respondents generally are visibly European
  (Anglophones and Francophones), however no-longer self identify with
  their ethnic ancestral origins. This response is attributed to a
  multitude and/or generational distance from ancestral lineage.
Source 1: Jack Jedwab (April 2008). "Our 'Cense' of Self: the 2006 Census
  saw 1.6 million 'Canadian'" (PDF). Association for Canadian Studies.
  Retrieved March 7, 2011.
Source 2: Don Kerr (2007). The Changing Face of Canada: Essential Readings
  in Population. Canadian Scholars' Press. pp. 313–317. ISBN
  978-1-55130-322-2.
[3] The category "North American Indian" includes respondents who indicated
  that their ethnic origins were from a Canadian First Nation, or another
  non-Canadian North American aboriginal group (excluding Inuit and Métis).
Source: "How Statistics Canada Identifies Aboriginal Peoples". Statistics
  Canada. Retrieved January 16, 2011.

References

[1] "CANSIM – 051-0005 – Estimates of population, Canada, provinces and
  territories". Statistics Canada. 2016. Retrieved January 29, 2017.
[2] "Canadians Abroad: Canada's Global Asset" (PDF). Asia Pacific
  Foundation of Canada. 2011. p. 12. Retrieved September 23, 2013. See also
  Canadian diaspora
[3] Canada
[4] "Canada may limit services for dual citizens". Gulf News. January 15,
  2014. Retrieved July 12, 2015.
[5] "Anzahl der Ausländer in Deutschland nach Herkunftsland (Stand: 31.
  Dezember 2014)".
[6] "Environment — Greenhouse Gases (Greenhouse Gas Emissions per Person)".
  Human Resources and Skills Development Canada. 2010. Retrieved January
  19, 2011.
[7] Cornelius et al. 2004, p. 100.
[8] "Canada – Permanent residents by gender and category, 1984 to 2008".
  Facts and figures 2008 – Immigration overview: Permanent and temporary
  residents. Citizenship and Immigration Canada. August 25, 2009. Retrieved
  December 4, 2009.
[9] Bybee & McCrae 2009, p. 92.
[10] "Projections of the Diversity of the Canadian Population". Statistics
  Canada. March 9, 2010. Retrieved March 15, 2010.
[11] "Aboriginal Peoples in Canada: First Nations People, Métis and Inuit".
  Statistics Canada. 2012.
[12] Hudson 2002, p. 15.
[13] Griffiths 2005, p. 4.
[14] McGowan 1999.
[15] Magocsi 1999, pp. 736ff.
[16] Standford 2000, p. 42.
[17] Borrows 2010, p. 134.
[18] Cameron 2004, p. 5.
[19] Powell 2005, pp. 152, 154.
[20] Murrin et al. 2007, p. 172.
[21] Feltes 1999, p. 19.
[22] Harland-Jacobs 2007, p. 177.
[23] Campey 2008, p. 122.
[24] McGowan 2009, p. 97.
[25] Elliott 2004, p. 106.
[26] Hall & Hwang 2001, p. 9.
[27] Huang 2006, p. 107.
[28] "Citizenship and Immigration Canada, Facts and Figures". Citizenship
  and Immigration Canada. 2014.
[29] "Canadians in Context — Population Size and Growth". Human Resources
  and Skills Development Canada. 2010. Retrieved December 17, 2010.
[30] Hobbs, MacKechnie & Lavalett 1999, p. 33.
[31] Martens 2004, p. 28.
[32] Day 2000, p. 124.
[33] Ksenych & Liu 2001, p. 407.
[34] "Immigration Policy in the 1970s". Canadian Heritage (Multicultural
  Canada). 2004. Retrieved April 12, 2010.
[35] Kusch 2001, p. 2.
[36] Agnew 2007, p. 182.
[37] Wilkinson 1980, p. 200.
[38] Good 2009, p. 13.
[39] Hollifield, Martin & Orrenius 2014, p. 11.
[40] Schneider 2009, p. 367.
[41] "Canadians want illegal immigrants deported: poll". Ottawa Citizen.
  CanWest MediaWorks Publications Inc. October 20, 2007. Retrieved October
  18, 2010.
[42] Chase, Curry & Galloway 2008.
[43] "Am I Canadian?". Government of Canada Canada. 2014. Retrieved July 1,
  2014.
[44] "Citizenship Act (R.S., 1985, c. C-29)". Department of Justice Canada.
  2010. Retrieved July 11, 2010.
[45] "Canadian Citizenship Act and current issues -BP-445E". Government of
  Canada - Law and Government Division. 2002. Retrieved July 11, 2010.
[46] Sinha, Jay; Young, Margaret (January 31, 2002). "Bill C-11 :
  Immigration and Refugee Protection Act". Law and Government Division,
  Government of Canada. Retrieved December 12, 2009.
[47] Bloemraad 2006, p. 269.
[48] "Canadian immigration". Canada Immigration Visa. 2009. Retrieved
  December 12, 2010.
[49] "Canada's Generous Program for Refugee Resettlement Is Undermined by
  Human Smugglers Who Abuse Canada's Immigration System". Public Safety
  Canada. Retrieved December 12, 2010.
[50] Zimmerman 2008, p. 51.
[51] DeVoretz 2011.
[52] "United States Total Canadian Population: Fact Sheet" (PDF). Asia
  Pacific Foundation of Canada. 2010. Retrieved July 12, 2010.
[53] Gray 2010, p. 302.
[54] "2006 Census: Ethnic origin, visible minorities, place of work and
  mode of transportation". The Daily. Statistics Canada. April 2, 2008.
  Archived from the original on August 23, 2008. Retrieved October 7, 2008.
[55] "Classification of visible minority". Statistics Canada. Government of
  Canada. July 25, 2008. Retrieved September 18, 2009.
[56] Kalman 2009, pp. 4–7.
[57] DeRocco & Chabot 2008, p. 13.
[58] Franklin & Baun 1995, p. 61.
[59] English 2004, p. 111.
[60] Burgess 2005, p. 31.
[61] Bricker & Wright 2005, p. 16.
[62] Nanos Research, (October 2016). "Exploring Canadian values" (PDF).
  Retrieved February 1, 2017.
[63] Blackwell 2005.
[64] Armstrong 2010, p. 144.
[65] "Canada in the Making: Pioneers and Immigrants". The History Channel.
  August 25, 2005. Retrieved November 30, 2006.
[66] White & Findlay 1999, p. 67.
[67] Dufour 1990, p. 25.
[68] "Original text of The Quebec Act of 1774". Canadiana (Library and
  Archives Canada). 2004. Retrieved April 11, 2010.
[69] "American Civil war". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Founcation.
  2003. Retrieved November 30, 2006.
[70] Vaillancourt & Coche 2006, p. 11.
[71] Magocsi 2002, p. 3.
[72] Nersessian 2007.
[73] "Forging Our Legacy: Canadian Citizenship And Immigration, 1900–1977 –
  The growth of Canadian nationalism". Citizenship and Immigration Canada.
  2006. Retrieved January 16, 2011.
[74] Linteau, Durocher & Robert 1983, p. 522.
[75] "Canada and the League of Nations". Faculty.marianopolis.edu. 2007.
  Retrieved August 10, 2010.
[76] Bodvarsson & Van den Berg 2009, p. 380.
[77] Prato 2009, p. 50.
[78] Duncan & Ley 1993, p. 205.
[79] Wayland 1997.
[80] "Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (Being Part I of the
  Constitution Act, 1982)". Electronic Frontier Canada. 2008. Retrieved
  September 12, 2010.
[81] "Canadian Multiculturalism Act (1985, c. 24 (4th Supp.)". Department
  of Justice Canada. 2010. Retrieved September 12, 2010.
[82] "Religions in Canada—Census 2011". Statistics Canada/Statistique
  Canada.
[83] Hales & Lauzon 2009, p. 440.
[84] Coates 2005, p. 143.
[85] "Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (Part I of the Constitution
  Act, 1982)". Department of Justice Canada. 2010. Retrieved September 10,
  2010.
[86] Miedema 2005, p. 15.
[87] Bramadat & Seljak 2009, p. 3.
[88] Bowen 2005, p. 174.
[89] Gregory et al. 2009, p. 672.
[90] Melton & Baumann 2010, p. 493.
[91] Haskell 2009, p. 50.
[92] Boyle & Sheen 1997, pp. 100–110.
[93] Tooker 1980, p. 20.
[94] Findling & Thackeray 2010, p. 52.
[95] MacLeod & Poutanen 2004, p. 23.
[96] Martynowych 1991, p. 28.
[97] Bloomberg 2004, p. 255.
[98] Coward & Kawamura 1979, p. 95.
[99] Coward, Hinnells & Williams 2000, p. 192.
[100] Waugh, Abu-Laban & Qureshi 1991, p. 15.
[101] Bramadat & Seljak 2009, p. 102.
[102] Yamagishi 2010, p. 17.
[103] Naik 2003, p. 32.
[104] "Population by mother tongue and age groups (total), 2011 counts, for
  Canada, provinces and territories". Retrieved October 5, 2014.
[105] "What Languages Do Canadians Speak? Language Statistics From the 2011
  Census of Canada". About.com: Canada Online. October 31, 2012. Retrieved
  November 26, 2012.
[106] "Population by mother tongue, by province and territory". Statistics
  Canada. January 2013. Retrieved July 4, 2013.
[107] Gordon 2005.
[108] Kockaert & Steurs 2015, p. 490.
[109] Grimes & Grimes 2000.
[110] Schuit, Baker & Pfau 2011.
[111] "Official Languages Act (R.S.C., 1985, c. 31 (4th Supp.))". Act
  current to 2016-08-29 and last amended on 2015-06-23. Department of
  Justice.
[112] "Nunavut's Languages". Office of the Languages Commissioner of
  Nunavut. Retrieved November 16, 2009.
[113] "Highlights of the Official Languages Act". Legislative Assembly of
  the NWT. 2003. Retrieved October 12, 2010.
[114] Ha & Ganahl 2006, p. 62.
[115] Winford 2003, p. 183.
[116] Wurm, Muhlhausler & Tyron 1996, p. 1491.
[117] Pfau, Steinbach & Woll 2012, p. 540.

Sources

- Agnew, Vijay (2007). Interrogating Race and Racism. Toronto UP. ISBN
  978-0-8020-9509-1.
- Armstrong, Robert (2010). Broadcasting Policy in Canada. U Toronto P.
  ISBN 978-1-4426-1035-4.
- Blackwell, John D. (2005). "Culture High and Low". International Council
  for Canadian Studies World Wide Web Service. Retrieved March 15, 2006.
- Bloemraad, Irene (2006). Becoming a Citizen: Incorporating Immigrants And
  Refugees in the United States And Canada. U Cal P. ISBN
  978-0-520-24898-4.
- Bloomberg, Jon (2004). The Jewish World In The Modern Age. KTAV
  Publishing. ISBN 978-0-88125-844-8.
- Bodvarsson, Örn Bodvar; Van den Berg, Hendrik (2009). The economics of
  immigration: theory and policy. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-77795-3.
- Borrows, John (2010). Canada's Indigenous Constitution. Toronto UP. ISBN
  978-1-4426-1038-5.
- Bowen, Kurt (2005). Christians in a Secular World: The Canadian
  Experience. MQUP. ISBN 978-0-7735-2712-6.
- Boyle, Kevin; Sheen, Juliet, eds. (1997). Freedom of Religion and Belief:
  A World Report. U Essex – Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-15977-7.
- Bramadat, Paul; Seljak, David (2009). Religion and Ethnicity in Canada. U
  Toronto P. ISBN 978-1-4426-1018-7.
- Bricker, Darrell; Wright, John (2005). What Canadians Think About Almost
  Everything. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-65985-7.
- Burgess, Ann Carroll (2005). Guide to Western Canada. GPP. ISBN
  978-0-7627-2987-6.
- Bybee, Rodger W.; McCrae, Barry (2009). Pisa Science 2006: Implications
  for Science Teachers and Teaching. NSTA. ISBN 978-1-933531-31-1.
- Cameron, Elspeth, ed. (2004). Multiculturalism and Immigration in Canada:
  An Introductory Reader. Canadian Scholars'. ISBN 978-1-55130-249-2.
- Campey, Lucille H. (2008). Unstoppable Force: The Scottish Exodus to
  Canada. Dundurn. ISBN 978-1-55002-811-9.
- Chase, Steven; Curry, Bill; Galloway, Gloria (May 6, 2008). "Thousands of
  illegal immigrants missing: A-G". Globe and Mail. Toronto. Archived from
  the original on September 18, 2016. Retrieved January 19, 2011.
- Coates, Colin MacMillan, ed. (2006). Majesty in Canada: Essays on the
  Role of Royalty. Dundurn Press. ISBN 978-1-55002-586-6.
- Cornelius, Wayne A.; Tsuda, Takeyuk; Martin, Philip; Hollifield, James,
  eds. (2004). Controlling immigration: a global perspective. Stanford UP.
  ISBN 978-0-8047-4490-4.
- Coward, Harold G.; Hinnells, John Russell; Williams, Raymond Brady
  (2000). The South Asian religious diaspora in Britain, Canada, and the
  United States. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-9302-1.
- Coward, Harold G.; Kawamura, Leslie S. (1979). Religion and Ethnicity:
  Essays. Wilfrid Laurier UP. ISBN 978-0-88920-064-7.
- Day, Richard J. F. (2000). Multiculturalism and the History of Canadian
  Diversity. Toronto UP. ISBN 978-0-8020-8075-2.
- DeRocco, David; Chabot, John F. (2008). From Sea to Sea to Sea: A
  Newcomer's Guide to Canada. Full Blast Productions. ISBN
  978-0-9784738-4-6.
- DeVoretz, Don J. (2011). "Canada's Secret Province: 2.8 Million Canadians
  Abroad" (PDF). Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada. Retrieved September 23,
  2013.
- Dufour, Christian (1990). A Canadian Challenge Le Defi Quebecois.
  Oolichan / IRPP. ISBN 978-0-88982-105-7.
- Duncan, James S.; Ley, David, eds. (1993). Place/culture/representation.
  Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-09451-1.
- Elliott, Bruce S. (2004). Irish Migrants in the Canadas: A New Approach
  (2nd ed.). MQUP. ISBN 978-0-7735-2321-0.
- English, Allan D. (2004). Understanding Military Culture: A Canadian
  Perspective. MQUP. ISBN 978-0-7735-2715-7.
- Feltes, Norman N. (1999). This Side of Heaven: Determining the Donnelly
  Murders, 1880. Toronto UP. ISBN 978-0-8020-4486-0.
- Findling, John E.; Thackeray, Frank W., eds. (2010). What Happened? An
  Encyclopedia of Events That Changed America Forever. ABC-CLIO. ISBN
  978-1-59884-621-8.
- Franklin, Daniel; Baun, Michael J. (1995). Political Culture and
  Constitutionalism: A Comparative Approach. Routledge. ISBN
  978-1-56324-416-2.
- Good, Kristin R. (2009). Municipalities and Multiculturalism: The
  Politics of Immigration in Toronto and Vancouver. Toronto UP. ISBN
  978-1-4426-0993-8.
- Gordon, Raymond G., ed. (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the world (15
  ed.). SIL International. ISBN 978-1-55671-159-6.
- Gray, Douglas (2010). The Canadian Snowbird Guide: Everything You Need to
  Know about Living Part-Time in the USA and Mexico. Wiley. ISBN
  978-0-470-73942-6.
- Gregory, Derek; Johnston, Ron; Pratt, Geraldine; Watts, Michael;
  Whatmore, Sarah, eds. (2009). The Dictionary of Human Geography (5th
  ed.). Wiley–Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-3288-6.
- Griffiths, N. E. S. (2005). From Migrant to Acadian: A North American
  Border People, 1604–1755. MQUP. ISBN 978-0-7735-2699-0.
- Grimes, Barbara F.; Grimes, Joseph Evans, eds. (2000). Ethnologue:
  Languages of the world (14 ed.). SIL International. ISBN
  978-1-55671-103-9.
- Ha, Louisa S.; Ganahl, Richard J. (2006). Webcasting Worldwide: Business
  Models of an Emerging Global Medium. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-8058-5915-7.
- Hales, Dianne R.; Lauzon, Lara (2009). An Invitation to Health. Cengage
  Learning. ISBN 978-0-17-650009-2.
- Hall, Patricia Wong; Hwang, Victor M., eds. (2001). Anti-Asian Violence
  in North America: Asian American and Asian Canadian Reflections on Hate,
  Healing, and Resistance. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-0459-2.
- Harland-Jacobs, Jessica L. (2007). Builders of Empire: Freemasonry and
  British Imperialism, 1717–1927. NCUP. ISBN 978-0-8078-3088-8.
- Haskell, David M. (2009). Through a Lens Darkly: How the News Media
  Perceive and Portray Evangelicals. Clements Academic. ISBN
  978-1-894667-92-0.
- Hobbs, Sandy; MacKechnie, Jim; Lavalette, Michael (1999). Child Labour: A
  World History Companion. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-87436-956-4.
- Hollifield, James; Martin, Philip; Orrenius, Pia, eds. (2014).
  Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective (third ed.). Stanford UP.
  ISBN 978-0-8047-8627-0.
- Huang, Annian (2006). The Silent Spikes - Chinese Laborers and the
  Construction of North American Railroads. Translated by Juguo Zhang.
  China Intercontinental Press | 中信出版社. ISBN 978-7-5085-0988-4.
- Hudson, John C. (2002). Across This Land: A Regional Geography of the
  United States and Canada. JHUP. ISBN 978-0-8018-6567-1.
- Kalman, Bobbie (2009). Canada: The culture. Crabtree. ISBN
  978-0-7787-9284-0.
- Ksenych, Edward; Liu, David, eds. (2001). Conflict, Order and Action :
  Readings in Sociology. Canadian Scholars'. ISBN 978-1-55130-192-1.
- Kusch, Frank (2001). All American Boys: Draft Dodgers in Canada from the
  Vietnam War. Greenwood. ISBN 978-0-275-97268-4.
- Linteau, Paul-André; Durocher, René; Robert, Jean-Claude (1983). Quebec:
  A History 1867–1929. Translated by Robert Chodos. Lorimer. ISBN
  978-0-88862-604-2.
- MacLeod, Roderick; Poutanen, Mary Anne (2004). Meeting of the People:
  School Boards and Protestant Communities in Quebec, 1801–1998. MQUP. ISBN
  978-0-7735-2742-3.
- Magocsi, Paul R. (1999). Multicultural History Society of Ontario, ed.
  Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples. U Toronto P. ISBN 978-0-8020-2938-6.
- Magocsi, Paul R. (2002). Aboriginal Peoples of Canada: A Short
  Introduction. U Toronto P. ISBN 978-0-8020-8469-9.
- Martens, Klaus, ed. (2004). The Canadian Alternative. Volume 28 of
  Saarbrücker Beiträge zur vergleichenden Literatur- und Kulturwissenschaft
  (in German). Königshausen & Neumann. ISBN 978-3-8260-2636-2.
- Martynowych, Orest T (1991). Ukrainians in Canada: The Formative Period,
  1891–1924. CIUS Press, U Alberta. ISBN 978-0-920862-76-6.
- McGowan, Mark G. (ed.). "Irish Catholics: Migration, Arrival, and
  Settlement before the Great Famine". The Encyclopedia of Canada's
  Peoples. Multicultural Canada.
- McGowan, Mark (2009). Death or Canada: the Irish Famine Migration to
  Toronto 1847. Novalis. ISBN 978-2-89646-129-5.
- Melton, J. Gordon; Baumann, Martin, eds. (2010). Religions of the World,
  Second Edition: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices.
  ISBN 978-1-59884-203-6.
- Miedema, Gary (2005). For Canada's Sake: Public Religion, Centennial
  Celebrations, and the Re-making of Canada in the 1960s. MQUP. ISBN
  978-0-7735-2877-2.
- Murrin, John M.; Johnson, Paul E.; McPherson, James M.; Fahs, Alice;
  Gerstle, Gary; Rosenberg, Emily S.; Rosenberg, Norman L. (2007). Liberty,
  Equality, Power, A History of the American People: To 1877 (5th ed.).
  (Wadsworth) Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-495-11606-6.
- Naik, C. D. (2003). Thoughts and Philosophy of Doctor B. R. Ambedkar.
  Sarup. ISBN 978-81-7625-418-2.
- Nersessian, Mary (April 9, 2007). "Vimy battle marks birth of Canadian
  nationalism". CTV Television Network. Archived from the original on
  September 18, 2016. Retrieved January 16, 2011.
- Pfau, Roland; Steinbach, Markus; Woll, Bencie, eds. (2012). Sign
  Language: An International Handbook. de Gruyter / Mouton. ISBN
  978-3-11-026132-5.
- Powell, John (2005). Encyclopedia of North American immigration.
  InfoBase. ISBN 978-0-8160-4658-4.
- Prato, Giuliana B., ed. (2009). Beyond multiculturalism: Views from
  Anthropology. Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-7173-2.
- Schneider, Stephen (2009). Iced: The Story of Organized Crime in Canada.
  Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-83500-5.
- Schuit, Joke; Baker, Anne; Pfau, Roland (2011). "Inuit Sign Language: a
  contribution to sign language typology" (pdf). Amsterdam Center for
  Language and Communication Working Papers (ACLC). U Amsterdam. 4 (1):
  1–31.
- Standford, Frances. Development of Western Canada Gr. 7-8. On The Mark
  Press. ISBN 978-1-77072-743-4.
- Tooker, Elisabeth (1980). Native North American spirituality of the
  eastern woodlands: sacred myths, dreams, visions, speeches, healing
  formulas, rituals, and ceremonials. Paulist Press. ISBN
  978-0-8091-2256-1.
- Vaillancourt, François; Coche, Olivier (2009). Official Language Policies
  at the Federal Level in Canada: Costs and Benefits in 2006 (PDF). Fraser
  Institute.
- Waugh, Earle Howard; Abu-Laban, Sharon McIrvin; Qureshi, Regula (1991).
  Muslim families in North America. U Alberta. ISBN 978-0-88864-225-7.
- Wayland, Shara V. (1997). "Immigration, Multiculturalism and National
  Identity in Canada". International Journal on Minority and Group Rights.
  Dept of Political Science, U Toronto. 5 (1): 33–58.
  doi:10.1163/15718119720907408.
- White, Richard; Findlay, John M., eds. (1999). Power and Place in the
  North American West. UWP. ISBN 978-0-295-97773-7.
- Wilkinson, Paul F. (1980). In celebration of play: an integrated approach
  to play and child development. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-41078-0.
- Winford, Donald (2003). An Introduction to Contact Linguistics. Wiley.
  ISBN 978-0-631-21250-8.
- Wurm, Stephen Adolphe; Muhlhausler, Peter; Tyron, Darrell T., eds.
  (1996). Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific,
  Asia, and the Americas. de Gruyter / Mouton. ISBN 978-3-11-013417-9.
- Yamagishi, N. Rochelle (2010). Japanese Canadian Journey: The Nakagama
  Story. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4269-8148-7.
- Zimmerman, Karla (2008). Canada (tenth ed.). Lonely Planet. ISBN
  978-1-74104-571-0.

Further reading

Main article: Bibliography of Canada
- Beaty, Bart; Briton, Derek; Filax, Gloria (2010). How Canadians
  Communicate III: Contexts of Canadian Popular Culture. Athabasca
  University Press. ISBN 978-1-897425-59-6.
- Bumsted, J. M. (2003). Canada's diverse peoples: a reference sourcebook.
  ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-672-9.
- Carment, David; Bercuson, David (2008). The World in Canada: Diaspora,
  Demography, and Domestic Politics. McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP. ISBN
  978-0-7735-7455-7.
- Cohen, Andrew (2008). The Unfinished Canadian: The People We Are.
  McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 978-0-7710-2286-9.
- Gillmor, Don; Turgeon, Pierre (2002). CBC, ed. Canada: A People's
  History. 1. McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 978-0-7710-3324-7.
- Gillmor, Don; Turgeon, Pierre; Michaud, Achille (2002). CBC, ed. Canada:
  A People's History. 2. McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 978-0-7710-3336-0.
- Kearney, Mark; Ray, Randy (2009). The Big Book of Canadian Trivia.
  Dundurn. ISBN 978-1-77070-614-9.
- Kelley, Ninette; Trebilcock, M. J. (2010). The Making of the Mosaic: A
  History of Canadian Immigration Policy. University of Toronto Press. ISBN
  978-0-8020-9536-7.
- Resnick, Philip (2005). The European Roots Of Canadian Identity.
  University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1-55111-705-8.
- Richard, Madeline A. (1992). Ethnic Groups and Marital Choices: Ethnic
  History and Marital Assimilation in Canada, 1871 and 1971. UBC Press.
  ISBN 978-0-7748-0431-8.
- Simpson, Jeffrey (2000). Star-Spangled Canadians: Canadians Living the
  American Dream. Harper-Collins. ISBN 978-0-00-255767-2.
- Studin, Irvin (2006). What Is a Canadian?: Forty-Three Thought-Provoking
  Responses. McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 978-0-7710-8321-1.

External links

- Canada Year Book 2010 - Statistics Canada
- Canada: A People's History - Teacher Resources - Canadian Broadcasting
  Corporation
- Persons of National Historic Significance in Canada - Parks Canada
- Multicultural Canada - Department of Canadian Heritage
- The Canadian Immigrant Experience - Library and Archives Canada
- The Dictionary of Canadian Biography – Library and Archives Canada
- Canadiana: The National Bibliography of Canada – Library and Archives
  Canada

Multiculturalism in Canada

Multiculturalism in Canada is the sense of an equal celebration of racial,
religious and cultural backgrounds. The multiculturalism policy was
officially adopted by Pierre Trudeau's government during the 1970s and
1980s.¹ The Canadian federal government has been described as the
instigator of multiculturalism as an ideology because of its public
emphasis on the social importance of immigration.² The 1960s Royal
Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism is often referred to as the
origin of modern political awareness of multiculturalism.³

Canadians have used the term "multiculturalism" both descriptively (as a
sociological fact) and prescriptively (as a political ideology).⁴ In the
first sense "multiculturalism" is a description of the many different
religious traditions and cultural influences that in their unity and
coexistence in Canada make up Canadian culture.⁴ The nation consists of
people from a multitude of racial, religious and cultural backgrounds and
is open to cultural pluralism.⁵ Canada has experienced different waves of
immigration since the nineteenth century, and by the 1980s almost 40
percent of the population were of neither British nor French origins (the
two largest groups, and among the oldest).⁶ In the past, the relationship
between the British and the French has been given a lot of importance in
Canada's history. By the early twenty-first century, people from outside
British and French heritage composed the majority of the population, with
an increasing percentage of individuals who identify themselves as "visible
minorities".

Multiculturalism is reflected in the law through the Canadian
Multiculturalism Act of 1988 and section 27 of the Canadian Charter of
Rights and Freedoms and is administered by the Department of Canadian
Heritage. The Broadcasting Act of 1991 asserts the Canadian broadcasting
system should reflect the diversity of cultures in the country. Despite the
official policies, a small segment of the Canadian population are critical
of the concept(s) of a cultural mosaic and implementation(s) of
multiculturalism legislation.⁷ Quebec's ideology differs from that of the
other provinces in that its official policies focus on interculturalism.⁸

Historical context

Main article: Human rights in Canada

In the 21st century Canada is often characterised as being "very
progressive, diverse, and multicultural".⁹ However, Canada until the 1940s
saw itself in terms of English and French cultural, linguistic and
political identities, and to some extent Aboriginal.¹⁰ European immigrants
speaking other languages, such as Canadians of German ethnicity and
Ukrainian Canadians, were suspect, especially during the First World War
when thousands were put in camps because they were citizens of enemy
nations.¹¹ Jewish Canadians were also suspect, especially in Quebec where
anti-semitism was a factor and the Catholic Church of Quebec associated
Jews with modernism, liberalism, and other unacceptable values.¹²

Asians encountered legal obstacles limiting immigration during the 1800s
and early 1900s.¹³ ¹⁴ Additional, specific ethnic groups that did immigrate
during this time faced barriers within Canada preventing full participation
in political and social matters, including equal pay and the right to
vote.¹⁵ While black ex-slave refugees from the United States had been
tolerated, racial minorities of African or Asian origin were generally
believed "beyond the pale" (not acceptable to most people).¹⁶ Although this
mood started to shift dramatically during the Second World War,¹⁷ ¹⁸
Japanese Canadians were interned during the overseas conflict and their
property confiscated.¹⁹ Prior to the advent of the Canadian Bill of Rights
in 1960 and its successor the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms in
1982, the laws of Canada did not provide much in the way of civil rights
and it was typically of limited concern to the courts.²⁰ Since the 1960s,
Canada has placed emphasis on equality and inclusiveness for all people.²¹
²²

Immigration

Main article: Immigration to Canada

Immigration has played an integral part in the development of
multiculturalism within Canada during the last half of the 20th century.²³
Legislative restrictions on immigration (such as the Continuous journey
regulation and Chinese Immigration Act) that had favoured British, American
and European immigrants were amended during the 1960s, resulting in an
influx of diverse people from Asia, Africa and the Caribbean.²⁴ The number
of people who are becoming immigrants is steadily increasing as seen
between 2001 and 2006, the number of foreign-born people increased by
13.6%.²⁵ By 2006 Canada had grown to have thirty four ethnic groups with at
least one hundred thousand members each, of which eleven have over
1,000,000 people and numerous others are represented in smaller amounts.²⁶
16.2% of the population identify themselves as a visible minority.²⁶

Canada currently has one of the highest per capita immigration rate in the
world, driven by economic policy and family reunification.²⁷ Canada also
resettles over one in ten of the world's refugees.²⁸ In 2008, there were
65,567 immigrants in the family class, 21,860 refugees, and 149,072
economic immigrants amongst the 247,243 total immigrants to the country.²⁹
Approximately 41% of Canadians are of either the first or
second-generation,²⁹ meaning one out of every five Canadians currently
living in Canada was not born in the country.³⁰ The Canadian public as well
as the major political parties support immigration.³¹ Political parties are
cautious about criticizing the high level of immigration, because, as noted
by the Globe and Mail, "in the early 1990s, the Reform Party was branded
'racist' for suggesting that immigration levels be lowered from 250,000 to
150,000."³² ³³

Canada receives its immigrant population from over 200 countries. As
indicated below, over 50 percent of new immigrants admitted in 2012 came
from 10 source countries.

Permanent Residents Admitted in 2012, by Top 10 Source Countries³⁴

Settlement

Culturally diverse areas or "ethnic enclaves" are another way in which
multiculturalism has manifested. Newcomers have tended to settle in the
major urban areas.³⁵ These urban enclaves have served as a home away from
home for immigrants to Canada, while providing a unique experience of
different cultures for those of long Canadian descent. In Canada, there are
several ethnocentric communities with many diverse backgrounds, including
Chinese, Italian and Greek.³⁶ Canadian Chinatowns are one of the most
prolific type of ethnic enclave found in major cities.³⁶ These areas
seemingly recreate an authentic Chinese experience within an urban
community. During the first half of the 20th century, Chinatowns were
associated with filth, seediness, and the derelict.³⁶ By the late 20th
century, Chinatown(s) had become areas worth preserving, a tourist
attraction.³⁶ They are now generally valued for their cultural significance
and have become a feature of most large Canadian cities.³⁶ Professor John
Zucchi of McGill University states:³⁶

  Unlike earlier periods when significant ethnic segregation might imply a
  lack of integration and therefore be viewed as a social problem, nowadays
  ethnic concentration in residential areas is a sign of vitality and
  indicates that multiculturalism as a social policy has been successful,
  that ethnic groups are retaining their identities if they so wish, and
  old-world cultures are being preserved at the same time that ethnic
  groups are being integrated. In addition these neighbourhoods, like their
  cultures, add to the definition of a city and point to the fact that
  integration is a two-way street."

Evolution of federal legislation

The Quebec Act, implemented after the British conquest of New France in the
mid-1700s brought a large Francophone population under British Imperial
rule, creating a need for accommodation.³⁷ A century later the compromises
made between the English and French speaking Fathers of Confederation set
Canada on a path to bilingualism, and this in turn contributed to
biculturalism and the acceptance of diversity.³⁸

Lord Tweedsmuir the 15th Governor General of Canada was an early champion
of multiculturalism;³⁹ from his installation speech in 1935 onwards, he
maintained in speeches and over the radio recited his ideas that ethnic
groups "should retain their individuality and each make its contribution to
the national character," and "the strongest nations are those that are made
up of different racial elements."⁴⁰

The beginnings of the development of Canada's contemporary policy of
multiculturalism can be traced to the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and
Biculturalism, which was established on July 19, 1963 by the Liberal
government of Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson in response to the
grievances of Canada's French-speaking minority.⁹ The report of the
Commission advocated that the Canadian government should recognize Canada
as a bilingual and bicultural society and adopt policies to preserve this
character.⁹

The recommendations of this report elicited a variety of responses. Former
Progressive Conservative Prime Minister John Diefenbaker, (who was now
Leader of the Official Opposition after his government was succeeded by
that of Pearson on April 22, 1963), viewed them as an attack on his "One
Canada Policy" that was opposed to extending accommodation to minority
groups.⁴¹ The proposals also failed to satisfy those Francophones in the
Province of Quebec who gravitated toward Québécois nationalism.⁴²
Additionally, Canadians of neither English nor French descent (so-called
"Third Force" Canadians) advocated that a policy of "multiculturalism"
would better reflect the diverse heritage of Canada's peoples.⁴³ ⁴⁴

Paul Yuzyk, a Progressive Conservative Senator of Ukrainian descent,
referred to Canada as "a multicultural nation" in his influential maiden
speech in 1964, creating much national debate, and is remembered for his
strong advocacy of the implementation of a multiculturalism policy.⁴⁵

On October 8, 1971, the Liberal government of Prime Minister Pierre Elliot
Trudeau announced in the House of Commons that, after much deliberation,
the policies of bilingualism and multiculturalism would be implemented in
Canada.⁴⁶ As Prime Minister, Trudeau espoused participatory democracy as a
means of making Canada a "Just Society".⁴⁷ ⁴⁸ When the Canadian
constitution was patriated by Prime Minister Trudeau in 1982, one of its
constituent documents was the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, and section
27 of the Charter stipulates that the rights laid out in the document are
to be interpreted in a manner consistent with the spirit of
multiculturalism.⁴⁹

The Canadian Multiculturalism Act was introduced during the Progressive
Conservative government of Brian Mulroney, and received Royal Assent on
July 21, 1988.⁵⁰ On a practical level, a result of the Multiculturalism Act
was that federal funds began to be distributed to ethnic groups to help
them preserve their cultures, leading to such projects as the construction
of community centres.⁵¹

In June 2000 Prime Minister Jean Chrétien stated:⁵²

  Canada has become a post-national, multicultural society. It contains the
  globe within its borders, and Canadians have learned that their two
  international languages and their diversity are a comparative advantage
  and a source of continuing creativity and innovation. Canadians are, by
  virtue of history and necessity, open to the world.

With this in mind on November 13, 2002, the Liberal government of Prime
Minister Jean Chrétien designated, by Royal Proclamation, June 27 of each
year Canadian Multiculturalism Day.⁵³

Charter and Multiculturalism Act

Section Twenty-seven of the Charter states that:⁴⁹

  This Charter shall be interpreted in a manner consistent with the
  preservation and enhancement of the multicultural heritage of Canadians.

The 1988 Canadian Multiculturalism Act affirms the policy of the government
to ensure that every Canadian receives equal treatment by the government
which respects and celebrates diversity.⁴⁹ The "Act" in general
recognizes:⁵⁴

- Canada's multicultural heritage and that that heritage must be protected.
- The rights of Aboriginal peoples.
- English and French remain the only official languages, however other
  languages may be used.
- Social equality within society and under the law regardless of origins,
  race or creed.
- Minorities' rights to enjoy their cultures.

Section 3 (1) of the act states:⁴⁹

  It is hereby declared to be the policy of the Government of Canada to

  (a) recognize and promote the understanding that multiculturalism
  reflects the cultural and racial diversity of Canadian society and
  acknowledges the freedom of all members of Canadian society to preserve,
  enhance and share their cultural heritage

  (b) to recognize and promote the understanding that multiculturalism is a
  fundamental characteristic of the Canadian heritage and identity and that
  it provides an invaluable resource in the shaping of Canada's future

Broadcasting Act

Main article: Multicultural media in Canada

In the Multiculturalism Act, the federal government proclaimed the
recognition of the diversity of Canadian culture.⁵⁵ Similarly the
Broadcasting Act of 1991 asserts the Canadian broadcasting system should
reflect the diversity of cultures in the country.⁵⁶ The CRTC is the
governmental body which enforces the Broadcasting Act.⁵⁶ The CRTC revised
their Ethnic Broadcasting Policy in 1999 to go into the details on the
conditions of the distribution of ethnic and multilingual programming.⁵⁵
One of the conditions that this revision specified was the amount of ethnic
programming needed in order to be awarded the ethnic broadcasting license.
According to the act, 60% of programming on a channel, whether on the radio
or television, has to be considered ethnic in order to be approved for the
license under this policy.⁵⁵

Provincial legislation and policies

All ten of Canada's provinces have some form of multiculturalism policy.⁵⁷
At present, six of the ten provinces – British Columbia, Alberta,
Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Quebec, and Nova Scotia – have enacted
multiculturalism legislation. In eight provinces – British Columbia,
Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Quebec, New Brunswick, Prince Edward
Island, and Nova Scotia – a multiculturalism advisory council reports to
the minister responsible for multiculturalism. In Alberta, the Alberta
Human Rights Commission performs the role of multiculturalism advisory
council. In Nova Scotia, the Act is implemented by both a Cabinet committee
on multiculturalism and advisory councils. Ontario has an official
multicultural policy and the Ministry of Citizenship and Immigration is
responsible for promoting social inclusion, civic and community engagement
and recognition. The Government of Newfoundland and Labrador launched the
province's policy on multiculturalism in 2008 and the Minister of Advanced
Education and Skills leads its implementation.

While the territorial governments do not have multiculturalism policies per
se, they have human rights acts that prohibit discrimination based on,
among other things, race, colour, ancestry, ethnic origin, place of origin,
creed or religion. In Whitehorse, the Multicultural Centre of the Yukon
provides services to immigrants.⁵⁷

British Columbia

British Columbia legislated the Multiculturalism Act in 1993.⁵⁷ The
purposes of this act (s. 2) are:⁵⁸

  - to recognize that the diversity of British Columbians as regards race,
    cultural heritage, religion, ethnicity, ancestry and place of origin is
    a fundamental characteristic of the society of British Columbia that
    enriches the lives of all British Columbians;
  - to encourage respect for the multicultural heritage of British
    Columbia;
  - to promote racial harmony, cross cultural understanding and respect and
    the development of a community that is united and at peace with itself;
  - to foster the creation of a society in British Columbia in which there
    are no impediments to the full and free participation of all British
    Columbians in the economic, social, cultural and political life of
    British Columbia.

Alberta

Alberta primarily legislated the Alberta Cultural Heritage Act in 1984 and
refined it with the Alberta Multiculturalism Act in 1990.⁵⁷ The current
legislation pertaining to multiculturalism is The Human Rights, Citizenship
and Multiculturalism Act that passed in 1996.⁵⁷ This current legislation
deals with discrimination in race, religious beliefs, colour, gender,
physical disability, age, marital status and sexual orientation, among
other things.⁵⁹ Alberta Human Rights chapter A‑25.5 states:⁶⁰

  - multiculturalism describes the diverse racial and cultural composition
    of Alberta society and its importance is recognized in Alberta as a
    fundamental principle and a matter of public policy;
  - it is recognized in Alberta as a fundamental principle and as a matter
    of public policy that all Albertans should share in an awareness and
    appreciation of the diverse racial and cultural composition of society
    and that the richness of life in Alberta is enhanced by sharing that
    diversity; and
  - it is fitting that these principles be affirmed by the Legislature of
    Alberta in an enactment whereby those equality rights and that
    diversity may be protected.

Saskatchewan

Saskatchewan was the first Canadian province to adopt legislation on
multiculturalism.⁵⁷ This piece of legislation was called The Saskatchewan
Multiculturalism Act of 1974, but has since been replaced by new, revised
Multiculturalism Act (1997).⁵⁷ The purposes of this act (s. 3) are similar
to those of British Columbia:⁶¹

  - to recognize that the diversity of Saskatchewan people with respect to
    race, cultural heritage, religion, ethnicity, ancestry and place of
    origin is a fundamental characteristic of Saskatchewan society that
    enriches the lives of all Saskatchewan people;
  - to encourage respect for the multicultural heritage of Saskatchewan;
  - to foster a climate for harmonious relations among people of diverse
    cultural and ethnic backgrounds without sacrificing their distinctive
    cultural and ethnic identities;
  - to encourage the continuation of a multicultural society.

Manitoba

Manitoba's first piece of legislation on multiculturalism was the Manitoba
Intercultural Council Act in 1984.⁵⁷ However, in the summer on 1992, the
province developed a new provincial legislation called the Multiculturalism
Act.⁵⁷ The purposes of this act (s. 2) are to:⁶²

  - recognize and promote understanding that the cultural diversity of
    Manitoba is a strength of and a source of pride to Manitobans;
  - recognize and promote the right of all Manitobans, regardless of
    culture, religion or racial background, to: (i) equal access to
    opportunities, (ii) participate in all aspects of society, and (iii)
    respect for their cultural values; and
  - enhance the opportunities of Manitoba's multicultural society by acting
    in partnership with all cultural communities and by encouraging
    cooperation and partnerships between cultural communities

Ontario

Ontario had a policy in place in 1977 that promoted cultural activity, but
formal legislation for a Ministry of Citizenship and Culture (now known as
Ministry of Citizenship and Immigration) only came to fruition in 1982.⁵⁷
The Ministry of Citizenship and Culture Act (1990) (s. 4) states its
purpose:⁶³

  - to encourage full, equal and responsible citizenship among the
    residents of Ontario;
  - recognizing the pluralistic nature of Ontario society, to stress the
    full participation of all Ontarians as equal members of the community,
    encouraging the sharing of cultural heritage while affirming those
    elements held in common by all residents;
  - to ensure the creative and participatory nature of cultural life in
    Ontario by assisting in the stimulation of cultural expression and
    cultural preservation;
  - to foster the development of individual and community excellence,
    enabling Ontarians to better define the richness of their diversity and
    the shared vision of their community.

Quebec

Further information: Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms

Quebec differs from the rest of the nine provinces in that its policy
focuses on "interculturalism"- rather than multiculturalism,⁶⁴ ⁶⁵ ⁶⁶ where
diversity is strongly encouraged,⁶⁷ but only under the notion that it is
within the framework that establishes French as the public language.⁶⁸
Immigrant children must attend French language schools; most signage in
English is banned.⁵⁷

In 1990, Quebec released a White paper called Lets Build Quebec Together: A
Policy Statement on Integration and Immigration which reinforced three main
points:⁶⁹

  - Quebec is a French-speaking society
  - Quebec is a democratic society in which everyone is expected to
    contribute to public life
  - Quebec is a pluralistic society that respects the diversity of various
    cultures from within a democratic framework

In 2005, Quebec passed legislation to develop the Ministry of Immigration
and Cultural Communities, their functions were:⁵⁷

  - to support cultural communities in order to facilitate their full
    participation in Quebec society
  - to foster openness to pluralism; and
  - to foster closer intercultural relations among the people of Quebec.

New Brunswick

New Brunswick first introduced their multicultural legislation in 1986.⁵⁷
The policy is guided by four principles: equality, appreciation,
preservation of cultural heritages and participation.⁷⁰ In the 1980s the
provincial government developed a Ministerial Advisory Committee to provide
assistance to the minister of Business in New Brunswick, who is in turn
responsible for settlement and multicultural communities.⁵⁷

Nova Scotia

Nova Scotia introduced their multicultural legislation, the Act to Promote
and Preserve Multiculturalism, in 1989.⁵⁷ The purpose of this Act is (s.
3):⁷¹

  - encouraging recognition and acceptance of multiculturalism as an
    inherent feature of a pluralistic society;
  - establishing a climate for harmonious relations among people of diverse
    cultural and ethnic backgrounds without sacrificing their distinctive
    cultural and ethnic identities;
  - encouraging the continuation of a multicultural society as a mosaic of
    different ethnic groups and cultures

Prince Edward Island

Prince Edward Island introduced their legislation on multiculturalism, the
Provincial Multicultural Policy, in 1988.⁵⁷ This policies objectives were
(s. 4):⁷²

  - serve to indicate that the province embraces the multicultural reality
    of Canadian society and acknowledges that Prince Edward Island has a
    distinctive multicultural heritage
  - acknowledge the intrinsic worth and continuing contribution of al
    Prince Edward Islanders regardless of race, religion ethnicity,
    linguistic origin or length of residency.
  - serve as an affirmation of Human Rights for all Prince Edward Islanders
    and as a complement to the equality of rights guaranteed in the P.E.I.
    Human Rights Act and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
  - encourage specific legislative, political and social commitments to
    multiculturalism in Prince Edward Island

Newfoundland and Labrador

Newfoundland and Labrador first legislated their Policy on Multiculturalism
in 2008.⁵⁷ Some of the policies are to:⁷³

  - ensure that relevant policies and procedures of provincial programs and
    practices reflect, and consider the changing needs of all cultural
    groups;
  - lead in developing, sustaining and enhancing programs and services
    based on equality for all, notwithstanding racial, religious, ethnic,
    national and social origin;
  - provide government workplaces that are free of discrimination and that
    promote equality of opportunity for all persons accessing employment
    positions within the Government of Newfoundland and Labrador;
  - support multicultural initiatives by enhancing partnerships with
    culturally-diverse communities and provincial departments and agencies

Domestic support and global influence

Further information: Canadian values

Canadian multiculturalism is looked upon with admiration outside the
country, resulting in the Canadian public dismissing most critics of the
concept.⁷⁴ ⁷⁵ Multiculturalism is often cited as one of Canada's
significant accomplishments and a key distinguishing element of Canadian
identity.⁷⁶ Multiculturalism has been emphasized in recent decades. Emma
Ambrose and Cas Mudde examining surveys of Western nations report:

  Data confirm that Canada has fostered a much more accepting society for
  immigrants and their culture than other Western countries. For example,
  Canadians are the most likely to agree with the statement that immigrants
  make their country a better place to live and that immigrants are good
  for the economy. They are also the least likely to say that there are too
  many immigrants in their country, that immigration has placed too much
  pressure on public services, and that immigrants have made it more
  difficult for natives to find a job.⁷⁷

Ambrose and Mudde conclude that: "Canada's unique multiculturalism
policy... is based on a combination of selective immigration, comprehensive
integration, and strong state repression of dissent on these policies".⁷⁷
This unique blend of policies has led to a relatively low level of
opposition to multiculturalism.⁷⁷ ⁷⁸

Canadian supporters of multiculturalism promote the idea because they
believe that immigrants help society grow culturally, economically and
politically.⁷⁹ Supporters declare that multiculturalism policies help in
bringing together immigrants and minorities in the country and pushes them
towards being part of the Canadian society as a whole.⁷⁹ ⁸⁰ Supporters also
argue that cultural appreciation of ethnic and religious diversity promotes
a greater willingness to tolerate political differences.⁷⁶ Journalist and
author Richard Gwyn has suggested that "tolerance" has replaced "loyalty"
as the touchstone of Canadian identity.⁷⁶ A 2008 survey of 600 immigrants
showed that 81% agreed with the statement; "The rest of the world could
learn from Canada's multicultural policy".⁸¹ The Economist ran a cover
story in 2016 praising Canada as the most successful multicultural society
in the West.⁸² The Economist argued that Canada's multiculturalism was a
source of strength that united the diverse population and by attracting
immigrants from around the world was also an engine of economic growth as
well.⁸³

In a 2002 interview with the Globe and Mail, Aga Khan the 49th Imam of the
Ismaili Muslims described Canada as:⁷⁴ ⁸⁴

  the most successful pluralist society on the face of our globe, without
  any doubt in my mind.... That is something unique to Canada. It is an
  amazing global human asset.

Aga Khan explained that the experience of Canadian governance – its
commitment to pluralism and its support for the rich multicultural
diversity of its peoples – is something that must be shared and would be of
benefit to societies in other parts of the world.⁸⁵ ⁸⁶ With this in mind,
in 2006 the Global Centre for Pluralism was established in partnership with
the Government of Canada.⁸⁷ The Centre seeks to export the Canadian
experience by promoting pluralist values and practices in culturally
diverse societies worldwide.⁸⁶

Criticisms

Further information: Criticism of multiculturalism

Critics of multiculturalism in Canada often debate whether the
multicultural ideal of benignly co-existing cultures that interrelate and
influence one another, and yet remain distinct, is sustainable, paradoxical
or even desirable.⁸⁸ ⁸⁹ ⁹⁰ In the introduction to an article which presents
research showing that "the multiculturalism policy plays a positive role"
in "the process of immigrant and minority integration," Citizenship and
immigration Canada sums up the critics' position by stating:⁹¹

  Critics argue that multiculturalism promotes ghettoization and
  balkanization, encouraging members of ethnic groups to look inward, and
  emphasizing the differences between groups rather than their shared
  rights or identities as Canadian citizens.

Canadian Neil Bissoondath in his book Selling Illusions: The Cult of
Multiculturalism in Canada, argues that official multiculturalism limits
the freedom of minority members, by confining them to cultural and
geographic ethnic enclaves ("social ghettos").⁹² He also argues that
cultures are very complex, and must be transmitted through close family and
kin relations.⁹³ To him, the government view of cultures as being about
festivals and cuisine is a crude oversimplification that leads to easy
stereotyping.⁹³

According to a study conducted by The University of Victoria, many
Canadians do not feel a strong sense of belonging to Canada, or cannot
integrate themselves into society as a result of ethnic enclaves.⁹⁴ Many
immigrants to Canada choose to live in ethnic enclaves because it can be
much easier than fitting in with mainstream Canadian culture.⁹⁴

Canadian Daniel Stoffman's book Who Gets In questions the policy of
Canadian multiculturalism. Stoffman points out that many cultural practices
(outlawed in Canada), such as allowing dog meat to be served in restaurants
and street cockfighting, are simply incompatible with Canadian and Western
culture.⁹⁵ He also raises concern about the number of recent older
immigrants who are not being linguistically integrated into Canada (i.e.,
not learning either English or French).⁹⁵ He stresses that multiculturalism
works better in theory than in practice and Canadians need to be far more
assertive about valuing the "national identity of English-speaking
Canada".⁹⁵

Professor Joseph Garcea, the Department Head of Political Studies at the
University of Saskatchewan, explores the validity of attacks on
multiculturalism because it supposedly segregates the peoples of Canada. He
argues that multiculturalism hurts the Canadian, Québécois, and Aboriginal
culture, identity, and nationalism projects. Furthermore, he argues, it
perpetuates conflicts between and within groups.⁹⁶ Oxford sociologist, Reza
Hasmath, argues that the multicultural project in Canada has the potential
to hinder substantive equality in the labour market for ethnic
minorities.⁹⁷

Ricardo Duchesne, Professor at The University of New Brunswick, has argued
that multiculturalism, as it is understood in Canada, encourages visible
minorities to affirm their ethnic identities, while at the same time
demonizing as "racist" any effort by Eurocanadians to affirm their Anglo,
Quebecois, or European ethnic identity.⁹⁸

French society

Despite an official national bilingualism policy, many French commentators
from the Province of Quebec believe multiculturalism threatened to reduce
them to just another ethnic group.⁹⁹ ¹⁰⁰ Quebec's policy seeks to promote
interculturalism, welcoming people of all origins while insisting that they
integrate into Quebec's majority French-speaking society.¹⁰¹ In 2008, a
Consultation Commission on Accommodation Practices Related to Cultural
Differences, headed by sociologist Gerard Bouchard and philosopher Charles
Taylor, recognized that Quebec is a de facto pluralist society, but that
the Canadian multiculturalism model "does not appear well suited to
conditions in Quebec".¹⁰²

See also

- Canadian values
- Feminism in Canada
- Freedom of religion in Canada
- Heritage conservation in Canada
- Historiography of Canada
- Social programs in Canada
- Canada – Wikipedia book

References

[1] Kobayashi, Audrey (1983), "Multiculturalism: Representing a Canadian
  Institution", in Duncan, James S; Duncan, Ley,
  Place/culture/representation, Routledge, pp. 205–206, ISBN 0-415-09451-8
[2] Wayland, Shara (1997), Immigration, Multiculturalism and National
  Identity in Canada (PDF), University of Toronto (Department of Political
  Science), retrieved September 12, 2010
[3] Ronald L. Jackson, II (June 29, 2010). Encyclopedia of Identity. SAGE.
  p. 480. ISBN 978-1-4129-5153-1.
[4] Michael Dewing (2013). Canadian Multiculturalism (PDF). Publication No.
  2009-20-E Library of Parliament. Legal and Social Affairs Division
  Parliamentary Information and Research Service. p. 4.
[5] Bernardo Berdichewsky (2007). Latin Americans Integration Into Canadian
  Society in B.C. The Canadian Association for Latin American and Caribbean
  Studies. p. 67. ISBN 978-0-9784152-0-4.
[6] Troper, H. (1980). Multiculturalism Multicultural Canada. Retrieved
  March 28, 2012
[7] Charmaine Nelson; Camille Antoinette Nelson (2004). Racism, Eh?: a
  critical inter-disciplinary anthology of race and racism in Canada.
  Captus Press. p. 445. ISBN 978-1-55322-061-9.
[8] Jill Vickers; Annette Isaac (2012). The Politics of Race: Canada, the
  United States, and Australia. University of Toronto Press - Carleton
  University Press. p. 109. ISBN 978-1-4426-1131-3.
[9] Anne-Marie Mooney Cotter (2011). Culture clash: an international legal
  perspective on ethnic discrimination. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 176.
  ISBN 978-1-4094-1936-5.
[10] Guy M. Robinson (1991). A Social geography of Canada. Dundurn Press
  Ltd. p. 86. ISBN 978-1-55002-092-2.
[11] Derek Hayes (2008). Canada: an illustrated history. Douglas &
  McIntyre. p. 202. ISBN 978-1-55365-259-5.
[12] Richard S. Levy (2005). Antisemitism: a historical encyclopedia of
  prejudice and persecution. ABC-CLIO. p. 94. ISBN 978-1-85109-439-4.
[13] Matthew J. Gibney; Randall Hansen (2005). Immigration and asylum: from
  1900 to the present. ABC-CLIO. p. 67. ISBN 978-1-57607-796-2.
[14] Grace-Edward Galabuzi (2006). Canada's Economic Apartheid: The Social
  Exclusion of Racialized Groups in the New Century. Canadian Scholars'
  Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-55130-265-2.
[15] Yasmeen Abu-Laban; Christina Gabriel (2002). Selling diversity:
  immigration, multiculturalism, employment equity, and globalization.
  University of Toronto Press. pp. 37–39. ISBN 978-1-55111-398-2.
[16] Jessie Carney Smith (2010). Encyclopedia of African American Popular
  Culture. ABC-CLIO. p. 236. ISBN 978-0-313-35796-1.
[17] Richard J. F. Day (2000). Multiculturalism and the history of Canadian
  diversity. University of Toronto Press. p. 172. ISBN 978-0-8020-8075-2.
[18] W. Peter Ward (1990). White Canada forever: popular attitudes and
  public policy toward Orientals in British Columbia. McGill-Queen's Press
  – MQUP. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-7735-0824-8.
[19] Rand Dyck (March 2011). Canadian Politics. Cengage Learning. p. 89.
  ISBN 978-0-17-650343-7.
[20] Joan Church; Christian Schulze; Hennie Strydom (2007). Human rights
  from a comparative and international law perspective. Unisa Press. p. 82.
  ISBN 978-1-86888-361-5.
[21] Christopher MacLennan (2004). Toward the Charter: Canadians and the
  Demand for a National Bill of Rights, 1929–1960. McGill-Queen's Press –
  MQUP. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-7735-2536-8.
[22] J. M. Bumsted (2003). Canada's Diverse Peoples: A Reference
  Sourcebook. ABC-CLIO. p. 229. ISBN 978-1-57607-672-9.
[23] Matthew J. Gibney; Randall Hansen (2005). Immigration and Asylum: From
  1900 to the Present. ABC-CLIO. p. 67. ISBN 978-1-57607-796-2.
[24] Edward Ksenych; David Liu (2001). Conflict, order and action: readings
  in sociology. Canadian Scholars' Press. p. 407. ISBN 978-1-55130-192-1.
[25] "Living in Canada: founded on cultural diversity". Akcanada. 2012.
  Retrieved March 28, 2012.
[26] "2006 Census release topics". Statistics Canada. Retrieved 2011-01-16.
[27] Dolin, Benjamin; Young, Margaret (October 31, 2004), Canada's
  Immigration Program (PDF), Library of Parliament (Law and Government
  Division), retrieved November 29, 2006
[28] "Canada's Generous Program for Refugee Resettlement Is Undermined by
  Human Smugglers Who Abuse Canada's Immigration System". Public Safety
  Canada. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
[29] "Canada – Permanent residents by gender and category, 1984 to 2008".
  Facts and figures 2008 – Immigration overview: Permanent and temporary
  residents. Citizenship and Immigration Canada. 2009. Retrieved
  2009-12-04.
[30] Rodger W. Bybee; Barry McCrae (2009). Pisa Science 2006: Implications
  for Science Teachers and Teaching. NSTA Press. p. 92. ISBN
  978-1-933531-31-1.
[31] James Hollifield; Philip Martin; Pia Orrenius (2014). Controlling
  Immigration: A Global Perspective, Third Edition. Stanford University
  Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-8047-8627-0.
[32] Elspeth Cameron (2004). Multiculturalism and Immigration in Canada: An
  Introductory Reader. Canadian Scholars' Press. p. 118. ISBN
  978-1-55130-249-2.
[33] "Is the current model of immigration the best one for Canada?", Globe
  and Mail, Canada, December 12, 2005, retrieved August 16, 2006
[34] "Citizenship and Immigration Canada, Facts and Figures". Citizenship
  and Immigration Canada. 2013. Retrieved Dec 7, 2013.
[35] Grace-Edward Galabuzi (2006). Canada's economic apartheid: the social
  exclusion of racialized groups in the new century. Canadian Scholars'
  Press. p. 67. ISBN 978-1-55130-265-2.
[36] Zucchi, J (2007). "A history of ethnic enclaves in Canada" (PDF).
  Canadian Historical Association: 1–25. ISBN 0-88798-266-2. Retrieved
  2013-09-16.
[37] Christian Dufour; Institute for Research on Public Policy (1990). A
  Canadian Challenge. IRPP. ISBN 978-0-88982-105-7.
[38] François Vaillancourt; Olivier Coche. Official Language Policies at
  the Federal Level in Canada:costs and Benefits in 2006. The Fraser
  Institute. p. 11. GGKEY:B3Y7U7SKGUD.
[39] Norman Hillmer; Adam Chapnick (2007). Canadas of the mind: the making
  and unmaking of Canadian nationalisms in the twentieth century.
  McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP. p. 191. ISBN 978-0-7735-3273-1.
[40] Saunders, Doug (June 27, 2009), "Canada's mistaken identity", Globe
  and Mail, Canada, retrieved June 28, 2009
[41] Desmond Morton (2006). A short history of Canada. Random House
  Digital, Inc. p. 199. ISBN 978-0-7710-6480-7.
[42] Nelson Wiseman (2007). In search of Canadian political culture. UBC
  Press. pp. 97–98. ISBN 978-0-7748-1388-4.
[43] Martin N. Marger (2008). Race and Ethnic Relations: American and
  Global Perspectives. Cengage Learning. pp. 458–. ISBN 978-0-495-50436-8.
[44] Irvin Studin (2009). What Is a Canadian?: Forty-Three
  Thought-Provoking Responses. McClelland & Stewart. p. 120. ISBN
  978-1-55199-283-9.
[45] Miriam Verena Richter (2011). Creating the National Mosaic:
  Multiculturalism in Canadian Children's Literature from 1950 To 1994.
  Rodopi. p. 36. ISBN 978-90-420-3351-1.
[46] Miriam Verena Richter (2011). Creating the National Mosaic:
  Multiculturalism in Canadian Children¿s Literature from 1950 To 1994.
  Rodopi. p. 37. ISBN 978-90-420-3351-1.
[47] James Laxer; Robert M. Laxer (1977). The Liberal Idea of Canada:
  Pierre Trudeau and the Question of Canada's Survival. James Lorimer &
  Company. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-88862-124-5.
[48] Pierre Elliott Trudeau, as cited in The Essential Trudeau, ed. Ron
  Graham. (pp.16 – 20). "The Just Society" (PDF). Government of Manitoba.
  Retrieved December 6, 2015.
[49] Jonathan L. Black-Branch; Canadian Education Association (1995).
  Making Sense of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Canadian
  Education Association. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-920315-78-1.
[50] David Bennett (1998). Multicultural states: rethinking difference and
  identity. Psychology Press. p. 220. ISBN 978-0-415-12159-0.
[51] Stephen M. Caliendo; Charlton D. McIlwain (2011). The Routledge
  companion to race and ethnicity. Taylor & Francis. p. 17. ISBN
  978-0-415-77706-3.
[52] William H. Mobley; Ming Li; Ying Wang (2012). Advances in Global
  Leadership. Emerald Group Publishing. p. 307. ISBN 978-1-78052-003-2.
[53] "Proclamation Declaring June 27 of each year as "Canadian
  Multiculturalism Day"". Deputy Registrar General of Canada (Canadian
  Heritage). 2010. Retrieved 2012-01-30.
[54] "Canadian Multiculturalism Act (R.S.C., 1985, c. 24 (4th Supp.)".
  Department of Justice. 2012. Retrieved 2012-01-30.
[55] Robin Mansell; Marc Raboy (2011). The Handbook of Global Media and
  Communication Policy. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 149–151. ISBN
  978-1-4443-9541-9.
[56] Marc Raboy; William J. McIver; Jeremy Shtern (2010). Media divides:
  communication rights and the right to communicate in Canada. UBC Press.
  p. 104. ISBN 978-0-7748-1774-5.
[57] "Canadian Multiculturalism" (PDF). Staff of the Parliamentary
  Information and Research Service (PIRS). 2009. Retrieved 2012-03-28.
[58] "Multicultiralism Act". Queen's Printer. 1993. Retrieved 2012-03-28.
[59] "Protected Area and Grounds under the Alberta Human Rights Act" (PDF).
  Human Rights Commission. 2012. Retrieved 2012-03-28.
[60] "CanLII - Alberta Human Rights Act, RSA 2000, c A-25.5". Canlii.ca.
  Retrieved 2014-01-14.
[61] "The Multiculturalism Act" (PDF). Statutes of Saskatchewan. 1997.
  Retrieved 2012-03-28.
[62] "The Manitoba Multiculturalism Act". Manitoba. 1992. Retrieved
  2012-03-28.
[63] "The Ministry of Citizen and Culture Act". e-Laws. 1990. Retrieved
  2012-03-28.
[64] Martyn Barrett (2013). Interculturalism and multiculturalism:
  similarities and differences. Council of Europe. p. 53. ISBN
  978-92-871-7813-8.
[65] Peter Balint; Sophie Guérard de Latour (2013). Liberal
  Multiculturalism and the Fair Terms of Integration. Palgrave Macmillan.
  p. 125. ISBN 978-1-137-32041-4.
[66] Lead Researcher - Elke Winter, Research Assistant - Adina Madularea
  (2014). "Multiculturalism Research Synthesis 2009 - 2013" (PDF).
  Citizenship and Immigration Canada. Retrieved January 19, 2016.
[67] Ramón Máiz; Ferrán Requejo (2004). Democracy, Nationalism and
  Multiculturalism. Routledge. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-134-27696-7.
[68] Alain G. Gagnon; Raffaele Iacovino (2006). Federalism, Citizenship and
  Quebec. University of Toronto Press. pp. 165–166. ISBN 978-1-4426-9147-6.
[69] "Policy Networks and Policy Change: Explaining Immigrant Integration
  Policy Evolution in Quebec" (PDF). Junichiro Koji. 2009. Retrieved
  2012-03-28.
[70] "New Brunswick Multicultural Policy". The Government of New Brunswick.
  2012. Retrieved 2012-03-28.
[71] "Multiculturalism Act". Office of the Legislative Counsel. 1989.
  Retrieved 2012-03-28.
[72] "Provincial Multicultural Policy" (PDF). Government of P.E.I. 1989.
  Retrieved 2012-03-28.
[73] "Multiculturalism Policy" (PDF). Government of Newfoundland and
  Labrador. 2012. Retrieved 2012-03-28.
[74] Linda A. White; Richard Simeon (2009). The Comparative Turn in
  Canadian Political Science. UBC Press. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-7748-1428-7.
[75] Stephen J Tierney (2011). Multiculturalism and the Canadian
  Constitution. UBC Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-7748-4007-1.
[76] Richard J. Gwyn (2008). John A: The Man Who Made Us. Random House
  Digital, Inc. p. 265. ISBN 978-0-679-31476-9.
[77] Emma Ambrosea & Cas Muddea (2015). "Canadian Multiculturalism and the
  Absence of the Far Right - Nationalism and Ethnic Politics".
  doi:10.1080/13537113.2015.1032033.
[78] "A literature review of Public Opinion Research on Canadian attitudes
  towards multiculturalism and immigration, 2006-2009". Government of
  Canada. 2011. Retrieved December 18, 2015.
[79] "The current state of multiculturalism in Canada and research themes
  on Canadian multiculturalism". Citizenship and Immigration Canada. 2010.
  Retrieved March 28, 2012.
[80] Pierre Boyer; Linda Cardinal; David John Headon (2004). From Subjects
  to Citizens: A Hundred Years of Citizenship in Australia and Canada.
  University of Ottawa Press. p. 226. ISBN 978-0-7766-0553-1.
[81] Jack Jedwab (2008). "Immigrants believe the rest of the World could
  learn from Canada's Multicultural Policy" (PDF). The Association for
  Canadian Studies. Retrieved September 30, 2016.
[82] "The last liberals Why Canada is still at ease with openness". The
  Economist. 29 October 2016. Retrieved 2016-11-10.
[83] "The last liberals Why Canada is still at ease with openness". The
  Economist. 29 October 2016. Retrieved 2016-11-10.
[84] Stackhouse, John; Martin, Patrick (February 2, 2002), "Canada: 'A
  model for the world'", Globe and Mail, Canada, p. F3, retrieved June 29,
  2009, Canada is today the most successful pluralist society on the face
  of our globe, without any doubt in my mind. . . . That is something
  unique to Canada. It is an amazing global human asset
[85] Prince Karim Aga Khan IV (May 19, 2004), Address at the Leadership and
  Diversity Conference, Gatineau, Canada, retrieved March 21, 2007
[86] Aga Khan Welcomes Government of Canada's Partnership in New Global
  Centre for Pluralism, Aga Khan Development Network, April 18, 2005,
  retrieved April 21, 2007
[87] Courtney Bender; Pamela E. Klassen (2010). After Pluralism:
  Reimagining Religious Engagement. Columbia University Press. ISBN
  978-0-231-15233-4.
[88] John Nagle (2009). Multiculturalism's double bind: creating
  inclusivity, cosmopolitanism and difference. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p.
  129. ISBN 978-0-7546-7607-2.
[89] Farhang Rajaee (2000). Globalization on trial: the human condition and
  the information civilization. IDRC. p. 97. ISBN 978-0-88936-909-2.
[90] Leonie Sandercock; Giovanni Attili; Val Cavers; Paula Carr (2009).
  Where strangers become neighbours: integrating immigrants in Vancouver,
  Canada. Springer. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-4020-9034-9.
[91] "Citizenship and Immigration Canada". The New Evidence on
  Multiculturalism and Integration. The current state of multiculturalism
  in Canada and research themes on Canadian multiculturalism. Retrieved
  March 29, 2012.
[92] Giuliana B. Prato (2009). Beyond multiculturalism: views from
  anthropology. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-7546-7173-2.
[93] Lalaie Ameeriar; Stanford University. Dept. of Anthropology (2008).
  Downwardly global: multicultural bodies and gendered labor migrations
  from Karachi to Toronto. Stanford University. pp. 21–22.
[94] Todd, D (September 11, 2010). "Growing Ethnic Enclaves Hurt Sense Of
  Canadian "Belonging"". (The Vancouver Sun) Immigration Watch Canada.
[95] Phil Ryan (2010). Multicultiphobia. University of Toronto Press. pp.
  103–106. ISBN 978-1-4426-1068-2.
[96] Garcea, Joseph (2008). Postulations on the Fragmentary Effects of
  Multiculturalism in Canada. 40 Issue 1, pp 141–160. Canadian Ethnic
  Studies. Retrieved 2012-01-30.
[97] Hasmath, Reza (2012) The Ethnic Penalty: Immigration, Education and
  the Labour Market. Burlington, VT and Surrey, UK: Ashgate.
[98] Ricardo Duchesne. "The Fall of British Vancouver and the Rise of
  'Pacific' Canada" (PDF). Unb.ca. Retrieved January 15, 2016.
[99] Christian Lammert; Katja Sarkowsky (2009). Negotiating Diversity in
  Canada and Europe. VS Verlag. p. 177. ISBN 978-3-531-16892-0.
[100] Danic Parenteau (2010). "Critique du multiculturalisme canadien. Une
  synthèse récapitulative" (PDF). L'Action nationale (Mars): 36–46.
[101] Assaad E. Azzi; Xenia Chryssochoou; Bert Klandermans; Bernd Simon
  (2011). Identity and Participation in Culturally Diverse Societies: A
  Multidisciplinary Perspective. John Wiley & Sons. p. 236. ISBN
  978-1-4443-5181-1.
[102] Bouchard, Gérard; Taylor, Charles (2008), Building the Future: A Time
  for Reconciliation (PDF), Québec, Canada: Commission de consultation sur
  les pratiques d'accommodement reliées aux différences culturelles,
  archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-02-13, retrieved October 20,
  2011

Further reading

- Kymlicka, Will (2010). The Current State of Multiculturalism in Canada
  (PDF). Department of Citizenship and Immigration. Minister of Public
  Works and Government Services Canada. ISBN 978-1-100-14648-5.
- Banting, Keith; Kymlicka, Will (2010). Canadian Multiculturalism: Global
  Anxieties and Local Debates (PDF). 23 Issue 1. British Journal of
  Canadian Studies.
- Garcea, Joseph (2008). Postulations on the Fragmentary Effects of
  Multiculturalism in Canada. 40 Issue 1. Canadian Ethnic Studies.
- Ninette Kelley; Michael J. Trebilcock (2010). The making of the mosaic: a
  history of Canadian immigration policy. University of Toronto Press. ISBN
  978-0-8020-9536-7.
- Janice Gross Stein (2007). Uneasy partners: multiculturalism and rights
  in Canada. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. ISBN 978-1-55458-012-5.
- Stephen Tierney (2007). Multiculturalism and the Canadian Constitution.
  University of British Columbia Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-1445-4.
- Kristin R. Good (2009). Municipalities and Multiculturalism: The Politics
  of Immigration in Toronto and Vancouver. University of Toronto Press.
  ISBN 978-1-4426-0993-8.
- Richard J. F. Day (2000). Multiculturalism and the history of Canadian
  diversity. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-8075-2.
- Eve Haque (2012). Multiculturalism Within a Bilingual Framework:
  Language, Race, and Belonging in Canada. University of Toronto Press.
  ISBN 978-1-4426-6089-2.
- Yasmeen, Abu-Laban; Stasiulis, Daiva (2000). Ethnic Pluralism under
  Siege: Popular and Partisan Opposition to Multiculturalism. 18, No. 4.
  Canadian Public Policy.

External links

- Multiculturalism in Canada debated – CBC video archives (Sep 14, 2004 –
  42:35 min)
- Multicultural Canada – Government of Canada
- Multiculturalism – Citizenship and Immigration Canada
- Multiculturalism & Diversity – Association for Canadian Studies

Canadian identity

Canadian identity refers to the unique culture, characteristics and
condition of being Canadian, as well as the many symbols and expressions
that set Canada and Canadians apart from other peoples and cultures of the
world.

Primary influences on the Canadian identity trace back to the arrival,
beginning in the early seventeenth century, of French settlers in Acadia
and the St. Lawrence River Valley and English, Scottish and other settlers
in Newfoundland, the British conquest of New France in 1759, and the
ensuing dominance of French and British culture in the gradual development
of both an imperial and a national identity.

Throughout the 16th, 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, First Nations played a
critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, from their
role in assisting exploration of the continent, the fur trade and
inter-European power struggles to the creation of the Métis people.
Carrying through the 20th century and to the present day, Canadian
aboriginal art and culture continues to exert a marked influence on
Canadian identity.

The question of Canadian identity was traditionally dominated by three
fundamental themes: first, the often conflicted relations between English
Canadians and French Canadians stemming from the French Canadian imperative
for cultural and linguistic survival; secondly, the generally close ties
between English Canadians and the British Empire, resulting in a gradual
political process towards complete independence from the imperial power,
and, finally, the close proximity of English-speaking Canadians to the
military, economic and cultural powerhouse of the United States. With the
gradual loosening of political and cultural ties to Britain in the
twentieth century, immigrants from Europe, Asia, Africa and the Caribbean
have reshaped the Canadian identity, a process that continues today with
the continuing arrival of large numbers of immigrants from non British or
French backgrounds, adding the theme of multiculturalism to the debate.¹ ²
³ Today, Canada has a diverse makeup of nationalities and cultures (see
Canadian culture) and constitutional protection for policies that promote
multiculturalism rather than a single national myth.⁴

The issue of Canadian identity remains under scrutiny. Journalist Andrew
Cohen wrote in 2007: "The Canadian Identity, as it has come to be known, is
as elusive as the Sasquatch and Ogopogo. It has animated—and
frustrated—generations of statesmen, historians, writers, artists,
philosophers, and the National Film Board... Canada resists easy
definition."⁵ In true Canadian fashion, however, even the search for an
identity has become itself an object for self-criticism.⁶

Basic models

In defining a Canadian identity, five key distinctive characteristics have
been emphasized:

- First, special emphasis is placed upon the bicultural nature of Canada
  and the important ways in which English–French relations since the 1760s
  have shaped the Canadian experience.⁷
- Second, Canada had quite a different historical experience in resisting
  revolution and republicanism compared to the U.S., leading to less
  individualism and more support for government activism, such as wheat
  pools and the health care system.⁸
- Third, British parliamentary system and the British legal system,
  augmented by the conservatism associated with the Loyalists and the
  pre-1960 French Canadians, have given Canada its ongoing collective
  obsession with "peace, order and good government".⁸
- Fourth is the social structure of multiple ethnic groups that kept their
  identities and produced a cultural mosaic rather than a melting pot.⁹
- Fifth, the influence of geographical factors (vast area, coldness,
  northness; St. Lawrence spine) together with the proximity of the United
  States have produced in the collective Canadian psyche what Northrop Frye
  has called the garrison mind or siege mentality, and what novelist
  Margaret Atwood has argued is the Canadian preoccupation with survival.¹⁰
  For Herschel Hardin, because of the remarkable hold of the siege
  mentality and the concern with survival, Canada in its essentials is "a
  public enterprise country." According to Hardin, the "fundamental mode of
  Canadian life" has always been, "the un-American mechanism of
  redistribution as opposed to the mystic American mechanism of market
  rule." Most Canadians, in other words, whether on the right or left in
  politics, expect their governments to be actively involved in the
  economic and social life of the nation.¹¹

Historical development

Main articles: History of Canada and Historiography of Canada

Introduction

Canada's large geographic size, the presence and survival of a significant
number of indigenous peoples, the conquest of one European linguistic
population by another and relatively open immigration policy have led to an
extremely diverse society.

Indigenous Peoples

The indigenous peoples of Canada are divided among a large number of
different ethnolinguistic groups, including the Inuit in the northern
territory of Nunavut, the Algonquian language groups in eastern Canada
(Mi'kmaq in the Maritime Provinces, Abenaki of Quebec and Ojibway of the
central region), the Iroquois of central Canada, the Cree of northern
Ontario, Quebec and the Great Plains, peoples speaking the Athabaskan
languages of Canada's northwest, the Salishan language groups of British
Columbia and other peoples of the Pacific coast such as the Tsimshian,
Haida, Kwakwaka'wakw and Nuu-chah-nulth.¹² Each of the indigenous peoples
developed vibrant societies with complex economies, political structures
and cultural traditions that were subsequently affected profoundly by
interaction with the European populations. The Metis are an indigenous
people whose culture and identity was produced by a fusion of First Nations
with the French, Irish and Scottish fur trade society of the north and
west.

French Settlement and the Struggle for Francophone Identity in Canada

From the founding by Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons of Port Royal in 1605,
(the beginnings of French settlement of Acadia) and the founding of Quebec
City in 1608 by Samuel de Champlain, Canada was ruled from and settled
almost exclusively by French colonists. John Ralston Saul, among others,
has noted that the east-west shape of modern Canada had its origins in
decisions regarding alliances with the indigenous peoples made by early
French colonizers or explorers such as Champlain or De La Vérendrye. By
allying with the Algonquins, for example, Champlain gained an alliance with
the Wyandot or Huron of today's Ontario, and the enmity of the Iroquois of
what is now northern New York State.¹³

Although English settlement began in Newfoundland in 1610, and the Hudson's
Bay Company was chartered in 1670, it was only with the Treaty of Utrecht
in 1713 that France ceded to Great Britain its claims to mainland Nova
Scotia and significant British colonization of what would become mainland
Canada would begin. Even then, prior to the American Revolution, Nova
Scotia was settled largely by planters from New England who took up lands
following the deportation of the French-speaking Acadian population, in
1755 in an event known in French to Acadians as Le Grand Dérangement, one
of the critical events in the formation of the Canadian identity.¹⁴ During
the period of French hegemony over New France the term Canadien referred to
the French-speaking inhabitants of Canada.

The Seven Years' War between Great Britain and France resulted in the
conquest of New France by the British in 1759 at the Battle of the Plains
of Abraham, an event that reverberates profoundly even today in the
national consciousness of Quebecers. Although there were deliberate
attempts made by the British to assimilate the French speaking population
to English language and culture, most notably the 1840 Act of Union that
followed the seminal report of Lord Durham, British colonial policy for
Canada on the whole was one which acknowledged and permitted the continued
existence of French language and culture. Nevertheless, the efforts at
assimilation of French Canadians, the fate of the French-speaking Acadians
and the revolt of the patriotes in 1837 would not be forgotten by their
Québécois descendants. Je me souviens, (English: "I remember"), the motto
of Quebec, became the watchword of the Québécois. Determined to maintain
their cultural and linguistic distinctiveness in the face of British
colonial domination and massive immigration of English speaking people to
the pre-Confederation Province of Canada, this survivalist determination is
a cornerstone of current Québécois identity and much of the political
discourse in Quebec. The English Canadian writer and philosopher John
Ralston Saul also considers the Ultramontane movement of Catholicism as
playing a pivotal and highly negative role in the development of certain
aspects of Québécois identity.¹⁵

British Settlement in Canada: Revolution, Invasion and Confederation

For its part, the identity of English speaking Canada was profoundly
influenced by another pivotal historic event, the American Revolution.
Americans who remained loyal to the Crown and who actively supported the
British during the Revolution saw their lands and goods confiscated by the
new republic at the end of the war. Some 60,000 persons, known in Canada as
United Empire Loyalists fled the United States or were evacuated after the
war, coming to Nova Scotia and Quebec where they received land and some
assistance from the British government in compensation and recognition for
having taken up arms in defence of King George III and British interests.
This population formed the nucleus for two modern Canadian
provinces—Ontario and New Brunswick—and had a profound demographic,
political and economic influence on Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and
Quebec. Conservative in politics, distrustful or even hostile towards
Americans, republicanism, and especially American republicanism,¹⁶ this
group of people marked the British of British North America as a distinctly
identifiable cultural entity for many generations, and Canadian
commentators continue to assert that the legacy of the Loyalists still
plays a vital role in English Canadian identity. According to the author
and political commentator Richard Gwyn while "[t]he British connection has
long vanished...it takes only a short dig down to the sedimentary layer
once occupied by the Loyalists to locate the sources of a great many
contemporary Canadian convictions and conventions."¹⁷

Canada was twice invaded by armed forces from the United States during the
American Revolution and the War of 1812. The first invasion occurred in
1775, and succeeded in capturing Montreal and other towns in Quebec before
being repelled at Quebec City by a combination of British troops and local
militia. During this invasion, the French-speaking Canadiens assisted both
the invaders from the United Colonies and the defending British. The War of
1812 also saw the invasion of American forces into what was then Upper and
Lower Canada, and important British victories at Queenston Heights, Lundy's
Lane and Crysler's Farm. The British were assisted again by local militia,
this time not only the Canadiens, but also the descendants of the Loyalists
who had arrived barely a generation earlier. The Americans however captured
control of Lake Erie, cutting off what is today western Ontario; they
killed Tecumseh and dealt the Indian allies a decisive defeat from which
they never recovered. The War of 1812 has been called "in many respects a
war of independence for Canada".¹⁸

The years following the War of 1812 were marked by heavy immigration from
Great Britain to the Canadas and, to a lesser degree, the Maritime
Provinces, adding new British elements (English, Scottish and Protestant
Irish) to the pre-existing English-speaking populations. During the same
period immigration of Catholic Irish brought large numbers of settlers who
had no attachment, and often a great hostility, toward the imperial power.
The hostility of other groups to the autocratic colonial administrations
that were not based on democratic principles of responsible government,
principally the French-speaking population of Lower Canada and newly
arrived American settlers with no particular ties to Great Britain, were to
manifest themselves in the short-lived but symbolically powerful Rebellions
of 1837. The term "Canadian", once describing a francophone population, was
adopted by English-speaking residents of the Canadas as well, marking the
process of converting 'British' immigrants into 'Canadians.'¹⁹

The merger of the two Canadas in 1840, with political power divided evenly
between the former Lower and Upper Canadas, created a political structure
that eventually exacerbated tensions between the French and
English-speaking populations and which would prove an enduring feature of
Canadian identity. As the population of English-speaking and largely
Protestant Canada West grew to surpass that of majority French-speaking
Catholic Canada East, the population of Canada West began to feel that its
interests were becoming subservient to the francophone population of Canada
East. George Brown, founder of the Globe newspaper (forerunner of today's
Globe and Mail) and a Father of Confederation wrote that the position of
Canada West had become "a base vassalage to French-Canadian Priestcraft."
²⁰ For its part, the French Canadians distrusted the growing anti-Catholic
'British' population of Canada West and sought a structure that could
provide at least some control over its own affairs through a Provincial
legislature founded on principles of responsible government.

The union of the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick into a
federation in 1867 drew on all of the primary aspects of the Canadian
identity: loyalty to Britain (there would be self-governance under a
federal parliament, but no rupture from British institutions), limited but
significant home rule for a French-speaking majority in the new Province of
Quebec (and a longed for solution to English-French tensions), and a
collaboration of British North Americans in order to resist the pull and
the possible military threat from the United States. The republic to the
south had just finished its Civil War as a powerful and united nation with
little affection for Britain or its colonial baggage strung along its
northern border. So great was the perceived threat that even Queen Victoria
thought, prior to Confederation, that it would be "impossible" for Britain
to retain Canada.²¹

In their search for an early identity, English Canadians relied heavily on
loyalty and attachment to the British Empire, a triumphalist attitude
towards British role in the building of Canada, as evidenced in the lyrics
of the informal anthem The Maple Leaf Forever and distrust or dislike of
those who were not British or Protestant. John Ralston Saul sees in the
influence of the Orange Order the counterpart of the Ultramontane movement
among French Canadians, leading certain groups of English Canadian
Protestants to provoke persecution of the Métis and suppress or resist
francophone rights.²²

Early Dominion

After Confederation Canada became caught up in settlement of the west and
extending the dominion to the Pacific Ocean. British Columbia joined
Confederation in 1871. Residents of a British colony specifically
established to forestall American territorial aspirations in the Fraser
Valley, British Columbians were no strangers to the implications of the
American doctrine of Manifest Destiny nor the economic attractions of the
United States. The construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway, promised
to British Columbia as an inducement to join the new dominion, became a
powerful and tangible symbol of the nation's identity, linking the
provinces and territories together from east to west in order to counteract
the inevitable economic and cultural pull from the south.

The settlement of the west also brought to the fore the tensions between
the English and French-speaking populations of Canada. The Red River
Rebellion, led by Louis Riel, sought to defend the interests of
French-speaking Métis against English-speaking Protestant settlers from
Ontario. The controversial execution of Thomas Scott, a Protestant from
Ontario, on Riel's orders and the furor that followed divided the new
dominion along linguistic and religious lines. While Manitoba was created
as a bilingual province in 1870 as a solution to the issue, the tensions
remained, and would surface again in the Northwest Rebellion in the 1880s,
when Riel led another rebellion against Ottawa.

CHILD EMIGRATION TO CANADA The attention of the Dominion Government has
been drawn to the fact that the children sent to Canada from England are
street waifs and workhouse paupers, and that the professional
philanthropists engaged in the work are largely prompted by mercenary and
not charitable motives. A demand will be made that parliament should
investigate the matter before voting any money to promote this kind of
immigration.

"
"

The Star, 18 April 1891²³

From the mid to late 19th century Canada had a policy of assisting
immigrants from Europe, including city people and an estimated 100,000
unwanted "Home Children" from Britain. The modern descendants of these
children have been estimated at five million, contributing to Canada's
identity as the "country of the abandoned".²⁴ Offers of free land attracted
farmers from Central and Eastern Europe to the prairies,²⁵ ²⁶ as well as
large numbers of Americans who settled to a great extent in Alberta.
Several immigrant groups settled in sufficient densities to create
communities of a sufficient size to exert an influence on Canadian
identity, such as Ukrainian Canadians. Canada began to see itself as a
country that needed and welcomed people from countries besides its
traditional sources of immigrants, accepting Germans, Poles, Dutch and
Scandinavians in large numbers before the First World War.

At the same time, however, concerns regarding immigration from Asian
sources revealed overtly xenophobic and racist attitudes among Canadians,
particularly English Canadians on the Pacific coast. At the time for many
Canadian identity, whatever it was to be, did not include non-Europeans.
While inexpensive Chinese labour had been needed to complete the
transcontinental railway, the completion of the railway led to questions of
what to do with the workers who were now no longer needed. Further Chinese
immigration was limited and then banned by a series of restrictive and
racially motivated dominion statutes. The Komagata Maru incident in 1914
revealed overt hostility towards would-be immigrants, mainly Sikhs from
India, who attempted to land in Vancouver.

20th century

- War bond posters, 1918
-
Canadian victory bond poster in French. Depicts three French women pulling
  a plow that had been constructed for horses and men. Lithograph, adapted
  from a photograph.
-
The same poster in English, with subtle differences in text. The French
  version roughly translates as 'All the world can serve' or 'Everyone can
  serve' and 'Let's buy victory bonds.'

The main crisis regarding Canadian identity came in World War I. Canadians
of British heritage were strongly in favor of the war effort, while those
of French heritage, especially in Quebec, showed far less interest. A
series of political upheavals ensued, especially the Conscription Crisis of
1917. Simultaneously, the role of immigrants as loyal Canadians was
contested, with large numbers of men of German or Ukrainian heritage
temporarily stripped of voting rights or incarcerated in camps. The war
helped define separate political identities for the two groups, and
permanently alienated Quebec and the Conservative Party.²⁷

During this period, World War I helped to establish a separate Canadian
identity among Anglophoners, especially through the military experiences of
the Battle of Vimy Ridge and the Battle of Passchendaele and the intense
homefront debates on patriotism.²⁸ (A similar crisis, though much less
intense, erupted in World War II.)

In the 1920s, the Dominion of Canada achieved greater independence from
Britain, notably in the Statute of Westminster in 1931. It remained part of
the larger Commonwealth but played an independent role in the League of
Nations. As Canada became increasingly independent and sovereign, its
primary foreign relationship and point of reference gradually moved to the
United States, the superpower with whom it shared a long border and major
economic, social and cultural relationships.

The Statute of Westminster also gave Canada its own monarchy, which remains
in personal union with 15 other countries of the Commonwealth of Nations.
However, overt associations with British nationalism wound down after the
end of the Second World War, when Canada established its own citizenship
laws in 1947. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, a number of symbols of the
Crown were either removed completely (such as the Royal Mail) or changed
(such as the Royal Arms of Canada).

In the 1960s, Quebec experienced the Quiet Revolution to modernize society
from traditional Christian teachings. Québécois nationalists demanded
independence, and tensions rose until violence erupted during the 1970
October Crisis. In 1976 the Parti Québécois was elected to power in Quebec,
with a nationalist vision that included securing French linguistic rights
in the province and the pursuit of some form of sovereignty for Quebec,
leading to a referendum in 1980 in Quebec on the question of
sovereignty-association, which was turned down by 59% of the voters. At the
patriation of the Canadian Constitution, the Quebec premier did not sign
it; this led to two unsuccessful attempts to modify the constitution so it
would be signed, and another referendum on Quebec independence in 1995
which was turned down by a small majority of 50.6%.

In 1965 Canada adopted the maple leaf flag, after considerable debate and
misgivings on the part of a large number of English Canadians. Two years
later the country celebrated the centennial of Confederation, with an
international exposition in Montreal.

Legislative restrictions on immigration that had favoured British and other
European immigrants were removed in the 1960s. By the 1970s immigrants
increasingly came from India, Hong Kong, the Caribbean and Vietnam.
Post-war immigrants of all backgrounds tended to settle in the major urban
centres, particularly Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver.

During his long tenure in the office (1968–79, 1980–84), Prime Minister
Pierre Trudeau made social and cultural change his political goal for
Canada, including the pursuit of an official policy on bilingualism and
plans for significant constitutional change. The west, particularly the oil
and gas-producing province of Alberta, opposed many of the policies
emanating from central Canada, with the National Energy Program creating
considerable antagonism and growing western alienation.

Modern times

As for the role of history in national identity, the books of Pierre Berton
and television series like Canada: A People's History have done much to
spark the popular interest of Canadians in their history. Some
commentators, such as Cohen, criticize the overall lack of attention paid
by Canadians to their own history, noting a disturbing trend to ignore the
broad history in favour of narrow focus on specific regions or groups.

  It isn't just the schools, the museums and the government that fail us.
  It is also the professional historians, their books and periodicals. As
  J.L. Granatstein and Michael Bliss have argued, academic historians in
  Canada have stopped writing political and national history. They prefer
  to write labour history, women's history, ethnic history, and regional
  history, among others, often freighted with a sense of grievance or
  victimhood. This kind of history has its place, of course, but our
  history has become so specialized, so segmented, and so narrow that we
  are missing the national story in a country that has one and needs to
  hear it.²⁹

Much of the debate over contemporary Canadian identity is argued in
political terms, and defines Canada as a country defined by its government
policies, which are thought to reflect deeper cultural values. To the
political philosopher Charles Blattberg, Canada should be conceived as a
civic or political community, a community of citizens, one that contains
many other kinds of communities within it. These include not only
communities of ethnic, regional, religious, civic (the provincial and
municipal governments) and civil associational sorts, but also national
communities. Blattberg thus sees Canada as a multinational country and so
asserts that it contains a number of nations within it. Aside from the
various aboriginal First Nations, there is also the nation of francophone
Quebecers, that of the anglophones who identify with English Canadian
culture, and perhaps that of the Acadians.³⁰

In keeping with this, it is often asserted that Canadian government
policies such as publicly funded health care, higher taxation to distribute
wealth, outlawing capital punishment, strong efforts to eliminate poverty
in Canada, an emphasis on multiculturalism, imposing strict gun control,
leniency in regard to drug use and most recently legalizing same-sex
marriage make their country politically and culturally different from the
United States.³²

In a poll that asked what institutions made Canada feel most proud about
their country, number one was health care, number two was the Canadian
Broadcasting Corporation, and number three was peacekeeping.³³ In a CBC
contest to name "The Greatest Canadian", the three highest ranking in
descending order were the social democratic politician and father of
medicare Tommy Douglas, the legendary cancer activist Terry Fox, and the
Liberal prime minister Pierre Trudeau, responsible for instituting Canada's
official policies of bilingualism and multiculturalism, which suggested
that their voters valued left-of-centre political leanings and community
involvement.

Most of Canada's recent prime ministers have been from Quebec, and thus
have tried to improve relations with the province with a number of tactics,
notably official bilingualism which required the provision of a number of
services in both official languages and, among other things, required that
all commercial packaging in Canada is printed in French and English. Again,
while this bilingualism is a notable feature to outsiders, the plan has
been less than warmly embraced by many English Canadians some of whom
resent the extra administrative costs and the requirement of many key
federal public servants to be fluently bilingual.³⁴ Despite the widespread
introduction of French-language classes throughout Canada, very few
anglophones are truly bilingual outside of Quebec.

In 2013, more than 90% of Canadians believed that the Canadian Charter of
Rights and Freedoms and the national flag were the top symbols of Canadian
identity.³⁵

The United States and the Canadian Identity

Relationship with the United States

Within Canadian politics, there is a diverse range of reactions to the
United States. In the early 20th century, the Conservatives portrayed
themselves as loyal to the British Empire and hostile to threatened
American takeovers. They decisively won the 1911 election on these grounds.
In World War II, however, Liberal William Lyon Mackenzie King built close
ties with the US, working smoothly with President Franklin D. Roosevelt. In
1957-1963 the Conservative John Diefenbaker took defiantly anti-American
positions, especially regarding defence issues. In the late 1960s the
Vietnam issue opened a difference of opinion between the two neighbours,
and Pierre Trudeau moved the Liberals to a more independent position in
foreign affairs. Under Conservative Prime Minister Brian Mulroney, Canada
and the United States entered into a Free Trade Agreement, since expanded
to include Mexico. However, the relationship between Canada and the United
States suffered another serious strain when Canada declined to participate
in the Iraq War as part of the military coalition.³⁶

Generally speaking, however, in recent years parties of the political left,
such as the Liberal Party of Canada and the New Democratic Party, have
tended to advocate a more distant relationship with the United States,
particularly when conservatives hold office in Washington, D.C.³⁷ In the
past, the Canadian left has largely opposed economic deals such as free
trade and Canada's participation in US-led military operations such as the
Gulf War. Although some small-scale annexationist movements, both
historical and modern, have promoted Canada becoming part of the United
States, these have not attracted widespread support among Canadians.

The term "Americanisation" is likewise frequently used by members of the
Canadian political left to designate unfavourable policies. For example,
private, or two-tier healthcare is often described as simply
"American-style" healthcare in political debates. Many of these criticisms
ostensibly arise from the belief that the United States, and the United
States government, is fundamentally more conservative than Canada, and as a
result "Americanize" becomes synonymous with "right-wing reform".

In recent years the Canadian right, mostly led by the Conservative Party of
Canada and right-wing think-tanks such as the Fraser Institute, by contrast
have generally tended to favour a closer relationship with the United
States. Some conservative Canadians often argue that closer ties to the
United States are both an inescapable reality and favourable economically.
Because they may already oppose policies such as socialized healthcare or
Canada's gun laws, the term "Americanization" is not as frequently used as
a term of condemnation by those on the political right.

Recent economic issues such as lingering trade disputes on softwood lumber
and cattle, especially in areas of Canada harmed significantly by the
closure of mills and inability of farmers (especially within Alberta) to
sell their cattle likewise continue to be a source of political tension
between the countries.

In 2000, Molson Brewing Company started using the "I Am Canadian" theme in
advertisement for its Canadian brand of beer. The commercial depicts an
average Joe giving a rant about the finer points of being Canadian. Some
critics suggested that this ad was revealing in that Joe's definition of a
Canadian was more about what he is not, which is a stereotypical American,
rather than what he is. The advertisement, and its subsequent criticisms,
illustrate the common symptom of Canadian expression of identity.³⁸

The Impact of American Culture

Though today much popular culture available in Canada, such as television,
movies, music, news, and literature, is both American and Canadian in
origin, many Canadians believe a unique distinct Canadian culture exists,
even in an era of deep economic and cultural ties between the two nations.
In defence against the perceived American influence on television, however,
Canadian broadcasters must conform to government-mandated Canadian content
rules, which are allowed under the North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA) because of their cultural, rather than economic, protection
purpose. Québécois fret that they are seven million French speaking people
trying to maintain a culture surrounded by over 330 million Americans.³⁹

Canadians and the United States share a somewhat common culture, even if it
is best known as American culture. This stems from the perspective that
Anglophone Canada and the US developed on a similar timeline, based on
similar (although not identical) immigration patterns, with a common
language, with extensive media cross-over, and that there are few reasons
for fundamental differences between the Anglophone Canadian and American
cultures. For example, many American cultural hallmarks and distinctions
such as American film and American television could actually be more
accurately described as collaborations between the two countries or
representative of Western culture, since many of these culturally
representative projects often involve significant Canadian contributions.
Hundreds of so-called American films, cartoons, musicians, videogames,
music videos and commercials are actually created in both parts of Canada
and the US, with significant Canadian casts, Canadian production houses and
hundreds of Canadian technical workers. An example is the rock song,
"American Woman" by The Guess Who, which some Americans and even Canadians
assume is an American song by an American rock band, but was written by a
band of Canadian musicians. Other examples of so-called American icons with
Canadian participation include American Apparel, an American clothing store
based in Los Angeles with Canadian roots, the late night TV show Saturday
Night Live, and MAC Cosmetics. The list of Canadian comedians who have
become popular in the USA include Dan Aykroyd, Tom Green, Mike Myers, Norm
Macdonald, Jim Carrey, Eugene Levy, Rick Moranis, John Candy, Howie Mandel,
Martin Short and Leslie Nielsen. Typically, however, the resulting cultural
products, produced for mass consumption, appear entirely American, with no
distinctive Canadian element. The most successful English Canadian motion
picture, the 1982 teen sex comedy Porky's, was directed by an American born
and raised director, Bob Clark. Likewise, the most-successful American
motion pictures, Titanic and Avatar, were directed by a Canadian born and
raised director, James Cameron.³⁹

While some argue that fundamental differences remain between Canadians and
Americans, others, such as Andrew Cohen, suggest that it may be that
Canadians need to believe that such differences are real as part of a
"comforting mythology" but that the actual evidence belies this
contention.⁴⁰

Commenting on the tendency of Canadians to present themselves as
anti-American he notes:

  If Canadians were really Anti-American, we would have to denounce
  ourselves, or everything about our country and our place in it. We are
  contradictory, inconsistent, and, yes, occasionally hypocritical. When it
  comes to the Americans, we say one thing and do another—happy to enjoy
  the fruits of prosperity and security gained by the good fortune of
  living beside the most benevolent neighbour God could have given us...If
  Canadians felt the way we say we do, and had the integrity of self-aware
  people, we would not have made the choices we have as a country...we
  would not have welcomed American trade, we would not have consumed
  American culture, we would not have contracted out our national defence.
  [We] would have placed much greater restrictions on foreign ownership and
  imposed airtight rules on imported films, magazines and books, radio and
  television. All these were choices Canadians could have made if we wanted
  to differentiate ourselves from the Americans.⁴¹

Migration to Canada

Canada was the home for 'American' British Loyalists during and following
the American Revolution, making much of Canada distinct in its
unwillingness to embrace republicanism and populist democracy during the
nineteenth century. Canada was also the destination for slaves from America
via the Underground Railroad (The 'North Star' as heralded by Martin Luther
King Jr.); Canada was the refuge for American Vietnam draft-dodgers during
the turbulent 1960s.

In response to a declining birth rate, Canada has increased the per capita
immigration rate to one of the highest in the world. The economic impact of
immigration to Canada is discussed as being positive by most of the
Canadian media and almost all Canadian politicians.

Outsider perceptions

A very common expression of Canadian identity is to ridicule American
ignorance of things Canadian.⁴²

During his years with This Hour Has 22 Minutes, comic Rick Mercer produced
a recurring segment, Talking to Americans. Petty says, the segment "was
extraordinarily popular and was initiated by viewer demand."⁴² Mercer would
pose as a journalist in an American city and ask passers-by for their
opinions on a fabricated Canadian news story. Some of the "stories" for
which he solicited comment included the legalization of staplers, the
coronation of King Svend, the border dispute between Quebec and Chechnya,
the campaign against the Toronto Polar Bear Hunt, and the reconstruction of
the historic "Peter Mann's Bridge". During the 2000 election in the United
States, Mercer successfully staged a Talking to Americans segment in which
presidential candidate George W. Bush gratefully accepted news of his
endorsement by Canadian Prime Minister "Jean Poutine".⁴³ ⁴⁴

While Canadians may dismiss comments that they do not find appealing or
stereotypes that are patently ridiculous, Andrew Cohen believes that there
is a value to considering what foreigners have to say: "Looking at
Canadians through the eyes of foreigners, we get a sense of how they see
us. They say so much about us: that we are nice, hospitable, modest, blind
to our achievements. That we are obedient, conservative, deferential,
colonial and complex, particularly so. That we are fractious, envious,
geographically impossible and politically improbable."⁴⁵ Cohen refers in
particular to the analyses of the French historian André Siegfried,⁴⁶ the
Irish born journalist and novelist Brian Moore⁴⁷ or the Canadian-born
American journalist Andrew H. Malcolm.⁴⁸

French Canadians and Identity in English Canada

The Canadian philosopher and writer John Ralston Saul has expressed the
view that the French fact in Canada is central to Canadian, and
particularly to English Canadian identity:

  It cannot be repeated enough that Quebec and, more precisely, francophone
  Canada is at the very heart of the Canadian mythology. I don't mean that
  it alone constitutes the heart, which is after all a complex place. But
  it is at the heart and no multiple set of bypass operations could rescue
  that mythology if Quebec were to leave. Separation is therefore a threat
  of death to anglophone Canada's whole sense of itself, of its
  self-respect, of its role as a constituent part of a nation, of the
  nature of the relationship between citizens."⁴⁹

Many Canadians believe that the relationship between the English and French
languages is the central or defining aspect of the Canadian experience.
Canada's Official Languages Commissioner (the federal government official
charged with monitoring the two languages) has stated, "[I]n the same way
that race is at the core of what it means to be American and at the core of
an American experience and class is at the core of British experience, I
think that language is at the core of Canadian experience."⁵⁰

Aboriginal Canadians and Canadian Identity

Saul argues that Canadian identity is founded not merely on the
relationship built of French/English pragmatic compromises and cooperation
but rests in fact on a triangular foundation which includes, significantly,
Canada's aboriginal peoples.⁵¹ From the reliance of French and later
English explorers on Native knowledge of the country, to the development of
the indigenous Métis society on the Prairies which shaped what would become
Canada, and the military response to their resistance to annexation by
Canada,⁵² indigenous peoples were originally partners and players in laying
the foundations of Canada. Individual aboriginal leaders, such as Joseph
Brant or Tecumseh have long been viewed as heroes in Canada's early battles
with the United States and Saul identifies Gabriel Dumont as the real
leader of the Northwest Rebellion, although overshadowed by the
better-known Louis Riel.⁵³ While the dominant culture tended to dismiss or
marginalize First Nations to a large degree, individual artists such as the
British Columbia painter Emily Carr, who depicted the totem poles and other
carvings of the Northwest Coast peoples, helped turn the then largely
ignored and undervalued culture of the first peoples into iconic images
"central to the way Canadians see themselves".⁵⁴ First Nations art and
iconography are now routinely integrated into public space intended to
represent Canada, such as The Great Canoe", a sculpture by Haida artist
Bill Reid in the courtyard of the Canadian embassy in Washington D.C. and
its copy, The Spirit of Haida Gwaii, at the apex of the main hall in the
Vancouver Airport.

War of 1812

The War of 1812 is often celebrated in Ontario as a British victory for
what would become Canada in 1867. The Canadian government spent $28 million
on three years of bicentennial events, exhibits, historic sites,
re-enactments, and a new national monument.⁵⁵ The official goal was to make
Canadians aware that:

  Canada would not exist had the American invasion of 1812-15 been
  successful.The end of the war laid the foundation for Confederation and
  the emergence of Canada as a free and independent nation.Under the Crown,
  Canada's society retained its linguistic and ethnic diversity, in
  contrast to the greater conformity demanded by the American Republic.⁵⁶

In a 2012 poll, 25% of all Canadians ranked their victory in the War of
1812 as the second most important part of their identity after free health
care (53%).⁵⁷

Canadian historians in recent decades look at the war as a defeat for the
First Nations of Canada, and also for the merchants of Montreal (who lost
the fur trade of the Michigan-Minnesota area).⁵⁸ The British had a
long-standing goal of building a "neutral" but pro-British Indian buffer
state in the American Midwest.⁵⁹ ⁶⁰ They demanded a neutral Indian state at
the peace conference in 1814 but failed to gain any of it because they had
lost control of the region in the Battle of Lake Erie and the Battle of the
Thames in 1813, where Tecumseh was killed. The British then abandoned the
Indians south of the lakes. The royal elite of (what is now) Ontario gained
much more power in the aftermath and used that power to repel American
ideas such as democracy and republicanism, especially in those areas of
Ontario settled primarily by Americans. Many of those settlers returned to
the states and were replaced by immigrants from Britain who were
imperial-minded.⁶¹ W. L. Morton says the war was a "stalemate" but the
Americans "did win the peace negotiations."⁶² Arthur Ray says the war made
"matters worse for the native people" as they lost military and political
power.⁶³ Bumsted says the war was a stalemate but regarding the Indians
"was a victory for the American expansionists."⁶⁴ Thompson and Randall say
"the War of 1812's real losers were the Native peoples who had fought as
Britain's ally."⁶⁵ On the other hand, the "1812 Great Canadian Victory
Party will bring the War of 1812...to life," promised the sponsors of a
festival in Toronto in November 2009.⁶⁶

Multiculturalism and identity

Further information: Multiculturalism in Canada

Multiculturalism and the state of inter-ethnic relations in Canada is
relaxed and tolerant, allowing ethnic or linguistic particularism to exist
unquestioned. In metropolitan areas such as Toronto and Vancouver, there is
often a strong sense that multiculturalism is a normal and respectable
expression of being Canadian. Canada is also considered a mosaic because of
the multi-culturalism.

Supporters of Canadian multiculturalism will also argue that cultural
appreciation of ethnic and religious diversity promotes a greater
willingness to tolerate political differences, and multiculturalism is
often cited as one of Canada's significant accomplishments and a key
distinguishing element of Canadian identity. Richard Gwyn has suggested
that "tolerance" has replaced "loyalty" as the touchstone of Canadian
identity.⁶⁷

On the other hand, critics of Canada's multiculturalism argue that the
country's "timid" attitude towards the assimilation of immigrants has
actually weakened, not strengthened Canada's national identity through
factionalism. Columnist and author Richard Gwyn expresses concern that
Canada's sense of self may become so weak that it might vanish
altogether.⁶⁸ The indulgent attitude taken towards cultural differences is
perhaps a side effect of the vexed histories of French-English and
Aboriginal-settler relations, which have created a need for a civic
national identity, as opposed to one based on some homogenous cultural
ideal. On the other hand, concerns have been raised of the danger that
"ethnic nationalism will trump civic nationalism"⁶⁹ and that Canada will
leap "from colony to post-national cosmopolitan" without giving Canadians a
fair chance of ever finding a centre of gravity or certain sense of
Canadian identity.⁷⁰ ⁷¹

For John Ralston Saul, Canada's approach of not insisting on a single
national mythology or identity is not necessarily a sign of the country's
weakness, but rather its greatest success,⁷² signalling a rejection of or
evolution from the European mono-cultural concept of a national identity to
something far more "soft" and less complex:

  The essential characteristic of the Canadian public mythology is its
  complexity. To the extent that it denies the illusion of simplicity, it
  is a reasonable facsimile of reality. That makes it a revolutionary
  reversal of the standard nation-state myth. To accept our reality—the
  myth of complexity—is to live out of sync with élites in other countries,
  particularly those in the business and academic communities.⁷³

In January 2007, Prime Minister Stephen Harper advised the creation of a
new sub-ministerial cabinet portfolio with the title Canadian Identity for
the first time in Canadian history, naming Jason Kenney to the position of
Secretary of State for Multiculturalism and Canadian Identity. The move
prompted speculation that Harper wants Canada to move in the direction of
Australia, France, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom in the area of
national identity policy.

The Role of Canadian Social Policy and Identity

In Fire and Ice: The United States, Canada and the Myth of Converging
Values, the author, Michael Adams, head of the Environics polling company
seeks distinctions between Canadians and Americans using polling research
performed by his company as evidence. Critics of the idea of a
fundamentally "liberal Canada" such as David Frum argue that the Canadian
drive towards a more noticeably leftist political stance is largely due to
the increasing role that Quebec plays in the Canadian government (three of
the last five elected Prime Ministers have been Quebecers, four if one
includes Ontarian born Paul Martin). Quebec historically was the most
conservative, religious and traditional part of Canada. Since the Quiet
Revolution of the 1960s, however, it has become the most secular and social
democratic region of Canada. However, it is noteworthy that many Western
provinces (particularly Saskatchewan and British Columbia) also have
reputations as supporting leftist and social democratic policies. For
example, Saskatchewan is one of the few provinces (all in the West) to
reelect social democratic governments and is the cradle of the Co-operative
Commonwealth Federation and its successor the New Democratic Party. Much of
the energy of the early Canadian feminist movement occurred in Manitoba.

By contrast, the Conservative provincial government of Alberta has
frequently quarrelled with federal administrations perceived to be
dominated by "eastern liberal elites." ⁷⁴ Part of this is due to what
Albertans feel were federal intrusions on provincial jurisdictions such as
the National Energy Program and other attempts to 'interfere' with Albertan
oil resources.

Distinctly Canadian

- The search for the Canadian identity often shows some whimsical results.
  To outsiders, this soul-searching (or, less charitably, navel-gazing)
  seems tedious or absurd, inspiring the Monty Python sketch Whither
  Canada?
- In 1971, Peter Gzowski of CBC Radio's This Country in the Morning held a
  competition whose goal was to compose the conclusion to the phrase: "As
  Canadian as..." The winning entry was "... possible, under the
  circumstances." It was sent in to the program by Heather Scott.⁷⁵
- Robertson Davies, one of Canada's best known novelists, once commented
  about his homeland: "Some countries you love. Some countries you hate.
  Canada is a country you worry about."
- Pierre Berton, a Canadian journalist and novelist, said: "A Canadian is
  someone who knows how to make love in a canoe without tipping it."
- British novelist Douglas Adams said each country was like a particular
  type of person, and "Canada is like an intelligent 35 year old woman".
  America, on the other hand, is a "belligerent adolescent boy" and
  Australia is "Jack Nicholson".
- A half-joking definition of a Canadian, offered by The Economist in 1993:
  "an American with healthcare and no guns", in reference to the countries'
  contrasting levels of public medical care and gun ownership.
- The well-known actor Mike Myers once commented about his native country:
  "Canada is the essence of not being. Not English, not American, it is the
  mathematic of not being. And a subtle flavour - we're more like celery as
  a flavour."
- Prime Minister Mackenzie King quipped that Canada was a country with "not
  enough history, too much geography".
- According to John A. Macdonald, the "special genius" of Canadian identity
  was that "it asks but one thing of its adherents: complete and total
  submission to the will of the state. Once that has been accepted,
  everything else Canadian follows." Pierre Trudeau largely agreed, saying
  that "To a Canadian, the only virtue is loyalty; the only sin,
  disobedience."

See also

References

Notes

[1] John Ralston Saul, Reflections of a Siamese Twin: Canada at the End of
  the 20th Century, Toronto: Viking Canada, 1997, p. 439
[2] Philip Resnick, The European Roots of Canadian Identity, Peterborough:
  Broadview Press Ltd, 2005 p. 63
[3] Roy McGregor, Canadians: A Portrait of a Country and Its People,
  Toronto: Viking Canada, 2007
[4] Saul,Reflections of a Siamese Twin p. 8.
[5] Andrew Cohen, The Unfinished Canadian: The People We Are, Toronto:
  McClelland & Stewart, 2007, p. 3
[6] MacGregor, Canadians, at p. 40: "I've often thought myself that
  Canadians ingeniously use this endless 'search' for identity as a handy
  excuse to wallow in their own self-righteousness—particularly at those
  moments when America has put the stuck-up Canadian nose out of joint. It
  could be construed as a sort of verbal party trick to turn the
  conversation around to oneself and all the comforting goodness of being
  Canadian
[7] "Biculturalism", The Canadian Encyclopedia (2010) online
[8] Lipset (1990)
[9] Magocsi, (1999)
[10] Margaret Atwood, Survival: A Thematic Guide to Canadian Lieterature,
  Toronto: House of Anansi Press Limited, p. 32.
[11] The typology is based on George A. Rawlyk, "Politics, Religion, and
  the Canadian Experience: A Preliminary Probe," in Mark A. Noll, ed.
  Religion and American Politics: From the Colonial Period to the 1980s.
  1990. pp 259-60.
[12] This list is not an exhaustive description of all aboriginal peoples
  in Canada.
[13] Saul, Reflections of a Siamese Twin, p. 161
[14] Saul describes the event as "one of the most disturbing" of Canada's
  "real tragedies", Saul, Reflections of a Siamese Twin, p. 31
[15] Saul, Reflections of a Siamese Twin, p 32 quote: "The Ultramontanes
  took French Canada off a relatively normal track of political and social
  evolution...The infection of healthy nationalism with a sectarianism that
  can still be felt in the negative nationalists was one of their
  accomplishments.
[16] see MacGregor, Canadians, at p. 62
[17] Richard Gwyn, John A: The Man Who Made Us, 2007, Random House of
  Canada Ltd., p. 367
[18] Northrop Frye, Divisions on a Ground: Essays on Canadian Culture,
  1982: House of Anansi Press, p. 65.
[19] See for example Susanna Moodie, Roughing It in the Bush, Toronto:
  McClelland & Stewart Limited, 1970, p. 31: quote: "British mothers of
  Canadian sons!—learn to feel for their country the same enthusiasm which
  fills your hearts when thinking of the glory of your own. Teach them to
  love Canada...make your children proud of the land of their birth."
[20] letter from George Brown, cited in Richard Gwyn, John A: The Man Who
  Made Us, p. 143.
[21] Prior to Confederation, Queen Victoria remarked on "...the
  impossibility of our being able to hold Canada, but we must struggle for
  it; and by far the best solution would be to let it go as an independent
  kingdom under an English prince." quoted in Stacey, C.P. British Military
  Policy in the Era of Confederation, CHA Annual Report and Historical
  Papers 13 (1934), p. 25.
[22] Saul, Reflections of a Siamese Twin p. 32
[23] Anon (18 April 1891). "Child emigration to Canada". The Star. St Peter
  Port, England.
[24] MacGregor, Canadians, p. 231
[25] "Pioneers Head West". CBC News.
[26] Civilization.ca - Advertising for immigrants to western Canada -
  Introduction
[27] J. L. Granatstein, Broken promises: A history of conscription in
  Canada (1977)
[28] Mackenzie (2005)
[29] Cohen, The Unfinished Canadian, p. 84
[30] Blattberg, Shall We Dance? A Patriotic Politics for Canada, Montreal:
  McGill-Queen's University Press, 2003.
[31] CIHI p.119
[32] Bricker, Darrell; Wright, John (2005). What Canadians think-- about
  almost-- everything. Doubleday Canada,. pp. 8–23. ISBN 0-385-65985-7.
[33] The Environics Institute (2010). "Focus Canada (Final Report) -
  Queen's University" (pdf). Queen's University. p. 7. Retrieved December
  12, 2015.
[34] Sandford F. Borins. The Language of the Skies: The Bilingual Air
  Traffic Control Conflict in Canada (1983) p. 244
[35] "The Daily — Canadian identity, 2013". www.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved
  2015-10-01.
[36] Roy MacGregor, Canadians: A Portrait of a Country and Its People,
  Toronto: Viking Canada, 2007, p. 156-157
[37] Cohen (2004)
[38] Robert M. Seiler, "Selling Patriotism/Selling Beer: The case of the 'I
  AM CANADIAN!' Commercial," American Review of Canadian Studies (spring
  2002) v32#1 pp 45-66 online
[39] T. Jones and David Kilgour, Uneasy Neighbors: Canada, The USA and the
  Dynamics of State, Industry and Culture (2007)
[40] Cohen, The Unfinished Canadian, p. 111
[41] Cohen, The Unfinished Canadian at pp. 131-132.
[42] Sheila Petty, et al. Canadian cultural poesis: essays on Canadian
  culture (2005) p. 58
[43] Jonathan A. Gray, et al. Satire TV: politics and comedy in the
  post-network era (2009) p 178
[44] John Herd Thompson and Stephen J. Randall, Canada and the United
  States: ambivalent allies (2002) p. 311
[45] Cohen p. 48
[46] André Siegfried, Canada: An International Power; New and Revised
  Edition, London: Jonathan Cape, 1949 quoted in Cohen, at pp. 35-37.
  Siegfried noted, among other things, the stark distinction between the
  identities of French and English-speaking Canadians.
[47] Brian Moore, Canada. New York: Time-Life Books, 1963, quoted in Cohen,
  The Unfinished Canadianat pp. 31-33, commenting on the lack of a hero
  culture in Canada: "There are no heroes in the wilderness. Only fools
  take risks."
[48] Andrew H. Malcolm, The Canadians: A Probing Yet Affectionate Look at
  the Land and the People Markham: Fitzhenry & Whiteside Ltd., 1985, quoted
  in Cohen, The Unfinished Canadian at pp. 44 to 47. "Canadians always
  seemed to be apologizing for something. It was so ingrained."
[49] Saul, Reflections of a Siamese Twin, p. 293
[50] Official Languages Commissioner Graham Fraser is quoted in the Hill
  Times, August 31, 2009, p. 14.
[51] Saul, Reflections of a Siamese Twin p. 88.
[52] Saul Reflections of a Siamese Twin at p. 91
[53] Saul, Reflections of a Siamese Twin p. 93
[54] Saul, Reflections of a Siamese Twin p. 41.
[55] Jasper Trautsch, "Review of Whose War of 1812? Competing Memories of
  the Anglo-American Conflict," Reviews in History (review no. 1387) 2013;
  Revise 2014, accessed: 10 December 2015
[56] Government of Canada, "The War of 1812, Historical Overview, Did You
  Know?"
[57] Trautsch, "Review of Whose War of 1812? Competing Memories of the
  Anglo-American Conflict"
[58] "The Indians and the fur merchants of Montreal had lost in the end,"
  says Randall White, Ontario: 1610-1985 p. 75
[59] Dwight L. Smith, "A North American Neutral Indian Zone: Persistence of
  a British Idea" Northwest Ohio Quarterly 1989 61(2-4): 46-63
[60] Francis M. Carroll (2001). A Good and Wise Measure: The Search for the
  Canadian-American Boundary, 1783-1842. U of Toronto Press. p. 24.
[61] Fred Landon, Western Ontario and the American Frontier (1941) p. 44;
  see also Gerald M. Craig, Upper Canada: The Formative Years, 1784-1841
  (1963)
[62] Morton, Kingdom of Canada 1969 pp 206-7
[63] Arthur Ray in Craig Brown ed. Illustrated History of Canada (2000) p
  102.
[64] J. M. Bumsted, Peoples of Canada (2003) 1:244-45
[65] John Herd Thompson and Stephen J. Randall, Canada and the United
  States (2008) p. 23
[66] There is no mention of the historians in the announcement of "Great
  1812 Canadian Victory Party"
[67] Gwyn, The Man Who Made Us What We Are, p. 365.
[68] Richard Gwyn, Nationalism Without Walls: The Unbearable Lightness of
  Being Canadian, Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1996
[69] Cohen, The Unfinished Canadianp. 162
[70] Cohen, The Unfinished Canadian pp. 163-164
[71] See also: Resnick, The European Roots of Canadian Identity, quote:
  "But let us not make diversity a substitute for broader aspects of
  national identity or turn multiculturalism into a shibboleth because we
  are unwilling to reaffirm underlying values that make Canada what it has
  become. And those values, I repeat again, are largely European in their
  derivation, on both the English-speaking and French—speaking sides." at
  p. 64.
[72] Saul, p. 8.
[73] Saul, Reflections of a Siamese Twin, p. 9.
[74] Panizza 2005
[75] "On the origin of an aphorism", PETER GZOWSKI, 24 May 1996, The Globe
  and Mail, page A15

Bibliography

- Cohen, Andrew (2008). The Unfinished Canadian: The People We Are. Emblem
  ed. ISBN 978-0-7710-2286-9.
- Studin, Irvin (2006). What is a Canadian?: forty-three thought-provoking
  responses. Marks & Spencer. ISBN 978-0-7710-8321-1
- Resnick, Philip (2005). The European Roots Of Canadian Identity.
  Peterborough, Ont.: Broadview Press. ISBN 1-55111-705-3.
- Adams, Michael. Fire and Ice (2004)
- Anderson, Alan B. Ethnicity in Canada: Theoretical Perspectives. (1981)
- Association for Canadian Studies, ed. Canadian identity: Region, country,
  nation : selected proceedings of the 24th Annual Conference of the
  Association for Canadian Studies, held at Memorial ... June 6–8, 1997
  (1998)
- Bashevkin, Sylvia B. True Patriot Love: The Politics of Canadian
  Nationalism (1991),
- Carl Berger, The Sense of Power: Studies in the Ideas of Canadian
  Imperialism, 1867-1914 (1970).
- Berton, Pierre Why we act like Canadians: A personal exploration of our
  national character
- Charles Blattberg (2003) Shall We Dance? A Patriotic Politics for Canada.
  McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 0-7735-2596-3.
- John Bartlet Brebner, North Atlantic Triangle: The Interplay of Canada,
  the United States, and Great Britain, (1945)
- Breton, Raymond. "The production and allocation of symbolic resources: an
  analysis of the linguistic and ethnocultural fields in Canada." Canadian
  Review of Sociology and Anthropology 1984 21:123-44.
- Andrew Cohen. While Canada Slept: How We Lost Our Place in the World
  (2004), on foreign affairs
- Cook, Ramsay. The Maple Leaf Forever (1977), essays by historian
- Copeland, Douglas (2002) Souvenir of Canada. Douglas & McIntyre. ISBN
  1-55054-917-0.
- Copeland, Douglas
- Kearney, Mark; Randy Ray (2009). The Big Book of Canadian Trivia. Dundurn
  Press. ISBN 978-1-55488-417-9
- Leslie Dawn. National Visions, National Blindness: Canadian Art and
  Identities in the 1920s (2007)
- Will Ferguson. Why I Hate Canadians (2007), satire
- Fleras, Angie and Jean Leonard Elliot. Multiculturalism in Canada: The
  Challenge of Diversity 1992 .
- Stephanie R. Golob. "North America beyond NAFTA? Sovereignty, Identity
  and Security in Canada-U.S. Relations." Canadian-American Public Policy.
  2002. pp 1+. online version
- Hurtig, Mel. The Vanishing Country: Is It Too Late to Save Canada?
  (2003), left-wing perspective
- Mahmood Iqbal, "The Migration of High-Skilled Workers from Canada to the
  United States:Empirical Evidence and Economic Reasons" (Conference Board
  of Canada, 2000) online version
- Jackson, Sabine. Robertson Davies And the Quest for a Canadian National
  Identity (2006)
- Jones, David T., and David Kilgour. Uneasy Neighbors: Canada, The USA and
  the Dynamics of State, Industry and Culture (2007)
- Keohane, Kieran. Symptoms of Canada: An Essay on the Canadian Identity
  (1997)
- Kim, Andrew E. "The Absence of Pan-Canadian Civil Religion: Plurality,
  Duality, and Conflict in Symbols of Canadian Culture." Sociology of
  Religion. 54#3. 1993. pp 257+ online version
- Lipset, Seymour Martin, Noah Meltz, Rafael Gomez, and Ivan Katchanovski.
  The Paradox of American Unionism: Why Americans Like Unions More Than
  Canadians Do, but Join Much Less (2004)
- Lipset, Seymour Martin. Continental Divide: The Values and Institutions
  of the United States and Canada (1990)
- Little, J.I. . Borderland Religion: The Emergence of an English-Canadian
  Identity, 1792-1852 (2004)
- Mackenzie, David, ed. Canada and the First World War (2005)
- Magocsi, Paul Robert, ed. Encyclopedia of Canada's people (1999)
- Matheson, John Ross. Canada's Flag: A Search for a Country. 1980 .
- Mathews, Robin. Canadian Identity: Major Forces Shaping the Life of a
  People (1988)
- Moogk, Peter; La Nouvelle France: The Making of French Canada: a Cultural
  History (2000)
- Linda Morra. "'Like Rain Drops Rolling Down New Paint': Chinese
  Immigrants and the Problem of National Identity in the Work of Emily
  Carr." American Review of Canadian Studies. Volume: 34. Issue: 3. 2004.
  pp 415+. online version
- W. I. Morton. The Canadian Identity (1968)
- Francisco Panizza. Populism and the Mirror of Democracy(2005)
- Philip Resnick. The European Roots of Canadian Identity (2005)
- Peter Russell (ed.), Nationalism in Canada (1966)
- Joe Sawchuk. The Metis of Manitoba: Reformulation of an ethnic identity
  (1978)
- Mildred A Schwartz. Public opinion and Canadian identity (1967)
- Allan Smith. Canada - An American Nation?: Essays on Continentalism,
  Identity, and the Canadian Frame of Mind (1994)
- David M. Thomas, ed. Canada and the United States: Differences that Count
  (1990) Second Edition
- Wallin, Pamela "Current State, Future Directions: Canada - U.S.
  Relations" by Pamela Wallin (Canada's Consul General to New York); April
  28, 2003
- William Watson, Globalization and the Meaning of Canadian Life (1998)
- Matthias Zimmer and Angelika E. Sauer. A Chorus of Different Voices:
  German-Canadian Identities(1998)
- Aleksandra Ziolkowska. Dreams and reality: Polish Canadian identities
  (1984)
- Нохрин И.М. Общественно-политическая мысль Канады и становление
  национального самосознания. — Huntsville: Altaspera Publishing & Literary
  Agency , 2012. — 232 pp. — ISBN 978-1-105-76379-3

Further reading

- Clift, Dominique, The Secret Kingdom: Interpretations of the Canadian
  Character. Toronto, Ont.: McClelland & Stewart, 1989. ISBN 0-7710-2161-5

External links

- Canadian Identity from David Spencer's Canadian Inukshuk
- pch.gc.ca
- Canadian Society @ Culture.ca
- Canadian Studies: A Guide to the Sources

Canadian values

Canadian values are the commonly shared ethical and human values of
Canadians.¹ The major political parties have claimed explicitly that they
uphold these values, but use generalities to specify them. Justin Trudeau
after taking office as Prime Minister in 2015 tried to redefine what it
means to be Canadian, saying that Canada lacks a core identity but does
have shared values:

  There is no core identity, no mainstream in Canada....There are shared
  values — openness, respect, compassion, willingness to work hard, to be
  there for each other, to search for equality and justice. Those qualities
  are what make us the first postnational state.²

Numerous scholars have tried to identify, measure and compare them with
other countries. Baer et al argue that, "Questions of national character
and regional culture have long been of interest to both Canadian and
American social scientists. The Canadian literature has focussed largely on
historical and structural reasons for regional distinctiveness and the
possible role of regionalism in undermining a truly national Canadian
character or ethos."³ However there are also critics who say that such a
task is practically impossible.⁴

International comparisons

When he began his study of Canada in the late 1940s, American sociologist
Seymour Martin Lipset assumed Canadian and American values were practically
identical. Further work led him to discover and to explore the differences.
By 1968 he concluded:

  Canadian values fall somewhere between those of Britain and the United
  States, rather than being almost identical with those of the United
  States, as I had assumed.⁵

Lipset offered some theories of where the two societies differ, and why.
That stimulated a large body of scholarship, with other scholars offering
their own explanations and criticizing his.⁶ As a result, numerous academic
studies compare Canadian values and beliefs with those of the United
States, and sometimes they add in other countries as well. Lipset has
explained his social science methodology:

  my conclusions [are] that the variations in North American history and
  social and geographic environments gave rise to two peoples who differ in
  significant ways from each other, although as I have repeatedly stressed,
  they are more similar than different, particularly in comparison with
  other nations. My chief methodological argument for focusing on Canada in
  order to learn about the United States is precisely that the two nations
  have so much in common. Focusing on small differences between countries
  which are alike can be more fruitful for understanding cultural effects
  than on large ones among highly similar nations. The former permits
  holding constant many variables, which the units have in common.⁷

Lipset presented numerous political and economic values on which he scored
the U.S. as high and Canada as low. These included: individualism and
competitiveness, entrepreneurship and high risk-taking, utopian moralism,
inclination to political crusades, populist or anti-establishment and
anti-elite tendencies, a God-and-country nationalism, and intolerance for
ideological nonconformity.⁸

Historical origins: Revolution and counterrevolution

Lipset argues that:

  Many writers seeking to account for value differences between the United
  States and Canada suggest that they stem in large part from the
  revolutionary origins of the United States and the counterrevolutionary
  history of Canada…. The Loyalist emigrés from the American Revolution and
  Canada's subsequent repeatedly aroused fears of United States
  encroachment fostered the institutionalization of a counterrevolutionary
  or conservative ethos. ⁹ ¹⁰

Canadian historian Arthur R. M. Lower argues:

  in its new wilderness home and its new aspect of British North
  Americanism, colonial Toryism made its second attempt to erect on
  American soil a copy of the English social edifice. From one point of
  view this is the most significant thing about the Loyalist movement; it
  withdrew a class concept of life from the south, moved it up north, and
  gave it a second chance. ¹¹

Religious factors

Religious belief and behavior are possible candidates in searching for the
sources of values. Lipset looked to religion as one of the causes of
differentiation compared to the United States. He stated:

  America remains under the strong influence of the Protestant sects. Its
  northern neighbor adheres to two churches, Catholic and Anglican, and an
  ecumenical Protestant denomination (the United Church of Canada) that has
  moved far from the sectarian origins of its component units toward
  churchlike communitarian values. The overwhelming majority of Canadians
  (eighty-seven percent) belong to these three mainline denominations.
  Conservative evangelicals--groups of Baptists, Nazarenes, Pentecostals,
  Adventists, and so on--constitute only seven percent of
  Canadians....Clearly, the different religious traditions of the two
  countries help to explain much of their varying secular behavior and
  belief.¹²

Hoover and Reimer agree and update Lipset with a plethora of recent survey
statistics, while noting that the differences narrowed since 1990,
especially in the Prairie provinces. They stress that in the early 21st
century 87% of Canadians belonged to cooperative churches, whereas 20% of
Americans were Baptists and many more were evangelicals, fundamentalists or
members of new religions who tended to behave in a more sectarian fashion;
these elements, they argue, made for a higher level of religious and
political conservatism and intolerance in the U.S.¹³

Regionalism

Baer, Grabb and Johnston argue that:

  The pattern of regional cultures is not significantly affected or defined
  by the national border separating Canada and the United States.
  Instead...with a few exceptions, the map of regional cultures involves
  three major segments: a relatively left-liberal Quebec, a more
  conservative Southern United States, and a comparatively moderate sector
  that largely encompasses the remainder of the two countries.¹⁴

Description

A 2013 Statistics Canada survey found that an "overwhelming majority" of
Canadians shared the values of human rights (with 92% of respondents
agreeing that they are a shared Canadian value), respect for the law (92%)
and gender equality (91%). There was considerably less agreement among
Canadians over whether ethnic and cultural diversity, linguistic duality,
and respect for aboriginal culture were also shared Canadian values.¹⁵

According to the Canadian Index of Well Being at the University of
Waterloo, Canadian values include:

  + fairnesss
  + inclusion
  + democracy
  + economic security
  + safety
  + sustainability
  + diversity
  + equity
  + health¹⁶

Monarchy

Michael Ignatieff, the Liberal leader in 2009-11, in 2004 rooted Canadian
values in a historic loyalty to the Crown.¹⁷ Likewise the Conservative
Party in 2009 pointed to support for the monarchy as a core Canadian
value.¹⁸

Shaping foreign policy

John Diefenbaker, the Conservative Prime Minister 1957-63, was reluctant to
use Canadian values as a criterion for deciding on foreign policies. For
example, Jason Zorbas argues that human rights abuses in Argentina and
Brazil did not affect relations with those countries.¹⁹

However his successor, Lester Pearson, the Liberal Prime Minister
(1963–68), called in 1967 for a foreign policy "based on Canadian
considerations, Canadian values and Canadian interests."²⁰

Under Conservative Brian Mulroney, Prime Minister 1984 to 1993, according
to scholar Edward Akuffo:

  Canadian foreign policy witnessed the integration of development and
  security issues and the foreign policy agenda when Canada participated in
  development projects as well as in peacekeeping operations....Mulroney's
  policy initiatives...[marked] the critical juncture for the revamping of
  'Canada's moral identity' after the Cold War....The concept of Canada's
  moral identity is consistent with what others call the 'branding of
  Canada' in the international arena through the projection of Canadian
  values and culture.²¹

Jean Chrétien, the Liberal Prime Minister (1993-2003), showed little
interest in foreign policy. Political scientists Patrick James, Nelson
Michaud and Marc J. O'Reilly argue that, "This plain-speaking politician
built his career on defending traditional Canadian values and promoting
middle-class policies."²²

Egalitarianism, social equality, and peace

While Liberal and Conservative politicians claimed to represent Canadian
values, so too did socialists and forces on the left. Ian MacKay argues
that, thanks to the long-term political impact of "Rebels, Reds, and
Radicals", and allied leftist political elements, "egalitarianism, social
equality, and peace... are now often simply referred to...as 'Canadian
values.'"²³

Education

Historic educational ideals in Canada, contrasted to the United States,
have been more elitist, with an emphasis on training church and political
elites along British lines.²⁴ ²⁵ In 1960, for example, 9.2 percent of
Canadians aged 20 to 24 were enrolled in higher education, compared to 30.2
percent in the United States. Even at the secondary level, enrollments were
higher in the United States.²⁶ According to surveys in the late 1950s of
citizens and educators by Lawrence Downey:

  Canadians, as a group, assigned considerably higher priority than did
  Americans to knowledge, scholarly attitudes, creative skills, aesthetic
  appreciation, and morality, as outcomes of schooling. Americans
  emphasized physical development, citizenship, patriotism, social skills,
  and family living much more than did Canadians.²⁷

The United States has long emphasized vocational, technical and
professional education, while the Canadian schools resist their
inclusion.²⁸ Ivor F. Goodson and Ian R. Dowbiggin have explored the battle
over vocational education in London, Ontario, in the 1900-1930 era, a time
when American cities were rapidly expanding their vocational offerings. The
London Technical and Commercial High School came under heavy attack from
the city's social and business elite, which saw the school as a threat to
the budget of the city's only academic high school, London Collegiate
Institute.²⁹

Public universities

Most post-secondary institutions in Canada are public universities which
means they are funded by the provincial government, but they are not owned
by the provinces. In contrast, public universities in the United States are
owned and controlled by state governments, and there are many private
universities, including such schools as Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Chicago
and Stanford.³⁰

See also: List of universities in Canada § List of public universities

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

Main article: Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, heavily promotes by Prime
Minister Pierre Trudeau, was adopted in 1982. The Charter guarantees
certain political rights to Canadian citizens and civil rights of everyone
in Canada from the policies and actions of all areas and levels of the
government. It is designed to unify Canadians around a set of principles
that embody those rights. Even before he entered politics, Trudeau had
developed his concept of the charter primarily as an expression of common
Canadian values.³¹ Trudeau said that thanks to the Charter, Canada itself
could now be defined:

  Canada is a society where all people are equal and where they share some
  fundamental values based upon freedom. The search for this Canadian
  identity, as much as my philosophical views, had led me to insist on the
  charter.³²

Multiculturalism

Main article: Multiculturalism in Canada

The enormous ethnic variety of the population of Canada in recent decades
has led to an emphasis on "multiculturalism." Sociologist N. M. Sussman
says, "The tenets of this concept permitted and subtly encouraged the
private maintenance of ethnic values while simultaneously insisting on
minimal public adherence to Canadian behaviors and to Canadian values." As
result, immigrants to Canada are more likely to maintain the values and
attitudes of both the home and of the host culture, compared to similar
immigrants to Australia, the United Kingdom, or the United States.³³

Andrew Griffith argues that, "89 percent of Canadians believe that
foreign-born Canadians are just as likely to be good citizens as those born
in Canada....But Canadians clearly view multiculturalism in an integrative
sense, with an expectation that new arrivals will adopt Canadian values and
attitudes." Griffith adds that, "There are virtually no differences between
Canadian-born and foreign-born with respect to agreement to abide by
Canadian values (70 and 68 percent, respectively)."³⁴

Gender equality and the role of women

In 2016, the workforce participation rate for Canadian women was 70.2%
(78.4% for males).³⁵

Some believe that Elsie MacGill defined Canadian values. She was a pioneer
for women in engineering and business, a war hero and a role model.³⁶

Section 15 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms prohibits
discrimination on the basis of sex.

In contrast, in the United States the Equal Rights Amendment was never
ratified. Section 1 of that amendment would have granted "Equality of
rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States
or by any State on account of sex."

Citing Canadian values, Canadian courts have rejected assertions that
violence against women is in some circumstances acceptable because of one's
religious and cultural beliefs. In the R v. Humaid decision, Justice
Rutherford of the Ontario Superior Court of Justice stated:

  Wife-murder may seem especially repugnant to our Canadian value fabric
  when cultural considerations that are contrary to our Canadian values
  figure prominently. However it must be borne in mind here that the Court
  of Appeal found "no air of reality" to the applicant's claim that
  religious and cultural beliefs resulted in his being severely provoked by
  what his wife said to him.³⁷

Publicly funded health care

Universal access to publicly funded health services "is often considered by
Canadians as a fundamental value that ensures national health care
insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country." ³⁸ Survey
research in the 1990s showed that:

  When asked, "What makes you most proud of Canada?" one in three Canadians
  volunteered, "Our health-care system." When asked a reversed version of
  the American health-care scenario, "Would you support political union
  [with the U.S.] if it meant a private health-care system?" The reply was
  a resounding 'no'.³⁹

Barbaric Cultural Practices issue

Certain cultural practices were called "Barbaric" and made illegal in 2015,
when the Zero Tolerance for Barbaric Cultural Practices Act was enacted by
the Canadian federal government.⁴⁰ ⁴¹ ⁴²

In the 2015 general election Conservatives pitched their policy "as an
issue of Canadian values....The Conservatives expanded the issue,
announcing a proposed RCMP hotline that would allow Canadians to report the
existence of 'barbaric cultural practices' in the country." These targeted
practices included polygamy, forced marriage and early marriage (i.e. child
marriage).⁴³

The 2015 act criminalizes certain conduct related to early and forced
marriage ceremonies, including the act of removing a child from Canada for
the purpose of such marriages.⁴⁴

Memorial to the Victims of Communism – Canada, a Land of Refuge

The Memorial to the Victims of Communism – Canada, a Land of Refuge is
located in Ottawa. It is being constructed to bring the suffering of "the
millions of victims Communism" into the public's consciousness. Many of the
victims fled to Canada "seeking peace, order, democracy, and liberty." ⁴⁵
The memorial is expected to be completed in 2018.

According to Ms. Mélanie Joly, the Minister of Canadian Heritage,
"Commemorative monuments play a key role in reflecting the character,
identity, history and values of Canadians".⁴⁶ She complained that the
previous Harper government had made the project too controversial. Her new
Liberal government has moved the site and cut its budget.⁴⁷

Screening immigrants for anti-Canadian values

Canadian politicians have proposed rejecting immigrants who have
anti-Canadian values such as:

  + intolerance toward other religions, cultures, genders, and sexual
    orientations
  + reluctance to embrace Canadian freedoms⁴⁸

Kellie Leitch, a candidate for leadership candidate for the Conservative
Party of Canada, is among the proponents of this type of screening.⁴⁸

See also: Kellie Leitch § Controversy

In 2016, an Environics public opinion poll found that 54 per cent of
Canadians agree that "there are too many immigrants coming into this
country who are not adopting Canadian values." ⁴⁹ ⁵⁰

Province of Quebec

Bill 101 - Charter of the French Language

The Charter of the French Language is Quebec legislation that makes French
the official language of Quebec.⁵¹ Among other things, the Charter
requires:

- all administrative government documents to be drafted and published in
  French
- the language of instruction from kindergarten to secondary school to be
  French

Quebec Charter of Values

The Quebec Charter of Values is legislation that was proposed in the Quebec
legislature in 2013 but which was not enacted into law.⁵² It would ban
public sector employees from wearing conspicuous religious symbols. Article
5 in Chapter II states:

  In the exercise of their functions, personnel members of public bodies
  must not wear objects such as headgear, clothing, jewelry or other
  adornments which, by their conspicuous nature, overtly indicate a
  religious affiliation.⁵³

Justin Trudeau has been a champion of the "Canadian Charter of Rights and
Freedoms"; he opposed the "Quebec Charter of Values." He stated:
"Prohibiting someone from wearing a hijab or a kippah is not compatible
with Quebec and Canadian values."⁵⁴

Distinct society

Proposed changes to the Canadian Constitution included adding the phrase
"distinct society" to the Constitution Act, 1867 to recognizes the
uniqueness of Quebec as compared with the rest of Canada.⁵⁵ ⁵⁶

Controversy

Defining Canadian values is problematic if the goal is to identify values
that are universally held.

According to Canadian Broadcasting Corporation reporter Neil MacDonald,
there are "precious few notions that can accurately be described as
universally held Canadian values."⁵⁷

According to journalist Lysiane Gagnon, Canadians "don't share common
values." She notes that while many ideas - such as medicare, bilingualism,
and multiculturalism - are sometimes characterized as Canadian values,
"many Canadians are against all or some of these."⁵⁸

Canadian sociologist Vic Satzewich has argued that "coming up with a
universal set of our nation's values would be impossible."⁵⁹

The Institute for Canadian Values sponsored advertisements against the
teaching of certain sexual education topics in the Ontario school
curriculum and discriminated against transsexual, transgender, and intersex
persons. The advertisements were controversial and quickly discontinued.⁶⁰

Nationalism and its potential adverse impact on foreign policy

Scholars have asked whether shared values underpin national identity.⁶¹
Denis Stairs links the concept of Canadian values with nationalism. Stairs,
the McCulloch Professor in Political Science at Dalhousie University, has
argued that there is indeed an intense widespread belief in the existence
of Canadian values, but says that belief can itself be harmful. He contends
that:

  [Canadians typically] think of themselves not as others are, but as
  morally superior. They believe, in particular, that they subscribe to a
  distinctive set of values - Canadian values - and that those values are
  special in the sense of being unusually virtuous. A prominent effect of
  that belief is that it has put them in serious danger of misunderstanding
  the true origins of their behaviour, on the one hand, and of doing
  significant damage to the effectiveness of their diplomacy, both next
  door and overseas, on the other.⁶²

Stairs also argues that, "first billing is usually given in received lists
of Canadian values to 'multiculturalism'...as a means of challenging the
premises of nationalism in Quebec."⁶³

See also

- Anti-Canadianism
- Canadian identity
- Center for Research-Action on Race Relations
- English Canadian
- Etiquette in North America
- French Canadian
- Just Society
- National identity
- Nativism (politics)
- Western culture

References

[1] Douglas Baer, Edward Grabb, and William Johnston, "National character,
  regional culture, and the values of Canadians and Americans." Canadian
  Review of Sociology/Revue canadienne de sociologie 30.1 (1993): 13-36.
[2] Quoted in Guy Lawson, "Trudeau's Canada, Again: With support from
  President Obama and the legacy of his father on his side, Justin Trudeau
  sets out to redefine what it means to be Canadian," New York Times Dec.
  8, 2015
[3] Baer, Grabb, and Johnston, "National character, regional culture, and
  the values of Canadians and Americans." (1993) p 13.
[4] Neil MacDonald (September 13, 2016). "A very short list of Canadian
  values: Neil Macdonald". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 31
  December 2016.
[5] S. M. Lipset, Agrarian Socialism: The Cooperative Commonwealth
  Federation in Saskatchewan, a Study in Political Sociology (1950; revised
  edition 1968) p xv
[6] Doug Baer, et al. "The values of Canadians and Americans: A critical
  analysis and reassessment." Social Forces 68.3 (1990): 693-713.
[7] Lipset, "Defining Moments and Recurring Myths: A Reply" Canadian Review
  of Sociology & Anthropology (2001) 38#1 pp 97-100.
[8] Seymour M. Lipset, "The Canadian Identity," International Journal of
  Canadian Studies (2006), Issue 33, pp 83-98.
[9] S.M. Lipset, Revolution and Counterrevolution: Change and persistence
  in social structures (2nd ed, 1970) p. 55.
[10] J.M.S. Careless, Canada: A story of challenge (Cambridge UP, 1963), pp
  111-13.
[11] A.R.M. Lower, From Colony to Nation (1946), p 114.
[12] Lipset, Continental Divide (1990) PP 88-89.
[13] Dennis R. Hoover and Samuel H. Reimer. "Things That Make for a
  Peaceable Kingdom: An Overview of Christianity and 'Cooperativeness'
  across the Continental Divide." Journal of Ecumenical Studies 41.2
  (2004): 205.
[14] Douglas Baer, Edward Grabb, and William Johnston, "National character,
  regional culture, and the values of Canadians and Americans." Canadian
  Review of Sociology/Revue canadienne de sociologie 30.1 (1993): 13-36.
[15] Canada, Government of Canada, Statistics. "Canadian Identity, 2013".
[16] "Reflecting Canadian values". Canadian Index of Well Being. Retrieved
  31 December 2016.
[17] D. Michael Jackson (2013). The Crown and Canadian Federalism. Dundurn.
  pp. 18–19.
[18] Shibao Guo; Lloyd Wong (2015). Revisiting Multiculturalism in Canada:
  Theories, Policies and Debates. SensePublishers. p. 63.
[19] Jason Gregory Zorbas (2011). Diefenbaker and Latin America: The
  Pursuit of Canadian Autonomy. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 115.
[20] Robert A. Spencer (1958). Canadian Foreign Policy, Conservative Style.
  Canadian Institute of International Affairs. p. 14.
[21] Edward Ansah Akuffo (2016). Canadian Foreign Policy in Africa:
  Regional Approaches to Peace, Security, and Development. Taylor &
  Francis. p. 41.
[22] Patrick James et al. eds. (2006). Handbook of Canadian Foreign Policy.
  Books. p. 514.
[23] Ian McKay (2005). Rebels, Reds, Radicals: Rethinking Canada's Left
  History. Between The Lines. p. 181.
[24] Seymour Martin Lipset, Revolution and Counterrevolution (2nd ed, 1970)
  pp 40-44
[25] Craig Crawford and James Curtis. "English Canadian-American
  differences in value orientations: Survey comparisons bearing on Lipset's
  thesis." Studies in Comparative International Development 14.3-4 (1979):
  23-44.
[26] Richard A. Wanner, "Educational inequality: Trends in
  twentieth-century Canada and the United States." Comparative Social
  Research 9.1 (1986): 986+
[27] Lawrence William Downey, The task of public education: The perceptions
  of people (Midwest Administration Center, University of Chicago, 1960),
  Quoted in Lipset, Revolution and Counterrevolution, p 42.
[28] Lipset, Revolution and Counterrevolution p 41
[29] Ivor F. Goodson and Ian R. Dowbiggin, "Vocational education and school
  reform: the case of the London (Canada) Technical School, 1900-1930"
  History of Education Review (1991) 20#1: 39–60.
[30] Theresa Shanahan; et al. (2016). The Handbook of Canadian Higher
  Education. MQUP. pp. 49–52.
[31] Gerald Kernerman; Philip Resnick (2005). Insiders and Outsiders: Alan
  Cairns and the Reshaping of Canadian Citizenship. UBC Press. p. 171.
[32] Pierre Elliott Trudeau (1993). Memoirs. McClelland & Stewart. p. 323.
[33] Chan Kwok-bun (2012). International Handbook of Chinese Families.
  Springer. p. 59.
[34] Andrew Griffith (2015). Multiculturalism In Canada: Evidence and
  Anecdote. p. 50.
[35] "27th Actuarial Report on the Canada Pension Plan" (PDF). Government
  of Canada. p. 18. Retrieved 2 January 2017.
[36] Cristina Amon; Mary Wells; Kim Woodhouse (December 6, 2016). "MacGill
  defined Canadian values". The Whig. Retrieved 31 December 2016.
[37] "Queen v Adi Abdel Humaid". paragraphs 23 and 24: Ontario Superior
  Court of Justice. August 25, 2015. Retrieved 5 January 2017.
[38] "The Health of Canadians – The Federal Role". 17.1 Universality:
  Parliament of Canada. Retrieved 5 January 2017.
[39] Ronald F. Inglehart; et al. (1996). The North American Trajectory:
  Cultural, Economic, and Political Ties Between the United States, Canada,
  and Mexico. Transaction Publishers. p. 146.
[40] "Barbaric Cultural Practices Act". Retrieved 31 December 2016.
[41] Ashley Csanady (June 17, 2015). "'Barbaric Cultural Practices' bill to
  criminalize forced marriage, tackle 'honour killings' passes final vote".
  National Post. Retrieved 31 December 2016.
[42] "Zero Tolerance for Barbaric Cultural Practices Act". Government of
  Canada. Retrieved 1 January 2017.
[43] Jon H. Pammett; Christopher Dornan (2016). The Canadian Federal
  Election of 2015. Dundurn. p. 220.
[44] "Archived - Zero Tolerance for Barbaric Cultural Practices Act
  receives Royal Assent - Canada News Centre". News.gc.ca. Retrieved
  2017-01-01.
[45] "Memorial to the Victims of Communism". Retrieved 15 January 2017.
[46] "Minister Joly Launches Public Consultations on the Memorial to the
  Victims of Communism –Canada A Land of Refuge". Government of Canada.
  Retrieved 15 January 2017. C1 control character in |title= at position 89
  (help)
[47] Don Butler, "Victims of communism memorial to be moved, Joly
  announces," 00 Ottawa Citizen December 17, 2015
[48] Bruce Campion-Smith (September 10, 2016). "Canadians favour screening
  would-be immigrants for 'anti-Canadian' values, poll shows". Toronto
  Star. Retrieved 31 December 2016.
[49] "Jedwab: Politicians should show some honesty on 'Canadian values'
  pitch". Ottawa Citizen. December 11, 2016. Retrieved 31 December 2016.
[50] Angus Reid (October 4, 2016). "Canadians aren't as accepting as we
  think — and we can't ignore it, writes Angus Reid". Canadian Broadcasting
  Corporation. p. English. Retrieved 31 December 2016.
[51] Richard Y. Bourhis, ed., Conflict and Language Planning in Quebec
  (1984).
[52] Charles Tessier and Éric Montigny. "Untangling myths and facts: Who
  supported the Québec Charter of Values?" French Politics 14.2 (2016):
  272-285.
[53] Trygve Ugland, "The Quebec Charter of Values: A Solution in Search of
  Problems." Journal of Eastern Townships Studies 42 (2014): 11+ online
[54] Huguette Young (2016). Justin Trudeau: The Natural Heir. Dundurn. p.
  129.
[55] Michael Burgess, "Ethnicity, nationalism and identity in Canada‐Quebec
  relations: The case of Quebec's 'distinct society'." Journal of
  Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 34.2 (1996): 46-64.
[56] Richard Johnston and Andre Blais. "Meech Lake and Mass Politics:
  The'Distinct Society'Clause." Canadian Public Policy/Analyse de
  Politiques (1988): S25-S42. online
[57] "A very short list of Canadian values: Neil Macdonald".
[58] Gagnon, Lysiane. "Citizenship Rules for Homebodies." The Globe and
  Mail, Dec 19, 1998.
[59] "Kellie Leitch misses the point about immigration".
[60] Heather Shipley, "Queering Institutions?: Sexual Identity in Public
  Education in a Canadian Context." Feminist Teacher 23.3 (2013): 196-210.
[61] Alisa Henderson and Nicola McEwen. "Do shared values underpin national
  identity? Examining the role of values in national identity in Canada and
  the United Kingdom." National Identities 7.2 (2005): 173-191.
[62] Denis Stairs, "Myths, Morals, and Reality in Canadian Foreign Policy"
  International Journal 58#2 (2003) pp. 239-256 in JSTOR
[63] Stairs, "Myths, morals, and reality in Canadian foreign policy," p 247

Further reading

- Alston, Jon P., Theresa M. Morris, and Arnold Vedlitz. "Comparing
  Canadian and American values: New evidence from national surveys."
  American Review of Canadian Studies 26.3 (1996): 301-314.
- Baer, Doug, et al. "The values of Canadians and Americans: A critical
  analysis and reassessment." Social Forces 68.3 (1990): 693-713.
- Baer, Douglas, Edward Grabb, and William Johnston. "National character,
  regional culture, and the values of Canadians and Americans." Canadian
  Review of Sociology/Revue canadienne de sociologie 30.1 (1993): 13-36.
- Baer, Douglas, et al. "Respect for authority in Canada, the United
  States, Great Britain and Australia." Sociological Focus 28.2 (1995):
  177-195.
- Basil, Debra Z. "Charitable donations as a reflection of national values:
  An exploratory comparison of Canada and the United States." Journal of
  Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing 18.1 (2007): 1-19.
- Hoover, Dennis R., and Samuel H. Reimer. "Things That Make for a
  Peaceable Kingdom: An Overview of Christianity and 'Cooperativeness'
  across the Continental Divide." Journal of Ecumenical Studies 41.2
  (2004): 205+ online
- Hoover, Dennis R. et al. "Evangelical Protestantism Meets the Continental
  Divide: Moral and Economic Conservatism in the United States and Canada,"
  Political Research Quarterly 55#3 (June, 2002): 351-374.
- Lipset, S.M. Continental divide: The values and institutions of the
  United States and Canada (1991).
- Katchanovski, Ivan, Neil Nevitte, and Stanley Rothman. "Race, Gender, and
  Affirmative Action Attitudes in American and Canadian Universities." The
  Canadian Journal of Higher Education 45.4 (2015): 18.
- Moon, C. David, Nicholas P. Lovrich Jr, and John C. Pierce. "Political
  culture in Canada and the United States: comparing social trust,
  self-esteem, and political liberalism in major Canadian and American
  Cities." Social science quarterly (2000): 826-836. in jSTOR

External links

- Canadian Index of Well Being - University of Waterloo
- Exploring Canadian values - Nanos Research

Provinces and territories

Geography of Canada

The geography of Canada describes the geographic features of Canada, the
world's second largest country in total area.

Situated in northern North America (constituting 41% of the continent's
area), Canada spans a vast, diverse territory between the North Pacific
Ocean to the west and the North Atlantic Ocean to the east and the Arctic
Ocean to the north (hence the country's motto "From sea to sea"), with the
United States to the south (contiguous United States) and northwest
(Alaska). Greenland is to the northeast; off the southern coast of
Newfoundland lies Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, an overseas collectivity of
France. Since 1925, Canada has claimed the portion of the Arctic between
60°W and 141°W longitude to the North Pole; however, this claim is
contested.¹ While the magnetic North Pole lies within the Canadian Arctic
territorial claim as of 2011, recent measurements indicate it is moving
towards Siberia.²

Covering 9,984,670 km² or 3,855,100 sq mi (land: 9,093,507 km² or 3,511,023
sq mi; freshwater: 891,163 km² or 344,080 sq mi), Canada is slightly less
than three-fifths as large as Russia and slightly smaller than Europe. In
total area, Canada is slightly larger than both the U.S. and China;
however, Canada ranks fourth in land area (i.e. total area minus the area
of lakes and rivers)—China is 9,326,410 km² (3,600,950 sq mi) and the U.S.
is 9,161,923 km² (3,537,438 sq mi)³

The population of Canada, some 35,749,600 as of April 2015, is concentrated
in the south in proximity to its border with the contiguous U.S.; with a
population density of 3.5 people per square kilometre (9.1/sq mi), it is
one of the most sparsely populated countries in the world. The northernmost
settlement in Canada—and in the world—is Canadian Forces Station (CFS)
Alert (just north of Alert, Nunavut) on the northern tip of Ellesmere
Island at 82°30′N 62°19′W, just 834 kilometres (518 mi) from the North
Pole.

Climate

Main article: Climate of Canada

Canada has a diverse climate. The climate varies from temperate on the west
coast of British Columbia⁴ to a subarctic climate in the north.⁵ Extreme
northern Canada can have snow for most of the year with a Polar climate.⁶
Landlocked areas tend to have a warm summer continental climate zone⁷ with
the exception of Southwestern Ontario which has a hot summer humid
continental climate.⁸ Parts of Western Canada have a semi-arid climate, and
parts of Vancouver Island can even be classified as cool summer
Mediterranean climate.⁶ Temperature extremes in Canada range from 45.0 °C
(113 °F) in Midale and Yellow Grass, Saskatchewan on July 5, 1937 to −63.0
°C (−81.4 °F) in Snag, Yukon on Monday, February 3, 1947.⁹

Physical geography

Canada covers 9,984,670 km² (3,855,100 sq mi) 9,984,670 km² (3,855,103 sq.
miles) and a panoply of various geoclimatic regions. There are 8 main
regions.²⁹ Canada also encompasses vast maritime terrain, with the world's
longest coastline of 243,042 kilometres (151,019 mi).³⁰ The physical
geography of Canada is widely varied. Boreal forests prevail throughout the
country, ice is prominent in northerly Arctic regions and through the Rocky
Mountains, and the relatively flat Canadian Prairies in the southwest
facilitate productive agriculture.²⁹ The Great Lakes feed the St. Lawrence
River (in the southeast) where lowlands host much of Canada's population.

Appalachian Mountains

The Appalachian mountain range extends from Alabama through the Gaspé
Peninsula and the Atlantic Provinces, creating rolling hills indented by
river valleys.³¹ It also runs through parts of southern Quebec.³¹

The Appalachian mountains (more specifically the Notre Dame and Long Range
Mountains) are an old and eroded range of mountains, approximately 380
million years in age. Notable mountains in the Appalachians include Mount
Jacques-Cartier (Quebec, 1,268 m or 4,160 ft and Mount Carleton (New
Brunswick, 817 m or 2,680 ft).³² Parts of the Appalachians are home to a
rich endemic flora and fauna and are considered to have been nunataks
during the last glaciation era.

Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Lowlands

The southern parts of Quebec and Ontario, in the section of the Great Lakes
(bordered entirely by Ontario on the Canadian side) and St. Lawrence basin
(often called St. Lawrence Lowlands), is another particularly rich
sedimentary plain.³⁴ Prior to its colonization and heavy urban sprawl of
the 20th century, this Eastern Great Lakes lowland forests area was home to
large mixed forests covering a mostly flat area of land between the
Appalachian Mountains and the Canadian Shield.³⁵ Most of this forest has
been cut down through agriculture and logging operations, but the remaining
forests are for the most part heavily protected. In this part of Canada the
Gulf of St. Lawrence is one of the world's largest estuary (see Gulf of St.
Lawrence lowland forests).³⁶

While the relief of these lowlands is particularly flat and regular, a
group of batholites known as the Monteregian Hills are spread along a
mostly regular line across the area.³⁷ The most notable are Montreal's
Mount Royal and Mont Saint-Hilaire. These hills are known for a great
richness in precious minerals.³⁷

Canadian Shield

The northeastern part of Alberta, northern parts of Saskatchewan, Manitoba,
Ontario, and Quebec, as well as most of Labrador (the mainland portions of
the province of Newfoundland and Labrador), are located on a vast rock base
known as the Canadian Shield. The Shield mostly consists of eroded hilly
terrain and contains many lakes and important rivers used for hydroelectric
production, particularly in northern Quebec and Ontario. The shield also
encloses an area of wetlands, the Hudson Bay lowlands. Some particular
regions of the Shield are referred to as mountain ranges, including the
Torngat and Laurentian Mountains.³⁸

The Shield cannot support intensive agriculture, although there is
subsistence agriculture and small dairy farms in many of the river valleys
and around the abundant lakes, particularly in the southern regions. Boreal
forest covers much of the shield, with a mix of conifers that provide
valuable timber resources in areas such as the Central Canadian Shield
forests ecoregion that covers much of Northern Ontario. The region is known
for its extensive mineral reserves.³⁸

The Canadian Shield is known for its vast minerals, such as emeralds,
diamonds and copper. The Canadian shield is also called the mineral house.

Canadian Interior Plains

The Canadian Prairies are part of a vast sedimentary plain covering much of
Alberta, southern Saskatchewan, and southwestern Manitoba, as well as much
of the region between the Rocky Mountains and the Great Slave and Great
Bear lakes in Northwest Territories. The plains generally describes the
expanses of (largely flat) arable agricultural land which sustain extensive
grain farming operations in the southern part of the provinces. Despite
this, some areas such as the Cypress Hills and Alberta Badlands are quite
hilly and the prairie provinces contain large areas of forest such as the
Mid-Continental Canadian forests. The size is roughly ~1,900,000 km²
(733,594.1 sq mi).

Western Cordillera

The Canadian Cordillera, contiguous with the American cordillera, is
bounded by the Rocky Mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the
west.

The Canadian Rockies are part of a major continental divide that extends
north and south through western North America and western South America.
The Columbia and the Fraser Rivers have their headwaters in the Canadian
Rockies and are the second and third largest rivers respectively to drain
to the west coast of North America. To the west of their headwaters, across
the Rocky Mountain Trench, is a second belt of mountains, the Columbia
Mountains, comprising the Selkirk, Purcell, Monashee and Cariboo Mountains
sub-ranges.

Immediately west of the Columbia Mountains is a large and rugged Interior
Plateau, encompassing the Chilcotin and Cariboo regions in central British
Columbia (the Fraser Plateau), the Nechako Plateau further north, and also
the Thompson Plateau in the south. The Peace River Valley in northeastern
British Columbia is Canada's most northerly agricultural region, although
it is part of the Prairies. The dry, temperate climate of the Okanagan
Valley in south central British Columbia provides ideal conditions for
fruit growing and a flourishing wine industry; the semi-arid belt of the
Southern Interior also includes the Fraser Canyon, and Thompson, Nicola,
Similkameen, Shuswap and Boundary regions and fruit-growing is common in
these areas also, and also in the West Kootenay. Between the plateau and
the coast is the province's largest mountain range, the Coast Mountains.
The Coast Mountains contain some of the largest temperate-latitude
icefields in the world.

On the south coast of British Columbia, Vancouver Island is separated from
the mainland by the continuous Juan de Fuca, Georgia, and Johnstone
Straits. Those straits include a large number of islands, notably the Gulf
Islands and Discovery Islands. North, near the Alaskan border, Haida Gwaii
lies across Hecate Strait from the North Coast region and to its north,
across Dixon Entrance from Southeast Alaska. Other than in the plateau
regions of the Interior and its many river valleys, most of British
Columbia is coniferous forest. The only temperate rain forests in Canada
are found along the Pacific Coast in the Coast Mountains, on Vancouver
Island, and on Haida Gwaii, and in the Cariboo Mountains on the eastern
flank of the Plateau.

The Western Cordillera continues northwards past the Liard River in
northernmost British Columbia to include the Mackenzie and Selwyn Ranges
which lie in the far western Northwest Territories and the eastern Yukon
Territory. West of them is the large Yukon Plateau and, west of that, the
Yukon Ranges and Saint Elias Mountains, which include Canada's and British
Columbia's highest summits, Mount Saint Elias in the Kluane region and
Mount Fairweather in the Tatshenshini-Alsek region. The headwaters of the
Yukon River, the largest and longest of the rivers on the Pacific Slope,
lie in northern British Columbia at Atlin and Teslin Lakes.

Volcanoes

Main article: Volcanology of Canada

Western Canada has many volcanoes and is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire,
a system of volcanoes found around the margins of the Pacific Ocean. There
are over 200 young volcanic centres that stretch northward from the Cascade
Range to Yukon. They are grouped into five volcanic belts with different
volcano types and tectonic settings. The Northern Cordilleran Volcanic
Province was formed by faulting, cracking, rifting, and the interaction
between the Pacific Plate and the North American plate. The Garibaldi
Volcanic Belt was formed by subduction of the Juan de Fuca Plate beneath
the North American Plate. The Anahim Volcanic Belt was formed as a result
of the North American Plate sliding westward over the Anahim hotspot. The
Chilcotin Group is believed to have formed as a result of back-arc
extension behind the Cascadia subduction zone. The Wrangell Volcanic Field
formed as a result of subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the North
American Plate at the easternmost end of the Aleutian Trench.

Volcanism has also occurred in the Canadian Shield. It contains over 150
volcanic belts (now deformed and eroded down to nearly flat plains) that
range from 600 million to 2.8 billion years old. Many of Canada's major ore
deposits are associated with Precambrian volcanoes. There are pillow lavas
in the Northwest Territories that are about 2.6 billion years old and are
preserved in the Cameron River Volcanic Belt. The pillow lavas in rocks
over 2 billion years old in the Canadian Shield signify that great oceanic
volcanoes existed during the early stages of the formation of the Earth's
crust. Ancient volcanoes play an important role in estimating Canada's
mineral potential. Many of the volcanic belts bear ore deposits that are
related to the volcanism.

Canadian Arctic

Main article: Northern Canada

While the largest part of the Canadian Arctic is composed of seemingly
endless permafrost and tundra north of the tree line, it encompasses
geological regions of varying types: the Arctic Cordillera (with the
British Empire Range and the United States Range on Ellesmere Island)
contains the northernmost mountain system in the world. The Arctic Lowlands
and Hudson Bay lowlands comprise a substantial part of the geographic
region often designated as the Canadian Shield (in contrast to the sole
geologic area). The ground in the Arctic is mostly composed of permafrost,
making construction difficult and often hazardous, and agriculture
virtually impossible.

The Arctic, when defined as everything north of the tree line, covers most
of Nunavut and the northernmost parts of Northwest Territories, Yukon,
Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, and Labrador.

Hydrography

BC
AB
SK
MB
ON
QC
NB
PE
NS
NL
YT
NT
NU
Drainage basins of Canada

Canada holds vast reserves of water: its rivers discharge nearly 9% of the
world's renewable water supply,³⁹ it contains a quarter of the world's
wetlands, and it has the third largest amount of glaciers (after Antarctica
and Greenland). Because of extensive glaciation, Canada hosts more than two
million lakes: of those that are entirely within Canada, more than 31,000
are between 3 and 100 square kilometres (1.2 and 38.6 sq mi) in area, while
563 are larger than 100 km² (38.6 sq mi).⁴⁰

Rivers

See also: List of rivers of Canada

Canada's two longest rivers are the Mackenzie, which empties into the
Arctic Ocean and drains a large part of northwestern Canada, and the St.
Lawrence, which drains the Great Lakes and empties into the Gulf of St.
Lawrence. The Mackenzie is over 4,200 km (2,600 mi) in length while the St.
Lawrence is over 3,000 km (1,900 mi) in length. Rounding out the ten
longest rivers within Canada are the Nelson, Churchill, Peace, Fraser,
North Saskatchewan, Ottawa, Athabasca and Yukon rivers.⁴¹

Drainage basins

See also: List of rivers of Canada

The Atlantic watershed drains the entirety of the Atlantic provinces (parts
of the Quebec-Labrador border are fixed at the Atlantic Ocean-Arctic Ocean
continental divide), most of inhabited Quebec and large parts of southern
Ontario. It is mostly drained by the economically important St. Lawrence
River and its tributaries, notably the Saguenay, Manicouagan and Ottawa
rivers. The Great Lakes and Lake Nipigon are also drained by the St.
Lawrence. The Churchill River and Saint John River are other important
elements of the Atlantic watershed in Canada.⁴²

The Hudson Bay watershed drains over a third of Canada. It covers Manitoba,
northern Ontario and Quebec, most of Saskatchewan, southern Alberta,
southwestern Nunavut and the southern half of Baffin Island. This basin is
most important in fighting drought in the prairies and producing
hydroelectricity, especially in Manitoba, northern Ontario and Quebec.
Major elements of this watershed include Lake Winnipeg, Nelson River, the
North Saskatchewan and South Saskatchewan Rivers, Assiniboine River, and
Nettilling Lake on Baffin Island. Wollaston Lake lies on the boundary
between the Hudson Bay and Arctic Ocean watersheds and drains into both. It
is the largest lake in the world that naturally drains in two directions.⁴²

The continental divide in the Rockies separates the Pacific watershed in
British Columbia and Yukon from the Arctic and Hudson Bay watersheds. This
watershed irrigates the agriculturally important areas of inner British
Columbia (such as the Okanagan and Kootenay valleys), and is used to
produce hydroelectricity. Major elements are the Yukon, Columbia and Fraser
rivers.⁴²

The northern parts of Alberta, Manitoba and British Columbia, most of
Northwest Territories and Nunavut, and parts of Yukon are drained by the
Arctic watershed. This watershed has been little used for hydroelectricity,
with the exception of the Mackenzie River, the longest river in Canada. The
Peace, Athabasca and Liard Rivers, as well as Great Bear Lake and Great
Slave Lake (respectively the largest and second largest lakes wholly
enclosed by Canada) are significant elements of the Arctic watershed. Each
of these elements eventually merges with the Mackenzie, thereby draining
the vast majority of the Arctic watershed.⁴²

The southernmost part of Alberta drains into the Gulf of Mexico through the
Milk River and its tributaries. The Milk River originates in the Rocky
Mountains of Montana, then flows into Alberta, then returns into the United
States, where it is drained by the Missouri River. A small area of
southwestern Saskatchewan is drained by Battle Creek, which empties into
the Milk River.⁴²

Floristic geography

Main article: Ecoregions of Canada (disambiguation)
See also: Flora of Canada and Fauna of Canada

Canada has produced a Biodiversity Action Plan in response to the 1992
international accord; the plan addresses conservation of endangered species
and certain habitats. The main biomes of Canada are:

- Tundra
- Boreal forest
- Mixed forest
- Broadleaf forest
- Prairies
- Rocky Mountains, vegetation includes various types of tundra and forests
- Temperate coniferous forests, of which the Temperate rain forests of
  coastal British Columbia is an example.

Political geography

Canada is divided into ten provinces and three territories. According to
Statistics Canada, 72.0 percent of the population is concentrated within
150 kilometres (93 mi) of the nation's southern border with the United
States, 70.0% live south of the 49th parallel, and over 60 percent of the
population lives along the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River between
Windsor, Ontario and Quebec City. This leaves the vast majority of Canada's
territory as sparsely populated wilderness; Canada's population density is
3.5 people/km² (9.1/mi²), among the lowest in the world. Despite this, 79.7
percent of Canada's population resides in urban areas, where population
densities are increasing.

Canada shares with the U.S. the world's longest undefended border at 8,893
kilometres (5,526 mi); 2,477 kilometres (1,539 mi) are with Alaska. The
Danish island dependency of Greenland lies to Canada's northeast, separated
from the Canadian Arctic islands by Baffin Bay and Davis Strait. The French
islands of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon lie off the southern coast of
Newfoundland in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and have a maritime territorial
enclave within Canada's Exclusive Economic Zone. Canada also shares a land
border with Denmark, as maps released in December 2006 show that the agreed
upon boundaries run through the middle of Hans Island.⁴³

Canada's geographic proximity to the United States has historically bound
the two countries together in the political world as well. Canada's
position between the Soviet Union (now Russia) and the U.S. was
strategically important during the Cold War since the route over the North
Pole and Canada was the fastest route by air between the two countries and
the most direct route for intercontinental ballistic missiles. Since the
end of the Cold War, there has been growing speculation that Canada's
Arctic maritime claims may become increasingly important if global warming
melts the ice enough to open the Northwest Passage.

Similarly, the disputed—and tiny—Hans Island (with Denmark), in the Nares
Strait between Ellesmere Island and northern Greenland, may be a flashpoint
for challenges to overall claims of Canadian sovereignty in the Arctic.⁴³

Natural resources

See also: History of the petroleum industry in Canada

Canada's abundance of natural resources is reflected in their continued
importance in the economy of Canada. Major resource-based industries are
fisheries, forestry, agriculture, petroleum products and mining.

The fisheries industry has historically been one of Canada's strongest.
Unmatched cod stocks on the Grand Banks off Newfoundland launched this
industry in the 16th century. Today these stocks are nearly depleted, and
their conservation has become a preoccupation of the Atlantic Provinces. On
the West Coast, tuna stocks are now restricted. The less depleted (but
still greatly diminished) salmon population continues to drive a strong
fisheries industry. Canada claims 22 km (12 nmi) of territorial sea, a
contiguous zone of 44 km (24 nmi), an exclusive economic zone of 370 km
(200 nmi) and a continental shelf of 370 km (200 nmi) or to the edge of the
continental margin.

Forestry has long been a major industry in Canada. Forest products
contribute one fifth of the nation's exports. The provinces with the
largest forestry industries are British Columbia, Ontario and Quebec.
Fifty-four percent of Canada's land area is covered in forest. The boreal
forests account for four-fifths of Canada's forestland.

Five per cent of Canada's land area is arable, none of which is for
permanent crops. Three per cent of Canada's land area is covered by
permanent pastures. Canada has 7,200 square kilometres (2,800 mi²) of
irrigated land (1993 estimate). Agricultural regions in Canada include the
Canadian Prairies, the Lower Mainland and various regions within the
Interior of British Columbia, the St. Lawrence Basin and the Canadian
Maritimes. Main crops in Canada include flax, oats, wheat, maize, barley,
sugar beets and rye in the prairies; flax and maize in Western Ontario;
Oats and potatoes in the Maritimes. Fruit and vegetables are grown
primarily in the Annapolis Valley of Nova Scotia, Southwestern Ontario, the
Golden Horseshoe region of Ontario, along the south coast of Georgian Bay
and in the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia. Cattle and sheep are raised
in the valleys and plateaus of British Columbia. Cattle, sheep and hogs are
raised on the prairies, cattle and hogs in Western Ontario, sheep and hogs
in Quebec, and sheep in the Maritimes. There are significant dairy regions
in central Nova Scotia, southern New Brunswick, the St. Lawrence Valley,
northeastern Ontario, southwestern Ontario, the Red River valley of
Manitoba and the valleys in the British Columbia Interior, on Vancouver
Island and in the Lower Mainland.

Fossil fuels are a more recently developed resource in Canada, with oil and
gas being extracted from deposits in the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin
since the mid 1900s. While Canada's crude oil deposits are fewer,
technological developments in recent decades have opened up oil production
in Alberta's Oil Sands to the point where Canada now has some of the
largest reserves of oil in the world. In other forms, Canadian industry has
a long history of extracting large coal and natural gas reserves.

Canada's mineral resources are diverse and extensive. Across the Canadian
Shield and in the north there are large iron, nickel, zinc, copper, gold,
lead, molybdenum, and uranium reserves. Large diamond concentrations have
been recently developed in the Arctic, making Canada one of the world's
largest producers. Throughout the Shield there are many mining towns
extracting these minerals. The largest, and best known, is Sudbury,
Ontario. Sudbury is an exception to the normal process of forming minerals
in the Shield since there is significant evidence that the Sudbury Basin is
an ancient meteorite impact crater. The nearby, but less known Temagami
Magnetic Anomaly has striking similarities to the Sudbury Basin. Its
magnetic anomalies are very similar to the Sudbury Basin, and so it could
be a second metal-rich impact crater.⁴⁴ The Shield is also covered by vast
boreal forests that support an important logging industry.

Canada's many rivers have afforded extensive development of hydroelectric
power. Extensively developed in British Columbia, Ontario, Quebec and
Labrador, the many dams have long provided a clean, dependable source of
energy.

Natural hazards

See also: Drought in Canada and Drought Research Initiative

Continuous permafrost in the north is a serious obstacle to development.
Cyclonic storms form east of the Rocky Mountains, a result of the mixing of
air masses from the Arctic, Pacific, and North American interior, and
produce most of the country's rain and snow east of the mountains.

Current environmental issues

Main article: Environmental issues in Canada

Air pollution and resulting acid rain severely affects lakes and damages
forests.⁴⁵ Metal smelting, coal-burning utilities, and vehicle emissions
impact agricultural and forest productivity. And ocean waters are becoming
contaminated from agricultural, industrial, mining, and forestry
activities.⁴⁵

Global climate change and the warming of the polar region will likely cause
significant changes to the environment, including loss of the polar bear,⁴⁶
the exploration for resource then the extraction of these resources and an
alternative transport route to the Panama Canal through the Northwest
Passage.

Extreme points

Main article: Extreme points of Canada
See also: Extreme points of Canadian provinces

The northernmost point within the boundaries of Canada is Cape Columbia,
Ellesmere Island, Nunavut 83°06′40″N 69°58′19″W / 83.111°N 69.972°W.⁴⁷
The northernmost point of the Canadian mainland is Zenith Point on Boothia
Peninsula, Nunavut 72°00′07″N 94°39′18″W / 72.002°N 94.655°W.⁴⁸

The southernmost point is Middle Island, in Lake Erie, Ontario (41°41′N,
82°40′W); the southernmost water point lies just south of the island, on
the Ontario–Ohio border (41°40′35″N). The southernmost point of the
Canadian mainland is Point Pelee, Ontario 41°54′32″N 82°30′32″W /
41.909°N 82.509°W.⁴⁹

The westernmost point is Boundary Peak 187 (60°18′22.929″N, 141°00′7.128″W)
at the southern end of the Yukon–Alaska border which is roughly following
141°W but leans very slightly east as it goes North 60°18′04″N 141°00′36″W
/ 60.301°N 141.010°W.⁵⁰ ⁵¹

The easternmost point is Cape Spear, Newfoundland (47°31′N, 52°37′W)
47°31′23″N 52°37′08″W / 47.523°N 52.619°W.⁵² The easternmost point of the
Canadian mainland is Elijah Point, Cape St. Charles, Labrador (52°13′N,
55°37′W) 52°13′01″N 55°37′16″W / 52.217°N 55.621°W.⁵³

The lowest point is sea level at 0 m, whilst the highest point is Mount
Logan, Yukon, at 5,959 m / 19,550 ft 60°34′01″N 140°24′18″W / 60.567°N
140.405°W.⁵⁴

The Canadian pole of inaccessibility is allegedly near Jackfish River,
Alberta (Latitude: 59°2′ 60 N, Longitude: 112°49′ 60 W).

The furthest straight-line distance that can be travelled to Canadian
points of land is between the northwest tip of Ivvavik National Park (at
Clarence Lagoon) and Cripple Cove, NL (near Cape Race) at a distance of
2,785.13 nautical miles (5,158.06 km; 3,205.07 mi).

See also

BC
AB
SK
MB
ON
QC
NB
PE
NS
NL
YT
NT
NU
Geography by province
- Atlas of Canada
- Canadian Geographic
- Canadian Rockies
- Extreme points of North America
- List of highest points of Canadian provinces and territories
- List of Ultras of Canada
- Mountain peaks of Canada
- Temperature in Canada

References

[1] Atlas of Canada (April 2004). "Canada territorial evolution". Retrieved
  2007-03-01.
[2] Geological Survey of Canada. "Longterm movement of the magnetic north
  pole". Government of Canada. Retrieved 2009-03-20.
[3] "World Factbook: Area Country Comparison Table". Yahoo Education.
  Retrieved 2008-06-17.
[4] "Canadian Climate Normals 1971–2000". Environment Canada. Retrieved 19
  March 2013.
[5] Timoney, K.P.; la Roi, G.H.; Zoltai, S.C.; Robinson, A.L. (1991). "The
  High Subarctic Forest-Tundra of Northwestern Canada: Position, Width, and
  Vegetation Gradients in Relation to Climate" (PDF). University of
  Calgary. Retrieved 2008-03-02.
[6] Kottek, M.; J. Grieser; C. Beck; B. Rudolf; F. Rubel (2006). "World Map
  of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated". Meteorol. Z. 15
  (3): 259–263. doi:10.1127/0941-2948/2006/0130. Retrieved 2007-02-15.
[7] "Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification" (PDF).
  University of Melbourne. Retrieved 19 March 2013.
[8] "Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification" (PDF).
  University of Melbourne. Retrieved 19 March 2013.
[9] Weather records Statistics Canada. Accessed 2009-02-10.
[10] "Calgary International Airport". Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010.
  Environment Canada. Retrieved May 8, 2014.
[11] "Charlottetown A". Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010. Environment
  Canada. Retrieved October 8, 2013.
[12] "Edmonton City Centre Airport". Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010.
  Environment Canada. August 19, 2013. Retrieved September 10, 2013.
[13] "Fredericton CDA". Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010. Environment
  Canada. Retrieved 12 May 2014.
[14] "Halifax Citadel". Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010. Environment
  Canada. September 22, 2015. Retrieved 24 March 2016.
[15] "Iqaluit A". Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010. Environment Canada.
  Climate ID: 2402590. Retrieved February 24, 2014.
[16] ."Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010 Station Data". Environment
  Canada. Retrieved May 14, 2015.
[17] "Ottawa Macdonald Cartier International Airport". Canadian Climate
  Normals 1981–2010. Environment Canada. Retrieved May 8, 2014.
[18] "Quebec/Jean Lesage International Airport". Canadian Climate Normals
  1981–2010. Environment Canada. Retrieved 8 May 2014.
[19] "Regina International Airport". Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010.
  Environment Canada. Retrieved 12 May 2014.
[20] "Saskatoon Diefenbaker International Airport". Canadian Climate
  Normals 1981–2010. Environment Canada. Retrieved May 12, 2014.
[21] "St John's A". Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010. Environment Canada.
  June 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2014.
[22] "1981 to 2010 Canadian Climate Normals". Environment Canada.
  2014-02-13. Climate ID: 6158350. Retrieved February 24, 2014.
[23] "Whitehorse A". Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010. Environment
  Canada. Climate ID: 2101300. Retrieved 2014-07-30.
[24] "Windsor Airport". Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010. Environment
  Canada. Retrieved April 12, 2014.
[25] "Winnipeg Richardson International Airport". Canadian Climate Normals
  1981–2010. Environment Canada. Retrieved May 7, 2014.
[26] "1981 to 2010 Canadian Climate Normals". Environment Canada.
  2015-09-22. Climate ID: 1108447. Retrieved 2016-05-09.
[27] "Victoria Gonzales Heights". Canadian Climate Normals 1971–2000.
  Environment Canada. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
[28] "Yellowknife A". Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010. Environment
  Canada. Climate ID: 2204100. Retrieved 2015-03-10.
[29] R. W. McColl (September 2005). Encyclopedia of world geography.
  Infobase Publishing. p. 135. ISBN 978-0-8160-5786-3. Retrieved 22
  November 2011.
[30] "Geography". www.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2016-03-04.
[31] Peter Haggett (July 2001). Encyclopedia of World Geography. Marshall
  Cavendish. pp. 78–. ISBN 978-0-7614-7289-6. Retrieved 22 November 2011.
[32] Joseph A. DiPietro (2012). Landscape Evolution in the United States:
  An Introduction to the Geography, Geology, and Natural History. Newnes.
  p. 400. ISBN 978-0-12-397806-6.
[33] Natural Resources Canada (2004-04-05). "Significant Canadian Facts".
  Natural Resources Canada. Retrieved 2006-05-16.
[34] Bryan Pezzi (2006). The St. Lawrence Lowlands. Weigl Educational
  Publishers. p. 32. ISBN 978-1-55388-152-0.
[35] Wayne Grady; David Suzuki Foundation (26 September 2007). The Great
  Lakes: the natural history of a changing region. Greystone/David Suzuki
  Fdtn. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-55365-197-0.
[36] Peter J. Wangersky (2006). Estuaries. Springer. p. 122. ISBN
  978-3-540-00270-3.
[37] Joseph Anthony Mandarino; Violet Anderson (1989). Monteregian
  treasures: the minerals of Mont Saint-Hilaire, Quebec. CUP Archive. p.
  131. ISBN 978-0-521-32632-2.
[38] George Philip and Son; Oxford University Press (2002). Encyclopedic
  World Atlas. Oxford University Press. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-19-521920-3.
[39] Atlas of Canada (February 2004). "Distribution of Freshwater".
  Retrieved 2007-02-01.
[40] Atlas of Canada (April 2004). "Facts about Canada – Lakes". Archived
  from the original on April 10, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-01.
[41] "Rivers: Longest rivers in Canada". Environment Canada. July 22, 2013.
  Retrieved December 28, 2014.
[42] "Drainage Basin". thecanadianencyclopedia. Retrieved 2008-02-21.
[43] "Satellite imagery moves Hans Island boundary: report". CBC News. The
  Canadian Press. 2007-07-26. Retrieved 2011-02-27.
[44] 3-D Magnetic Imaging using Conjugate Gradients: Temagami anomaly
  Retrieved on 2008-03-13
[45] David R Boyd (2011). Unnatural Law: Rethinking Canadian Environmental
  Law and Policy. UBC Press. pp. 67–69. ISBN 978-0-7748-4063-7.
[46] "The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada".
  Government of Canada. Retrieved 2008-11-07.
[47] Cape Columbia in the Atlas of Canada
[48] Zenith Point in the Atlas of Canada
[49] Point Pelee in the Atlas of Canada
[50] "141st Meridian Boundary Points". International Boundary Commission.
  Retrieved 2010-12-20.
[51] Boundary Peak 187 in the Atlas of Canada
[52] Cape Spear, Newfoundland in the Atlas of Canada
[53] Elijah Point, Labrador in the Atlas of Canada
[54] Mount Logan, Yukon in the Atlas of Canada

Further reading

- Bailey, William G; Oke, TR; Rouse, Wayne R (1997). The surface climates
  of Canada. McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 0-7735-1672-7.
- Etkin, David; Haque, CE; Brooks, Gregory R (2003). An Assessment of
  Natural Hazards and Disasters in Canada. Springer. ISBN
  978-1-4020-1179-5.
- Drushka, Ken (2003), Canada's forests: a history, McGill-Queen's
  University Press, ISBN 0-7735-2660-9
- Feldhamer, George A; Bruce Carlyle Thompson; Joseph A. Chapman (2003).
  Wild mammals of North America (2nd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press.
  ISBN 0801874165
- Fick, Steven (2004). The Canadian atlas: our nation, environment and
  people. Douglas & McIntyre. ISBN 0888507704
- Hudson, John C (2002). Across this land: a regional geography of the
  United States and Canada. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN
  0-8018-6567-0
- French, Hugh M; Olav Slaymaker (1993). Canada's Cold Environments.
  McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 0-7735-0925-9
- Nils, John Macoun; Conrad Kindberg (1883). "Catalogue of Canadian
  plants". Geological Survey of Canada

External links

- Government of Canada – The Atlas of Canada
- Canadian Geographic – The Canadian Atlas Online

This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World
Factbook website
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html.

Provinces and territories of Canada

"Canadian Province" redirects here. For "Canadian Province" as used in
biology, see Circumboreal Region.

Canada's geography is divided into administrative divisions known as
provinces and territories that are responsible for delivery of sub-national
governance. When Canada was formed in 1867, three provinces of British
North America—New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and the Province of Canada (which,
on the formation of Canada, was divided into Ontario and Quebec)—were
united to form a federated colony, which eventually became a sovereign
nation in the next century. Over its history, Canada's international
borders have changed several times, and the country has grown from the
original four provinces to the current ten provinces and three territories.
The ten provinces are Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick,
Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Prince Edward Island,
Quebec, and Saskatchewan. Several of the provinces were former British
colonies, Quebec was originally a French colony, while others were added as
Canada grew. The three territories are Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and
Yukon, which govern the rest of the area of the former British North
America. Together, the provinces and territories make up the world's
second-largest country by area.

The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that
provinces receive their power and authority from the Constitution Act, 1867
(formerly called the British North America Act, 1867), whereas territorial
governments have powers delegated to them by the Parliament of Canada. The
powers flowing from the Constitution Act are divided between the federal
government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively. A change
to the division of powers between the federal government and the provinces
requires a constitutional amendment, whereas a similar change affecting the
territories can be performed unilaterally by the Parliament of Canada or
government.

In modern Canadian constitutional theory, the provinces are considered to
be co-sovereign divisions and each province has its own "Crown" represented
by the lieutenant governor. The territories are not sovereign, but simply
part of the federal realm, and have a commissioner who represents the
federal government.

Location of provinces and territories

A clickable map of Canada exhibiting its ten provinces and three
territories, and their capitals.

Provinces

Notes:

[1] De facto; French has limited constitutional status.
[2] Charter of the French Language; English has limited constitutional
  status.
[3] Nova Scotia dissolved cities in 1996 in favour of regional
  municipalities; its largest regional municipality is therefore
  substituted.
[4] Nova Scotia has very few bilingual statutes (three in English and
  French; one in English and Polish); some Government bodies have
  legislated names in both English and French.
[5] Section Sixteen of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
[6] Manitoba Act.

Provincial legislature buildings

-
British Columbia Parliament Buildings
-
Alberta Legislative Building
-
Saskatchewan Legislative Building
-
Manitoba Legislative Building
-
Ontario Legislative Building
-
Parliament Building (Quebec)
-
Confederation Building (Newfoundland and Labrador)
-
New Brunswick Legislative Building
-
Province House (Nova Scotia)
-
Province House (Prince Edward Island)

Territories

There are three territories in Canada. Unlike the provinces, the
territories of Canada have no inherent sovereignty and have only those
powers delegated to them by the federal government.⁸ ⁹ ¹⁰ They include all
of mainland Canada north of latitude 60° north and west of Hudson Bay, as
well as most islands north of the Canadian mainland (from those in James
Bay to the Canadian Arctic islands). The following table lists the
territories in order of precedence (each province has precedence over all
the territories, regardless of the date each territory was created).

Territorial legislature buildings

-
Yukon Legislative Building
-
Northwest Territories Legislative Building
-
Legislative Building of Nunavut

Territorial evolution

Main article: Territorial evolution of Canada
See also: Former colonies and territories in Canada

Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia were the original
provinces, formed when several British North American colonies federated on
July 1, 1867, into the Dominion of Canada and by stages began accruing the
indicia of sovereignty from the United Kingdom.¹⁴ Prior to Confederation,
Ontario and Quebec were united as the Province of Canada, only to be split
in 1867. Over the following years, Manitoba (1870), British Columbia
(1871), and Prince Edward Island (1873) were added as provinces.¹⁴

The Hudson's Bay Company controlled large swathes of western Canada
referred to as Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory until 1870,
when it turned the land over to the Government of Canada.¹⁵ Subsequently,
the area was re-organized into the province of Manitoba and the Northwest
Territories.¹⁵ The Northwest Territories were vast at first, encompassing
all of current northern and western Canada, except for the British holdings
in the Arctic islands and the Colony of British Columbia; the Territories
also included the northern two-thirds of Ontario and Quebec, and almost all
of present Manitoba, with the 1870 province of Manitoba originally being
confined to a small area in the south of today's province.¹⁶ The remaining
Arctic islands were transferred by Britain to Canada in 1880, adding to the
size of the Northwest Territories. 1898 saw the Yukon Territory, later
renamed simply as Yukon, carved from the parts of the Northwest Territories
surrounding the Klondike gold fields. On September 1, 1905, a portion of
the Northwest Territories south of the 60th parallel north became the
provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan.¹⁶ In 1912, the boundaries of Quebec,
Ontario and Manitoba were expanded northward: Manitoba's to the 60°
parallel, Ontario's to Hudson Bay and Quebec's to encompass the District of
Ungava.¹⁷

In 1869, the people of Newfoundland voted to remain a British colony over
fears that taxes would increase with Confederation, and that the economic
policy of the Canadian government would favour mainland industries.¹⁸ In
1907, Newfoundland acquired dominion status.¹⁹ In the middle of the Great
Depression in Canada with Newfoundland facing a prolonged period of
economic crisis, the legislature turned over political control to the
Commission of Government in 1933.²⁰ Following Canada's participation in
World War II, in a 1948 referendum, a narrow majority of Newfoundland
citizens voted to join the Confederation, and on March 31, 1949,
Newfoundland became Canada's tenth province.²¹ In 2001, it was officially
renamed Newfoundland and Labrador.²²

In 1903, the Alaska Panhandle Dispute fixed British Columbia's northwestern
boundary.²³ This was one of only two provinces in Canadian history to have
its size reduced. The second reduction, in 1927, occurred when a boundary
dispute between Canada and the Dominion of Newfoundland saw Labrador
increased at Quebec's expense – this land returned to Canada, as part of
the province of Newfoundland, in 1949.²⁴ In 1999, Nunavut was created from
the eastern portion of the Northwest Territories.²⁵ Yukon lies in the
western portion of The North, while Nunavut is in the east.²⁶

All three territories combined are the most sparsely populated region in
Canada, covering 3,921,739 km² (1,514,192 sq mi) in land area.⁵ They are
often referred to as a single region, The North, for organisational and
economic purposes.²⁷ For much of the Northwest Territories' early history
it was divided into several districts for ease of administration.²⁸ The
District of Keewatin was created as a separate territory from 1876 to 1905,
after which, as the Keewatin Region, it became an administrative district
of the Northwest Territories.²⁹ In 1999, it was dissolved when it became
part of Nunavut.

Government

Main article: Canadian federalism
See also: Monarchy in the Canadian provinces, Office-holders of Canada, and
Legislative assemblies of Canadian provinces and territories

Theoretically, provinces have a great deal of power relative to the federal
government, with jurisdiction over many public goods such as health care,
education, welfare, and intra-provincial transportation.³⁰ They receive
"transfer payments" from the federal government to pay for these, as well
as exacting their own taxes.³¹ In practice, however, the federal government
can use these transfer payments to influence these provincial areas. For
instance, in order to receive healthcare funding under Medicare, provinces
must agree to meet certain federal mandates, such as universal access to
required medical treatment.³¹

Provincial and territorial legislatures have no second chamber like the
Canadian Senate. Originally, most provinces did have such bodies, known as
legislative councils, with members titled councillors. These upper houses
were abolished one by one, Quebec's being the last in 1968.³² In most
provinces, the single house of the legislature is known as the Legislative
Assembly; the exceptions are Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and Labrador,
where the chamber is called the House of Assembly, and Quebec where it is
called the National Assembly.³³ Ontario has a Legislative Assembly but its
members are called Members of the Provincial Parliament or MPPs.³⁴ The
legislative assemblies use a procedure similar to that of the Canadian
House of Commons. The head of government of each province, called the
premier, is generally the head of the party with the most seats.³⁵ This is
also the case in Yukon, but the Northwest Territories and Nunavut have no
political parties at the territorial level.³⁶ The Queen's representative to
each province is the Lieutenant Governor.³⁷ In each of the territories
there is an analogous Commissioner, but he or she represents the federal
government rather than the monarch.³⁸

Provincial political parties

Most provinces have rough provincial counterparts to major federal parties.
However, these provincial parties are not usually formally linked to the
federal parties that share the same name.³⁹ For example, no provincial
Conservative or Progressive Conservative Party shares an organizational
link to the federal Conservative Party of Canada, and neither do provincial
Green Parties to the Green Party of Canada. Provincial New Democratic
Parties, on the other hand, are fully integrated with the federal New
Democratic Party – meaning that provincial parties effectively operate as
sections, with common membership, of the federal party. The Liberal Party
of Canada shares such an organizational integration with the provincial
Liberals in New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, and
Prince Edward Island. Other provincial Liberal Parties are unaffiliated
with their federal counterpart.³⁹

Some provinces have provincial political parties with no clear federal
equivalent, such as the Alberta Party, Saskatchewan Party, and Wildrose
Party.

The provincial political climate of Quebec is quite different: the main
split is between sovereignty, represented by the Parti Québécois and Québec
solidaire, and federalism, represented primarily by the Quebec Liberal
Party.⁴⁰ The Coalition Avenir Québec, meanwhile, takes an abstentionist
position on the question and does not support or oppose sovereignty.

Ceremonial territory

The Canadian National Vimy Memorial, near Vimy, Pas-de-Calais, and the
Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial, near Beaumont-Hamel, France are
ceremonially considered Canadian territory.⁴³ In 1922, the French
government donated the land used for the Vimy Memorial "freely, and for all
time, to the Government of Canada the free use of the land exempt from all
taxes".⁴⁴ The site of the Somme battlefield near Beaumont-Hamel site was
purchased in 1921 by the people of the Dominion of Newfoundland.⁴³ These
sites do not, however, enjoy extraterritorial status and are thus subject
to French law.

Proposed provinces and territories

Main article: Proposed provinces and territories of Canada

Since Confederation in 1867, there have been several proposals for new
Canadian provinces and territories. The Constitution of Canada requires an
amendment for the creation of a new province⁴⁵ but the creation of a new
territory requires only an act of Parliament;⁴⁶ therefore, it is easier
legislatively to create a territory than a province.

In late 2004, Prime Minister Paul Martin surprised some observers by
expressing his personal support for all three territories gaining
provincial status "eventually". He cited their importance to the country as
a whole and the ongoing need to assert sovereignty in the Arctic,
particularly as global warming could make that region more open to
exploitation leading to more complex international waters disputes.⁴⁷

See also

- Canadian provincial and territorial name etymologies
  + Canadian adjectival and demonymic forms of place names
- Language policies of Canada's provinces and territories
- List of areas disputed by Canada and the United States
- List of regions of Canada
- List of governments in Canada by annual expenditures
- Commonwealth Local Government Forum-Americas
- Provincial museums of Canada
- List of Canada-related topics by provinces and territories
  + List of Canadian provinces and territories by area
  + List of Canadian provinces and territories by gross domestic product
  + List of Canadian provinces and territories by population
  + List of Canadian provincial and territorial symbols
  + List of Canadian provinces by unemployment rate
- Canada – Wikipedia book

References

[1] "Provinces and Territories". Government of Canada. 2013. Retrieved
  August 6, 2013.
[2] Place name (2013). "Census Profile". Statistic Canada. Retrieved August
  6, 2013.
[3] Reader's Digest Association (Canada); Canadian Geographic Enterprises
  (2004). The Canadian Atlas: Our Nation, Environment and People. Douglas &
  McIntyre. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-55365-082-9.
[4] "Population and dwelling counts, for Canada, provinces and territories,
  2016 and 2011 censuses – 100% data". Statistics Canada. February 6, 2017.
  Retrieved February 8, 2017.
[5] "Land and freshwater area, by province and territory". Statistics
  Canada. 2005. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
[6] Olivier Coche, François Vaillancourt, Marc-Antoine Cadieux, Jamie Lee
  Ronson (2012). "Official Language Policies of the Canadian Provinces"
  (PDF). Fraser Institute. Retrieved August 6, 2012.
[7] "Guide to the Canadian House of Commons". Parliament of Canada. 2012.
  Retrieved August 6, 2013.
[8] "Northwest Territories Act". Department of Justice Canada. 1986.
  Retrieved March 25, 2013.
[9] "Yukon Act". Department of Justice Canada. 2002. Retrieved March 25,
  2013.
[10] Department of Justice Canada (1993). "Nunavut Act". Retrieved January
  27, 2007.
[11] Northwest Territories Official Languages Act, 1988 (as amended 1988,
  1991–1992, 2003)
[12] "OCOL – Statistics on Official Languages in Yukon". Office of the
  Commissioner of Official Languages. 2011. Retrieved August 6, 2013.
[13] "Nunavut's Official Languages". Language Commissioner of Nunavut.
  2009. Retrieved August 6, 2013.
[14] Janet Ajzenstat (2003). Canada's Founding Debates. University of
  Toronto Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-8020-8607-5.
[15] James Stuart Olson; Robert Shadle (1996). Historical Dictionary of the
  British Empire: A-J. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 538. ISBN
  978-0-313-29366-5.
[16] Barry M. Gough (2010). Historical Dictionary of Canada. Wilfrid
  Laurier University. pp. 141–142. ISBN 978-0-8108-7504-3.
[17] Atlas of Canada. "Territorial evolution". Retrieved January 27, 2007.
[18] "Confederation Rejected: Newfoundland and the Canadian Confederation,
  1864–1869: Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage". Newfoundland and Labrador
  Heritage. 2000. Retrieved July 29, 2013.
[19] Sandra Clarke (2010). Newfoundland and Labrador English. Edinburgh
  University Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-7486-2617-5.
[20] Trevor W. Harrison, John W. Friesen; Trevor Harrison; John W. Friesen
  (2010). Canadian Society in the Twenty-first Century: An Historical
  Sociological Approach. Canadian Scholars' Press. p. 115. ISBN
  978-1-55130-371-0.
[21] Raymond Benjamin Blake (1994). Canadians at Last: Canada Integrates
  Newfoundland As a Province. University of Toronto Press. p. 4. ISBN
  978-0-8020-6978-8.
[22] Fred M. Shelley (2013). Nation Shapes: The Story behind the World's
  Borders. ABC-CLIO. p. 175. ISBN 978-1-61069-106-2.
[23] James Laxer (2010). The Border: Canada, the US and Dispatches From the
  49th Parallel. Doubleday Canada. p. 215. ISBN 978-0-385-67290-0.
[24] A. Oye Cukwurah (1967). The Settlement of Boundary Disputes in
  International Law. Manchester University Press. p. 186.
  GGKEY:EXSJZ7S92QE.
[25] Johnson-shoyama-graduate School (2013). Governance and Public Policy
  in Canada: A View from the Provinces. University of Toronto Press. p. 19.
  ISBN 978-1-4426-0493-3.
[26] Mark Nuttall (2012). Encyclopedia of the Arctic. Routledge. p. 301.
  ISBN 978-1-57958-436-8.
[27] Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2002). Oecd
  Territorial Reviews: Canada. OECD Publishing. p. 16. ISBN
  978-92-64-19832-6.
[28] Carl Waldman; Molly Braun (2009). Atlas of the North American Indian.
  Infobase Publishing. p. 234. ISBN 978-1-4381-2671-5.
[29] McIlwraith, Thomas Forsyth; Edward K. Muller (2001). North America:
  The Historical Geography of a Changing Continent. Rowman & Littlefield.
  p. 359. ISBN 978-0-7425-0019-8.
[30] Gregory S. Mahler (1987). New Dimensions of Canadian Federalism:
  Canada in a Comparative Perspective. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press. p.
  86. ISBN 978-0-8386-3289-5.
[31] Ian Peach (2007). Constructing Tomorrows Federalism: New Perspectives
  on Canadian Governance. Univ. of Manitoba Press. p. 52. ISBN
  978-0-88755-315-8.
[32] Jocelyn Maclure (2003). Quebec Identity: The Challenge of Pluralism.
  McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-7735-7111-2.
[33] Nathan Tidridge (2011). Canada's Constitutional Monarchy: An
  Introduction to Our Form of Government. Dundurn. p. 281. ISBN
  978-1-4597-0084-0.
[34] Laura Elizabeth Pinto (2012). Curriculum Reform in Ontario:
  'Common-Sense' Policy Processes and Democratic Possibilities. University
  of Toronto Press. p. 325. ISBN 978-1-4426-6158-5.
[35] Gordon Barnhart (2004). Saskatchewan Premiers of the Twentieth
  Century. University of Regina Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-88977-164-2.
[36] Barry Scott Zellen (2009). On Thin Ice: The Inuit, the State, and the
  Challenge of Arctic Sovereignty. Lexington Books. p. 54. ISBN
  978-0-7391-3280-7.
[37] Nathan Tidridge (2011). Canada's Constitutional Monarchy. Dundurn. p.
  94. ISBN 978-1-55488-980-8.
[38] Corinna Pike; Christopher McCreery (2011). Canadian Symbols of
  Authority: Maces, Chains, and Rods of Office. Dundurn. p. 183. ISBN
  978-1-4597-0016-1.
[39] William Cross (2011). Political Parties. UBC Press. pp. 17–20. ISBN
  978-0-7748-4111-5.
[40] Alain-Gustave Gagnon (2000). The Canadian Social Union Without Quebec:
  8 Critical Analyses. IRPP. pp. 209–210. ISBN 978-0-88645-184-4.
[41] "Premiers". Parliament of Canada. Retrieved August 6, 2013.
[42] "Lieutenant Governors and Territorial Commissioners". Parliament of
  Canada. Retrieved August 6, 2013.
[43] John Wilson (2012). Failed Hope: The Story of the Lost Peace. Dundurn.
  p. 38. ISBN 978-1-4597-0345-2.
[44] "Design and Construction of the Vimy Ridge Memorial". Veteran Affairs
  Canada. August 8, 1998. Retrieved July 20, 2007.
[45] An amendment to the Constitution of Canada in relation to the
  following matters may be made only in accordance with subsection
  38(1)...notwithstanding any other law or practice, the establishment of
  new provinces.
[46] Norman L. Nicholson (1979). The boundaries of the Canadian
  Confederation. McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP. pp. 174–175. ISBN
  978-0-7705-1742-7.
[47] CBC News (November 23, 2004). "Northern territories 'eventually' to be
  given provincial status". Retrieved January 27, 2007.

Further reading

Main article: Bibliography of Canadian provinces and territories
- Keith Brownsey; Michael Howlett (2001). The Provincial State in Canada:
  Politics in the Provinces and Territories. University of Toronto Press.
  ISBN 978-1-55111-368-5.
- Christopher Moore; Bill Slavin; Janet Lunn (2002). The Big Book of
  Canada: Exploring the Provinces and Territories. Random House Digital,
  Inc. ISBN 978-0-88776-457-8.
- A. Paul Pross; Catherine A. Pross. Government Publishing in the Canadian
  Provinces: a Prescriptive Study. Toronto, Ont.: University of Toronto
  Press, 1972. ISBN 0-8020-1827-0
- Stephen Tomblin (1995). Ottawa and the Outer Provinces: The Challenge of
  Regional Integration in Canada. James Lorimer & Company. ISBN
  978-1-55028-476-8.

External links

- Provincial and territorial government web sites – Service Canada
- Provincial and territorial legislature web sites – Parliament of Canada
- Difference between provinces and territories – Intergovernmental Affairs
- Provincial and territorial statistics – Statistics Canada
- Provincial and territorial immigration information – Citizenship and
  Immigration Canada
- Canadian governments compared – University of Public Administration

Former colonies and territories in Canada

A number of states and polities formerly claimed colonies and territories
in Canada prior to the evolution of the current provinces and territories
under the federal system.¹ North America prior to colonization was occupied
by a variety of Aboriginal polities of different complextions, from small
independent band societies typical of the sparsely populated North, to
loose confederacies made up of numerous hunting bands from a variety of
ethnic groups (Plains region), to more structured confederacies of
sedentary farming villages (Great Lakes region), to stratified hereditary
structures centred on a fishing economy (Plateau and Pacific Coast
regions).² The colonization of Canada by Europeans began in the 10th
century, when Norsemen explored and, ultimately unsuccessfully, attempted
to settle areas of the northeastern fringes of North America.³ Early
permanent European settlements in what is now Canada included the late 16th
and 17th century French colonies of Acadia and Canada (New France),⁴ the
English colonies of Newfoundland (island) and Rupert's Land,⁵ the Scottish
colonies of Nova Scotia and Port Royal.⁶

France relinquished nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763
after the Seven Years' War to the British Empire.⁷ Britain's imperial
government over a century later then ceded the land to Canadian control in
1867 after confederation.⁸ Since then, Canada's external borders have
changed several times, and had grown from four initial provinces to ten
provinces and three territories by 1999.⁹

Aboriginal societies

Main articles: Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas and
Indigenous languages of the Americas

Aboriginal peoples in what is now Canada did not form state societies, and
in the absence of state structures, academics usually classify aboriginal
people by their traditional "lifeway" (or primary economic activity) and
ecological/climactic region into "culture areas", or by their language
families.¹⁰

The Mi'kmaq in today's Maritimes were governed as seven separate
"districts" with their own district chiefs and councils coordinated by the
Grand Council meeting yearly on Cape Breton Island. Following their first
conflict with the British invaders (King Philip's War) in 1677, the Mi'kmaq
joined the wider Wabanaki Confederacy, an alliance with four other
Algonquian-language nations: the Abenaki, Penobscot, Passamaquoddy, and
Maliseet.¹¹ ¹² To the west around the Great Lakes Council of Three Fires
was formed in 796 CE according to oral history, between the Ojibwa, Odawa
and the Potawatomi.¹³ The five (later six) tribes of the Iroquois
Confederacy, was united in 1142 CE according to their oral traditions.¹⁴ ¹⁵
There was also the four or possibly five tribes of the Huron Confederacy,¹⁶
both in the Great Lakes region. The Blackfoot Confederacy in present-day
Alberta and neighbouring Montana originally consisted of three dialect
groups of the same language (Peigan, Kainai, and Siksika [they can each be
called "tribes"¹⁷ > but the Blackfoot as a whole are also referred to as a
"tribe"¹⁸ reflecting the inconsistent usage of that term]) but they were
later joined the completely unrelated Sarcee people. The Iron Confederacy
of present-day Alberta and Saskatchewan consisted of numerous bands of
mixed Plains Cree, Assiniboine, and Saulteaux people.

The Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast and peoples of the
Northwest Plateau developed highly structured cultures from relatively
dense populations. Some cultures in this region were very similar and share
certain elements, such as the importance of fishing to their communities.¹⁹

- Arctic cultural area – (Eskimo–Aleut languages)
- Subarctic culture area – (Na-Dene languages – Algic languages)
- Eastern Woodlands (Northeast) cultural area – (Algic languages and
  Iroquoian languages)
- Plains cultural area – (Siouan–Catawban languages)
- Northwest Plateau cultural area – (Salishan languages)
- Northwest Coast cultural area – (Penutian languages, Tsimshianic
  languages and Wakashan languages)

European colonization

Further information: European colonization of the Americas and Timeline of
the colonization of North America

Norse settlement

See also: Norse colonization of the Americas

While the Norse colonies in Greenland lasted for almost 500 years, the
continental North American settlements were small and did not develop into
permanent colonies.²⁰ Vinland – Markland – Helluland are the names given to
three lands possibly in Canada, discovered by Norsemen as described in the
Eiríks saga rauða²¹ and Grœnlendinga saga.²²

- L'Anse aux Meadows – settlement (carbon dating estimate 990–1050²³ )

Portuguese claims

See also: Portuguese colonization of the Americas

Based on the Treaty of Tordesillas the Portuguese Crown claimed it had
territorial rights in the Atlantic waters visited by explorer John Cabot in
1497 and 1498.²⁴ In 1498 to 1500, the Portuguese mariner João Fernandes
Lavrador visited the north Atlantic coast, accounting for the appearance of
the name "Labrador" on topographical maps of the period.²⁵ In 1501 and 1502
Miguel and Gaspar Corte-Real explored present day Newfoundland claiming the
land in the name of Portuguese Empire.²⁶ The extent and nature of
Portuguese activity on the Canadian mainland during the 16th century
remains unclear and controversial.²⁶ ²⁷

New France

Further information: French colonization of the Americas

In 1534, Jacques Cartier planted a cross in the Gaspé Peninsula and claimed
the land in the name of Francis I of France.²⁸ In 1600, a trading post was
established at Tadoussac, but only five of the sixteen settlers survived
the winter and returned home that summer.²⁸ In 1604, the first year round
permanent settlement was founded by Samuel de Champlain at Île-Saint-Croix
on Baie Française (Bay of Fundy) which was moved to Port-Royal in 1605.²⁹
In 1608, Samuel de Champlain founded the city of Quebec with 28 men of whom
20 died from lack of food and from scurvy the first winter.²⁹ ³⁰

- New France – (1534 to 1763) – List of French forts in North America
  + Acadia – (1604 to 1713)³¹
  + Canada (New France) – (1608 to 1763)³²
  + Île Royale (Cape Breton) - (1713–1763)
  + Isle Saint-Jean (PEI) – (1713–1763)
  + Pays d'en Haut (1639 to 1763)
  + Pays des Illinois (1673 to 1717)
  + Terre Neuve (Newfoundland) – (1610–1713)

British North America

See also: British colonization of the Americas and Scottish colonization of
the Americas

British colonization of the Americas (including colonization sponsored by
both the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland before the 1707 Acts of
Union which created the Kingdom of Great Britain) began in the late 16th
century and reached its peak when colonies had been established throughout
the Americas. The Kingdom of Great Britain acquired the French colony of
Acadia in 1713 and then Canada, New France.³³

Great Britain also claimed the west coast of North America; indirectly via
(from 1804) the North West Company and (after 1821) Hudson's Bay Company
licenses west of the Rocky Mountains, the Columbia and New Caledonia fur
districts, most of which were jointly claimed by the United States, which
called it the Oregon Country, from 1818 until the 49th parallel as the
international boundary was extended west of the Rockies by the Oregon
Treaty of 1846.³³ The Colony of Vancouver Island, founded in 1849, and the
Colony of British Columbia, founded in 1858, were combined in 1866 with the
name Colony of British Columbia until joining Confederation in 1871.³³
British Columbia also was expanded with the addition what had been the
Colony of the Queen Charlotte Islands and also most of the Stikine
Territory, in 1863, and upon joining Confederation with the addition of the
Peace River Country, formerly part of the Northwest Territories.³³

- British America (Colonial America) – (1607 to 1783) – List of Hudson's
  Bay Company trading posts
  + St. John's, Newfoundland (from 1583 English)
  + Cuper's Cove, Newfoundland (from 1610 English)
  + Renews, Newfoundland – (from 1615 English)
  + Nova Scotia – (1621-2 Scottish)
  + Cape Breton – (1625 Scottish)
  + Saint John, New Brunswick (from 1631 English)
  + Port Royal Colony – (1629 to 1632 Scottish)
  + Rupert's Land – (1670 to 1870)
  + Nova Scotia – (from 1710)
  + Prince Edward Island – (from 1763)
  + Cape Breton – (1763–1820)
  + Province of Quebec – (1763 to 1791)
- British North America – (1783 to  1907)
  + North-Western Territory – (1783 to  1870)
  + New Brunswick – (1784)
  + The Canadas • (Lower Canada and Upper Canada) – (1791 to 1841)
  + Columbia District – (1793 to 1846) – (also referred to as Oregon
    Country)
  + New Caledonia – (1808 to 1858)
  + Red River Colony – (1812)
  + Province of Canada – (1841 to 1867)
  + Colony of Vancouver Island – (1849 to 1866)
  + Colony of the Queen Charlotte Islands – (1853 to 1863)
  + Colony of British Columbia – (1858 to 1866, aka the Mainland Colony)
  + Stickeen Territories – (1862)
  + Colony of British Columbia – (1866 to 1871)
- Dominion of Newfoundland – (1907 to 1949)

New Spain

See also: Spanish colonization of the Americas

Spanish colonizers had originally taken the lead in the Pacific Northwest
coast, with the voyages of Juan José Pérez Hernández in 1774 and 1775.³⁴
This was in response to intelligence that the Russians had begun to explore
the Pacific Coast of North America, which the Spanish considered part of
New Spain.³⁵

- Santa Cruz de Nuca and Fort San Miguel at Nootka Sound – (1789 to 1795)
  The first colony in British Columbia and the only Spanish settlement in
  what is now Canada.³⁶

Russian America

Further information: Russian colonization of the Americas

In 1799, Tsar Paul I proclaimed Russian title and established the Russian
American Company's trade monopoly and rule in the North Pacific through the
creation of Russian America.³⁷ The stated southward limit of Russian claims
was 51 degrees north latitude, roughly that of Cape Scott at the northern
tip of Vancouver Island.³⁸ Though no Russian settlements were established
in what is now British Columbia, Russian trade and scientific expeditions
frequented the North Coast. Intense tripartite negotiation led to treaties
between Russia with the US and Britain in 1824 and 1825, respectively,
setting the new southward limit of Russian territories at 54 degrees, 40
minutes north latitude, corresponding with Cape Muzon at the southern tip
of Dall Island, at the extreme southwest of what is today the Alaska
Panhandle.³⁹ ⁴⁰

Canadian territorial evolution

Main article: Territorial evolution of Canada

Canada became a semi-independent federated grouping of provinces and a
dominion after the Constitution Act of 1867 (formerly called the British
North America Act, 1867).⁹ Originally three provinces of British North
America, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and the Province of Canada (which would
become Ontario and Quebec) united to form the new nation.⁹ Full
independence came with the Statute of Westminster in 1931 and the Canada
Act in 1982. Since 1867, Canada's external borders have changed several
times, and had grown from four initial provinces to ten provinces and three
territories by 1999.⁹

- District of Keewatin – (1876 to 1905)
- Districts of the Northwest Territories – (1882–1905) For much of the
  Northwest Territories early history it was divided into several districts
  for ease of administration.⁴¹
- District of Ungava – (1895 to 1920) Covered the northern portion of what
  is today Quebec, the interior of Labrador, and the offshore islands to
  the west and north of Quebec, which are now part of Nunavut.⁴²

Alaska boundary dispute

Main article: Alaska boundary dispute

The Alaska boundary dispute, simmering since the Alaska purchase of 1867,
became critical when gold was discovered in the Yukon during the late 1890s
and Canada wanted its own Pacific port connected to the gold fields.⁴³
Canada argued its historic boundary with Russian America included the Lynn
Canal and the port of Skagway, both occupied by the U.S.,⁴³ while the U.S.
claimed the Atlin District and the lower Stikine and even Whitehorse. The
dispute went to arbitration in 1903, with the American claims largely
upheld as the British delegate sided with the Americans to preserve the
British interest in a close relationship with the U.S.⁴⁴

Norwegian claim

See also: Territorial claims of Norway

Otto Sverdrup a Norwegian explorer claimed the Sverdrup Islands for Norway
in 1898, but the Norwegian government showed no interest in pursuing the
claim until 1928.⁴⁵ On 11 November 1930 (Remembrance Day) after formal
Canadian intervention, Norway recognized Canada's sovereignty over the
islands.⁴⁶

- Sverdrup Islands – (1898–1930)

Danish claim

Further information: Territorial claims in the Arctic

Hans Island is the smallest of three islands located in Kennedy Channel;
the others are Franklin Island and Crozier Island.⁴⁷ The island is the
traditional hunting grounds of the Inuit and is claimed by both Canada and
Denmark.⁴⁷ In 2007, updates of satellite photos led Canada to recognize the
international border as crossing through the middle of Hans Island, not to
the east of the island as previously claimed.⁴⁸

- Hans Island – (1933–present)

Northwest Passage

Main article: Northwest Passage international waters dispute

The Canadian government considers the Northwestern Passages part of
Canadian Internal Waters,⁴⁹ but the United States and various European
countries maintain they are an international strait or transit passage,
allowing free and unencumbered passage.⁵⁰

Areas disputed by the United States

Main article: List of areas disputed by Canada and the United States

Although Canada and the United States share the longest non-militarized
border between two countries, there is a long history of disputes about the
border's demarcation.⁵¹

Proposed provinces and territories

Main article: Proposed provinces and territories of Canada

Since Confederation in 1867, there have been several proposals for new
Canadian provinces and territories. The Constitution of Canada requires an
amendment for the creation of a new province⁵² but the creation of a new
territory requires only an act of Parliament;⁵³ therefore, it is easier
legislatively to create a territory than a province.

See also

- Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial – Newfoundland purchased the ground
  in 1921
- Canadian National Vimy Memorial – considered on Canadian territory since
  1922
- List of Canadian monarchs
- List of North American cities by year of foundation
- Canada – Wikipedia book

References

[1] "Eras". Canada History. 2009. Retrieved 2010. Check date values in:
  |access-date= (help)
[2] "First Nations in Canada". Aadnc-aandc.gc.ca. Retrieved 2014. Check
  date values in: |access-date= (help)
[3] Reeves, Arthur Middleton (2009). The Norse Discovery of America.
  Bibliophileċċ. p. 191.
[4] "French Colonies". Ashley Araiza, Cevera Clark, & Donielle Wolfe.
  Harlingen School District. 2009. Retrieved 2010-06-22.
[5] "List of Former British Dominions Colonies, Protectorates Protected and
  Associated States Mandated and Trust Territories". Flags of the World.
  2009. Retrieved 2010-06-22.
[6] "Scots". The Canadian Encyclopedia. 2008. Retrieved 2010-06-22.
[7] "The Seven Years' War in Canada". The Quebec History Encyclopedia
  (Marianopolis College). 2005. Retrieved 2010-09-12.
[8] "Canadian Confederation". Library and Archives Canada. 2005. Retrieved
  2010-09-12.
[9] "Territorial Evolution, 1867 to 1999". Natural Resources Canada. 2010.
  Retrieved 2010-04-12.
[10] William C. Sturtevant (1978). Handbook of North American Indians.
  Government Printing Office. pp. 1–. GGKEY:0GTLW81WTLJ.
[11] The allied tribes occupied the territory which the French named
  Acadia. The tribes ranged from present-day northern and eastern New
  England in the United States to the Maritime Provinces of Canada. At the
  time of contact with the French (late 16th century), they were expanding
  from their maritime base westward along the Gaspé Peninsula/St. Lawrence
  River at the expense of Iroquoian-speaking tribes. The Míkmaq name for
  this peninsula was Kespek (meaning "last-acquired").
[12] "Wabanaki". Wabanaki. 2014. Retrieved 2014-02-28.
[13] "Background 1: Ojibwa history". Department of Science and Technology
  Studies · The Center for Cultural Design. 2003. Retrieved 2010-04-15.
[14] Johansen, Bruce (1995). "Dating the Iroquois Confederacy". Akwesasne
  Notes New Series. 1 (3): 62–63. Retrieved 2010-08-16.
[15] Bruce Elliott Johansen; Mann, Barbara A. (2000). Encyclopedia of the
  Haudenosaunee (Iroquois Confederacy. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 14.
  ISBN 978-0-313-30880-2.
[16] Trigger, Bruce G (1987). The children of Aataentsic: a history of the
  Huron People to 1660. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 156. ISBN
  0-7735-0626-8. Retrieved 2010-08-11.
[17] Proceedings of the Canadian Institute, Toronto, Being a Continuation
  of "The Canadian Journal of Science, Literature and History.". Canadian
  Institute (1849–1914). 1887. p. 1.
[18] "Blackfoot (people) - Encyclopædia Britannica". Britannica.com.
  Retrieved 2014-02-28.
[19] Bobbie Kalman (2007). A Visual Dictionary of Native Communities.
  Crabtree Publishing Company. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-7787-3505-2.
[20] Magnus Magnusson; Hermann Palsson (1965). Graenlendinga saga. Penguin
  Books Limited. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-14-044154-3.
[21] J. Sephton, (English, translation) (1880). "The Saga of Erik the Red".
  Icelandic Saga Database. Retrieved 2010-08-11.
[22] "Vikings: The North Atlantic Saga". National Museum of Natural
  History, Arctic Studies Center- (Smithsonian Institution). 2008.
  Retrieved 2010-08-11.
[23] Linda S. Cordell; Kent Lightfoot; Francis McManamon; George Milner
  (2008). Archaeology in America: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia.
  ABC-CLIO. pp. 82–. ISBN 978-0-313-02189-3.
[24] Prowse D. W. (Daniel Woodley) (2009). The Discovery of Newfoundland by
  John Cabot in 1497. BiblioLife. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-113-54841-2.
[25] Bailey Bailey Wallys Diffie (1977). Foundations of the Portuguese
  Empire: 1415 - 1580. U of Minnesota Press. p. 464. ISBN
  978-0-8166-0782-2.
[26] "The Portuguese Explorers". Memorial University of Newfoundland. 2004.
  Retrieved 2010-06-27.
[27] Bill Rompkey (2005). Story of Labrador. McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP.
  p. 20. ISBN 978-0-7735-7121-1.
[28] Roger E. Riendeau (2007). A Brief History of Canada. Infobase
  Publishing. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-4381-0822-3.
[29] James D. Kornwolf (2002). Architecture and Town Planning in Colonial
  North America. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 14. ISBN
  978-0-8018-5986-1.
[30] Ruben C. Bellan (2003). Canada's Cities: A History. Whitefield Press.
  p. 2. ISBN 978-0-9699686-1-0.
[31] André Magord (2009). The Quest for Autonomy in Acadia. Peter Lang. p.
  31. ISBN 978-90-5201-476-0.
[32] Allan Greer (1997). The People of New France. University of Toronto
  Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-8020-7816-2.
[33] "Territorial Evolution of Canada, 1667 to 1873". Natural Resources
  Canada. 2010. Retrieved 2010-04-12.
[34] Jean Barman (1996). The West beyond the West: a history of British
  Columbia. University of Toronto Press. pp. 20–26. ISBN 978-0-8020-7185-9.
[35] María Luisa Rodríguez-Sala (2006). De San Blas hasta la Alta
  California: los viajes y diarios de Juan Joseph Pérez Hernández. UNAM. p.
  35. ISBN 978-970-32-3474-5.
[36] John Eric Vining (2010). The Trans-Appalachian Wars, 1790-1818:
  Pathways to America's First Empire. Trafford Publishing. p. 143. ISBN
  978-1-4269-7964-4.
[37] A. Aleksei I. Miller; Alfred J. Reiber (2004). Imperial rule. Central
  European University Press. pp. 161–164. ISBN 978-963-9241-98-5.
[38] "British North America circa 1823". Natural Resources Canada.
  Retrieved 2010-12-11.
[39] Robert Greenhow; United States. Dept. of State; United States.
  Congress. Senate. Select Committee on the Oregon Territory (1840).
  Memoir, historical and political, on the northwest coast of North
  America, and the adjacent territories: illustrated by a map and a
  geographical view of those countries. Blair and Rives, printers. p. 189.
[40] "The Plans for Russian Expansion in the New World and the North
  Pacific in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries". The European
  Association for American Studies. 2010. p. s-20. Retrieved 2010-12-11.
[41] Carl Waldman; Molly Braun (2009). Atlas of the North American Indian.
  Infobase Publishing. p. 234. ISBN 978-1-4381-2671-5.
[42] Atlas of Canada. "Territorial evolution".
[43] D.M.L. FARR (2009). "Alaska Boundary Dispute". The Canadian
  Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2010-04-11.
[44] Haglund, David G; Onea, Tudor (2008). Victory without Triumph:
  Theodore Roosevelt, Honour, and the Alaska Panhandle Boundary Dispute.
  19. Diplomacy and Statecraft. pp. 20–41. doi:10.1080/09592290801913692.
[45] William J. Mills (2003). Exploring Polar Frontiers: A Historical
  Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 129. ISBN 978-1-57607-422-0.
[46] Pierre Berton (2001). The Arctic Grail: The Quest for the North West
  Passage and the North Pole, 1818-1909. Doubleday Canada. p. 629. ISBN
  978-0-385-65845-4.
[47] Rongxing Guo (2006). Territorial Disputes and Resource Management: A
  Global Handbook. Nova Publishers. p. 134. ISBN 978-1-60021-445-5.
[48] "Arctic Sovereignty Policy Review" (PDF). Carleton University School
  of Journalism & Communication. 2011. Retrieved 2012-01-01.
[49] "Canadian Jurisdiction – Transport Publication TP14202E". Transport
  Canada. 2009.Sections 1–9
[50] Carnaghan, Matthew; Goody, Allison (2006). "Canadian Arctic
  Sovereignty". Library of Parliament (Political and Social Affairs
  Division). Retrieved 2010-12-11.
[51] Donald Malcolm McRae; Gordon Ross Munro (1989). Canadian Oceans Policy
  : National Strategies and the New Law of the Sea. UBC Press. p. 50. ISBN
  978-0-7748-0346-5.
[52] "Amendment by general procedure". Constitution Act, 1982. Department
  of Justice, Government of Canada. Retrieved 17 March 2010. An amendment
  to the Constitution of Canada in relation to the following matters may be
  made only in accordance with subsection 38(1)...notwithstanding any other
  law or practice, the establishment of new provinces.
[53] Norman L. Nicholson (1979). The boundaries of the Canadian
  Confederation. McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP. pp. 174–175. ISBN
  978-0-7705-1742-7.

Further reading

Main article: Bibliography of Canada
- Derek Hayes (2006). Historical Atlas of Canada: Canada's History
  Illustrated with Original Maps. Douglas & McIntyre. ISBN
  978-1-55365-077-5.
- R. Cole Harris; Geoffrey J. Matthews (1987). Historical Atlas of Canada:
  From the beginning to 1800. University of Toronto Press. ISBN
  978-0-8020-2495-4.

External links

- Maps: 1667–1999 – Library and Archives Canada
- Territorial Evolution, 1670–2001 – Historical Atlas of Canada

Territorial evolution of Canada

The Dominion of Canada was formed on July 1, 1867, when the British
colonies of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia were merged to form a
single Dominion within the British Empire. Canada continued to expand
across North America as other British colonies joined with or were ceded to
Canada, eventually growing from four provinces to ten provinces and three
territories. Politically, Canada gained increasing independence in the 20th
century, eventually becoming a fully sovereign state in 1982.

Notes

- The Northwest Territories (NWT) have been made up of several districts,
  but one of these, the District of Keewatin, once had a higher status than
  the other districts. Because of this unique status, it is handled
  separately from the NWT on this list. After 1905 it no longer had any
  special status, and it was finally dissolved in 1999 when Nunavut was
  created.
- The maps used on this page, for simplicity, use the modern version of the
  borders of Labrador. For much of its history, Canada claimed Labrador
  extended only along the coast (the "Coasts of Labrador"), while
  Newfoundland claimed the larger area. It is Newfoundland's claim that is
  used.
- The Arctic Islands were still being explored and discovered throughout
  Canada's history; apart from the Sverdrup Islands, however, they were all
  claimed by Canada upon discovery, and to simplify the list the individual
  discoveries are omitted.

Timeline

See also

- Former colonies and territories in Canada
- List of areas disputed by Canada and the United States
- List of Hudson's Bay Company trading posts
- List of French forts in North America
- Proposed provinces and territories of Canada
- Territorial claims in the Arctic
- Territorial evolution of North America since 1763

References

[1] "Territorial Evolution, 1867". GeoGratis. Natural Resources Canada.
  January 8, 2015. Retrieved October 17, 2015.
[2]  Rupert's Land Act, 1868. Wikisource. July 31, 1868.
[3]  Rupert's Land and North-Western Territory Order. Wikisource. June 23,
  1870.
[4]  Manitoba Act, 1870. Wikisource. May 12, 1870.
[5] Hall, David J. (March 4, 2015). "North-West Territories, 1870-1905".
  The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Canada. Retrieved October 17, 2015.
[6] Moffat, Ben (2007). "Boundaries of Saskatchewan". Encyclopedia of
  Saskatchewan. Canadian Plains Research Center, University of Regina.
  Retrieved August 22, 2009.
[7] "Territorial Evolution, 1870". GeoGratis. Natural Resources Canada.
  January 8, 2015. Retrieved October 17, 2015.
[8] "Maps 1667-1999 Maps: 1871". Canadian Confederation. Library and
  Archives Canada. May 2, 2005. Retrieved October 17, 2015.
[9]  British Columbia Terms of Union. Wikisource. May 16, 1871.
[10] "Provinces and Territories: British Columbia: Entered Confederation:
  1871". Canadian Confederation. Library and Archives Canada. August 9,
  2006. Retrieved October 17, 2015.
[11] "Territorial Evolution, 1871". GeoGratis. Natural Resources Canada.
  January 8, 2015. Retrieved October 17, 2015.
[12]  Prince Edward Island Terms of Union. Wikisource. June 26, 1873.
[13] Bolger, Francis William Pius (1961). "Prince Edward Island and
  Confederation 1863-1873" (PDF). Report. Toronto: Canadian Catholic
  Historical Association. pp. 25–30. Retrieved August 22, 2009.
[14] "Territorial Evolution, 1873". GeoGratis. Natural Resources Canada.
  January 8, 2015. Retrieved October 17, 2015.
[15] Mills, David (1877). Report on the Boundaries of the Province of
  Ontario. Toronto: Hunter, Rose & Co. p. 347.
[16] "Territorial Evolution, 1874". Natural Resources Canada > Atlas Home >
  Explore Our Maps > History > Territorial Evolution > Territorial
  Evolution, 1874. Government of Canada. March 18, 2009. Archived from the
  original on June 18, 2009. Retrieved August 22, 2009.
[17] "Keewatin". The Daily Free Press. December 1, 1876. p. 1.
[18] "Who Named the North-Land?". Manitoba Free Press. August 19, 1876. p.
  3.
[19] "Keewatin". Manitoba Free Press. April 1, 1876. p. 1.
[20] Nicholson, Normal L. (1979). The Boundaries of the Canadian
  Confederation. Toronto: Macmillan Company of Canada Ltd. p. 113.
[21] "Territorial Evolution, 1876". GeoGratis. Natural Resources Canada.
  January 8, 2015. Retrieved October 17, 2015.
[22] "Territorial Evolution, 1880". GeoGratis. Natural Resources Canada.
  January 8, 2015. Retrieved October 17, 2015.
[23] "Manitoba's Boundaries". Association of Manitoba Land Surveyors.
  Archived from the original on July 22, 2007. Retrieved August 18, 2009.
[24] "Territorial Evolution, 1881". GeoGratis. Natural Resources Canada.
  January 8, 2015. Retrieved October 17, 2015.
[25] Parliament, Canada (1893). Report of the Dominion Fishery Commission
  on the Fisheries of the Province of Ontario. p. 36.
[26]  Canada (Ontario Boundary) Act 1889. Wikisource. August 12, 1889.
[27] Keltie, J. Scott, ed. (1899). The Statesman's Year-Book. London:
  MacMillan & Co. p. 223.
[28] "Territorial Evolution, 1895". GeoGratis. Natural Resources Canada.
  January 8, 2015. Retrieved October 17, 2015.
[29] "Territorial Evolution, 1897". GeoGratis. Natural Resources Canada.
  January 8, 2015. Retrieved October 17, 2015.
[30] Extract from Order in Council (Dominion) of the 18th December, 1897,
  Establishing Provisional Districts in the Unorganized Portions of Canada
  (PDF). The Labrador Boundary Dispute Documents (Report). Volume VIII. pp.
  4012–4013. Retrieved May 9, 2014.
[31]  Yukon Territory Act. Wikisource. June 13, 1898.
[32] Yukon Territory Act, S.C. 1901, c. 41, s. 14
[33]  Alberta Act. Wikisource. July 20, 1905.
[34]  Saskatchewan Act. Wikisource. July 20, 1905.
[35] Thomson, Malcolm M.; Tanner, Richard W. (April 1977). "Canada's Prime
  Meridian". Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. Toronto.
  71: 204. Bibcode:1977JRASC..71..204T.
[36] Widdis, Randy (2006). "49th Parallel". The Encyclopedia of
  Saskatchewan. Canadian Plains Research Center, University of Regina.
  Retrieved January 6, 2009.
[37] Lewry, Marilyn (2006). "Boundary surveys". The Encyclopedia of
  Saskatchewan. Canadian Plains Research Center, University of Regina.
  Retrieved January 6, 2009.
[38] "Territorial Evolution, 1905". GeoGratis. Natural Resources Canada.
  January 8, 2015. Retrieved October 17, 2015.
[39] "History of the Name of the Northwest Territories". Prince of Wales
  Northern Heritage Centre. Retrieved October 17, 2015.
[40] "Henri Dorion debunks the Ten Great Myths about the Labrador
  boundary". Quebec – National Assembly – First Session, 34th Legislature.
  October 17, 1991. Archived from the original on October 26, 2009.
  Retrieved October 17, 2015.
[41]  Newfoundland Act. Wikisource. March 23, 1949.
[42] Webb, Jeff A. (March 2008). "The Commission of Government, 1934-1949".
  Heritage: Newfoundland & Labrador. Memorial University of Newfoundland
  and the C.R.B. Foundation. Retrieved October 17, 2015.
[43] "Territorial Evolution, 1949". GeoGratis. Natural Resources Canada.
  January 8, 2015. Retrieved October 17, 2015.
[44] "Territorial Evolution, 1999". GeoGratis. Natural Resources Canada.
  January 8, 2015. Retrieved October 17, 2015.
[45] "Constitution Amendment, 2001 (Newfoundland and Labrador)". Government
  of Canada. December 6, 2001. Archived from the original on August 31,
  2014. Retrieved October 17, 2015.
[46] "Yukon Territory name change to Yukon" (PDF). Library and Archives
  Canada. April 1, 2003. Retrieved July 14, 2009.

Further reading

Main article: Bibliography of Canada
- "Territorial Evolution". The Atlas of Canada. Natural Resources Canada.
  June 3, 2015.
- Hayes, Derek (2002). Historical Atlas of Canada. Douglas & McIntyre. ISBN
  1-55054-918-9.
- Matthews, Geoffrey J (1987). Historical atlas of Canada, Volume 1.
  University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-2495-5.

External links

- Maps: 1667-1999 - Library and Archives Canada
- Territorial Evolution, 1670-2001 - Historical Atlas of Canada

Government and politics

Monarchy of Canada

The Monarchy of Canada is at the very core of both Canada's federal
structure and Westminster-style of parliamentary and constitutional
democracy.² The monarchy is the foundation of the executive
(Queen-in-Council), legislature (Queen-in-Parliament), and judiciary
(Queen-on-the-Bench) in the federal and each provincial jurisdiction.⁷ The
Canadian sovereign is the personification of the Canadian state and,¹¹ ¹²
as a matter of constitutional law, is Canada.¹³ The current Canadian
monarch, since 6 February 1952, is Queen Elizabeth II. Royal succession is
determined according to common and statute law, which stipulates the throne
is inherited by the sovereign's eldest living, non-Catholic child or, in
the case of a childless sovereign, the nearest collateral line. As such,
Elizabeth's son, Prince Charles, is heir apparent.

Although the person of the sovereign is equally shared with 15 other
independent countries within the Commonwealth of Nations, each country's
monarchy is separate and legally distinct.¹⁸ As a result, the current
monarch is officially titled Queen of Canada and, in this capacity, she,
her consort, and other members of the Canadian Royal Family undertake
public and private functions domestically and abroad as representatives of
Canada. However, the Queen is the only member of the Royal Family with any
constitutional role. While some powers are exercisable only by the
sovereign (such as appointing governors general), most of the monarch's
operational and ceremonial duties (such as summoning the House of Commons
and accrediting ambassadors) are exercised by his or her representative,
the Governor General of Canada.²⁴ In each of Canada's provinces, the
monarch is represented by a lieutenant governor. As the territories are not
sovereign, they do not have a viceroy.

As all executive authority is vested in the sovereign, their assent is
required to allow for bills to become law and for letters patent and orders
in council to have legal effect. While the power for these acts stems from
the Canadian people through the constitutional conventions of democracy,²⁸
executive authority remains vested in the Crown and is only entrusted by
the sovereign to their government on behalf of the people, underlining the
Crown's role in safeguarding the rights, freedoms, and democratic system of
government of Canadians, and reinforcing the fact that "governments are the
servants of the people and not the reverse".²⁹ ³⁰ Thus, within a
constitutional monarchy the sovereign's direct participation in any of
these areas of governance is limited, with the sovereign normally
exercising executive authority only on the advice of the executive
committee of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada, with the sovereign's
legislative and judicial responsibilities largely carried out through
parliamentarians as well as judges and justices of the peace.²⁹ The Crown
today primarily functions as a guarantor of continuous and stable
governance and a nonpartisan safeguard against abuse of power,³¹ the
sovereign acting as a custodian of the Crown's democratic powers and a
representation of the "power of the people above government and political
parties".³⁴ ³⁵

Canada is one of the oldest continuing monarchies in the world.²⁰ ³⁶
Initially established in the 16th century,[n 1] monarchy in Canada has
evolved through a continuous succession of French and British sovereigns
into the independent Canadian sovereigns of today,⁵¹ whose institution is
sometimes colloquially referred to as the Maple Crown.[n 2]

International and domestic aspects

Further information: Commonwealth realm § Relationship of the realms

The person who is the Canadian sovereign is equally shared with 15 other
monarchies (a grouping, including Canada, known informally as the
Commonwealth realms) in the 53-member Commonwealth of Nations, with the
monarch residing predominantly in the oldest and most populous realm, the
United Kingdom, and viceroys (the Governor General of Canada in the federal
sphere and a lieutenant governor in each province) acting as the
sovereign's representatives in Canada. The emergence of this arrangement
paralleled the fruition of Canadian nationalism following the end of the
First World War and culminated in the passage of the Statute of Westminster
in 1931.⁵⁶ Since then, the pan-national Crown has had both a shared and a
separate character and the sovereign's role as monarch of Canada has been
distinct to his or her position as monarch of any other realm,[n 3]²⁰ ⁵⁶ ⁵⁷
including the United Kingdom.[n 4]⁵⁹ ⁶⁰ ⁶¹ ⁶² Only Canadian federal
ministers of the Crown may advise the sovereign on all matters of the
Canadian state,[n 5]⁶¹ ⁶³ ⁶⁴ ⁶⁵ ⁶⁶ ⁶⁷ of which the sovereign, when not in
Canada, is kept abreast by weekly communications with the federal
viceroy.⁶⁸ The monarchy thus ceased to be an exclusively British
institution and in Canada became a Canadian,⁴³ ⁶⁹ ⁷⁰ ⁷¹ or
"domesticated",⁷² establishment, though it is still often denoted as
"British" in both legal and common language,⁴³ for reasons historical,
political, and of convenience.

This division is illustrated in a number of ways: The sovereign, for
example, holds a unique Canadian title and,⁷³ when she and other members of
the Royal Family are acting in public specifically as representatives of
Canada, they use, where possible, Canadian symbols, including the country's
national flag, unique royal symbols, armed forces uniforms,⁷⁴ ⁷⁵ ⁷⁶ ⁷⁷ and
the like, as well as Canadian Forces aircraft or other Canadian-owned
vehicles for travel.⁷⁸ Once in Canadian airspace, or arrived at a Canadian
event taking place abroad, the Canadian Secretary to the Queen, officers of
the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, and other Canadian officials will take
over from whichever of their other realms' counterparts were previously
escorting the Queen or other member of the Royal Family.⁷⁸ ⁷⁹

The sovereign similarly only draws from Canadian funds for support in the
performance of her duties when in Canada or acting as Queen of Canada
abroad; Canadians do not pay any money to the Queen or any other member of
the Royal Family, either towards personal income or to support royal
residences outside of Canada.⁸⁰ ⁸¹

Succession and regency

Further information: Succession to the Canadian throne

As in the other Commonwealth realms, the current heir apparent to the
throne is Prince Charles, with the next three in the line of succession
being the Prince's eldest son, Prince William, followed by William's two
children, Prince George and Princess Charlotte.

Upon a demise of the Crown (the death or abdication of a sovereign), the
late sovereign's heir immediately and automatically succeeds, without any
need for confirmation or further ceremony;⁵⁶ hence arises the phrase "The
King is dead. Long live the King".⁸² ⁸³ It is customary for the accession
of the new monarch to be publicly proclaimed by the governor general on
behalf of the Privy Council, which meets at Rideau Hall after the
accession. Following an appropriate period of mourning, the monarch is also
crowned in the United Kingdom in an ancient ritual, but one not necessary
for a sovereign to reign.[n 6] By the Interpretation Act of 2005, no
incumbent appointee of the Crown is affected by the death of the monarch,
nor are they required to take the Oath of Allegiance again,⁸⁴ and all
references in legislation to previous monarchs, whether in the masculine
(e.g. His Majesty) or feminine (e.g. the Queen), continue to mean the
reigning sovereign of Canada, regardless of his or her gender.⁸⁵ This is
because, in common law, the Crown never dies. After an individual ascends
the throne, he or she usually continues to reign until death.[n 7]

The relationship between the Commonwealth realms is such that any change to
the rules of succession to their respective crowns requires the unanimous
consent of all the realms. Succession is governed by statutes, such as the
Bill of Rights 1689, the Act of Settlement 1701, and the Acts of Union
1707. In 1936, King Edward VIII abdicated and any possible future
descendants of his were excluded from the line of succession.⁸⁶ As the
Statute of Westminster 1931 disallowed the UK from legislating for Canada,
including in relation to succession,⁸⁷ Order in Council P.C. 3144⁸⁸ was
issued, expressing the Cabinet's request and consent for His Majesty's
Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 to become part of the laws of Canada and
the Succession to the Throne Act 1937 gave parliamentary ratification to
that action, together bringing the Act of Settlement and Royal Marriages
Act 1772 into Canadian law.⁸⁹ ⁹⁰ The latter was deemed by the Cabinet in
1947 to be part of Canadian law,[n 8]⁹¹ as is the Bill of Rights 1689,
according to the Supreme Court of Canada.⁹³ The Department of External
Affairs included all succession-related laws in its list of acts within
Canadian law. In 2011, Canada committed to the Perth Agreement with the
other Commonwealth realms, which proposed changes to the rules governing
succession to remove male preference and removal of disqualification
arising from marriage to a Roman Catholic. As a result of the Perth
Agreement, the Canadian parliament passed the Canadian Succession to the
Throne Act, 2013, which gave the country's assent to the Succession to the
Crown Bill 2013, at that time proceeding in the parliament of the United
Kingdom.

Certain aspects of the succession rules have been challenged in the courts.
For example, under the provisions of the Bill of Rights 1689 and the Act of
Settlement 1701, Catholics are barred from succeeding to the throne; this
prohibition has been upheld twice by Canadian courts, once in 2003 and
again in 2014.⁹⁴ ⁹⁵ ⁹⁶ ⁹⁷

Canada has no laws allowing for a regency, should the sovereign be a minor
or debilitated;⁶⁸ none have been passed by the Canadian parliament and it
was made clear by successive Cabinets since 1937 that the United Kingdom's
Regency Act had no applicability to Canada,⁶⁸ as the Canadian Cabinet had
not requested otherwise when the act was passed that year and again in 1943
and 1953. As the 1947 Letters Patent issued by King George VI permit the
Governor General of Canada to exercise almost all of the monarch's powers
in respect of Canada, the viceroy is expected to continue to act as the
personal representative of the monarch, and not any regent, even if the
monarch is a child or incapacitated.⁶⁸ ⁹⁸ ⁹⁹

Federal and provincial aspects

Further information: Monarchy in the Canadian provinces

Canada's monarchy was established at Confederation, when its executive
government and authority were declared (in section 9 of the Constitution
Act, 1867) "to continue and be vested in the Queen". The Canadian monarchy
is a federal one in which the Crown is unitary throughout all jurisdictions
in the country,¹⁰⁰ the sovereignty of the different administrations being
passed on through the overreaching Crown itself as a part of the executive,
legislative, and judicial operations in each of the federal and provincial
spheres and the headship of state being a part of all equally.¹⁰⁰ The Crown
thus links the various governments into a federal state,⁹ though it is
simultaneously also "divided" into eleven legal jurisdictions, or eleven
"crowns"—one federal and ten provincial¹⁰¹ —with the monarch taking on a
distinct legal persona in each.[n 9][n 10] As such, the constitution
instructs that any change to the position of the monarch or his or her
representatives in Canada requires the consent of the Senate, the House of
Commons, and the legislative assemblies of all the provinces.¹⁰⁴

The governor general is appointed by the Queen on the advice of her federal
prime minister and the lieutenant governors are appointed by the governor
general on the advice of the federal prime minister. The commissioners of
Canada's territories are appointed by the federal Governor-in-Council, at
the recommendation of the Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern
Development; but, as the territories are not sovereign entities, the
commissioners are not personal representatives of the sovereign. The
Advisory Committee on Vice-Regal Appointments, which may seek input from
the relevant premier and provincial or territorial community, proposes
candidates for appointment as governor general, lieutenant governor, and
commissioner.¹⁰⁵ ¹⁰⁶

Personification of the Canadian state

As the living embodiment of the Crown,⁸⁵ the sovereign is regarded as the
personification of the Canadian state and,[n 11]³⁴ ⁶⁵ ¹¹¹ ¹¹² ¹¹³ ¹¹⁴ ¹¹⁵
¹¹⁶ ¹¹⁷ ¹¹⁸ ¹¹⁹ as such, must, along with his or her viceregal
representatives, "remain strictly neutral in political terms".⁷¹ The body
of the reigning sovereign thus holds two distinct personas in constant
coexistence: that of a natural-born human being and that of the state as
accorded to him or her through law; the Crown and the monarch are
"conceptually divisible but legally indivisible ... [t]he office cannot
exist without the office-holder",[n 12]⁵⁶ so, even in private, the monarch
is always "on duty".¹²¹ The terms the state, the Crown,¹²² the Crown in
Right of Canada, Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada (French: Sa
Majesté la Reine du chef du Canada),¹²³ and similar are all synonymous and
the monarch's legal personality is sometimes referred to simply as
Canada.¹¹³ ¹²⁴

As such, the king or queen of Canada is the employer of all government
officials and staff (including the viceroys, judges, members of the
Canadian Forces, police officers, and parliamentarians),[n 13] the guardian
of foster children (Crown wards), as well as the owner of all state lands
(Crown land), buildings and equipment (Crown held property),¹²⁶ state owned
companies (Crown corporations), and the copyright for all government
publications (Crown copyright).¹²⁷ This is all in his or her position as
sovereign, and not as an individual; all such property is held by the Crown
in perpetuity and cannot be sold by the sovereign without the proper advice
and consent of his or her ministers.

The monarch is at the apex of the Canadian order of precedence and, as the
embodiment of the state, is also the locus of oaths of allegiance,[n 14]¹⁰⁷
¹¹³ ¹²⁹ ¹³⁰ required of many of the aforementioned employees of the Crown,
as well as by new citizens, as by the Oath of Citizenship. Allegiance is
given in reciprocation to the sovereign's Coronation Oath,¹³¹ wherein he or
she promises "to govern the Peoples of ... Canada ... according to their
respective laws and customs".¹³²

Head of state

Though it has been argued that the term head of state is a republican one
inapplicable in a constitutional monarchy such as Canada, where the monarch
is the embodiment of the state and thus cannot be head of it,¹²¹ the
sovereign is regarded by official government sources,⁴¹ ¹³³ ¹³⁴ ¹³⁵
judges,¹³⁶ constitutional scholars,¹¹³ ¹³⁷ and pollsters as the head of
state,¹³⁸ while the governor general and lieutenant governors are all only
representatives of, and thus equally subordinate to, that figure.¹³⁹ Some
governors general, their staff, government publications,¹¹³ and
constitutional scholars like Edward McWhinney and C. E. S. Franks have,¹⁴⁰
¹⁴¹ however, referred to the position of governor general as that of
Canada's head of state,¹⁴² ¹⁴³ though sometimes qualifying the assertion
with de facto or effective;¹⁴⁴ ¹⁴⁵ ¹⁴⁶ Franks has hence recommended that
the governor general be named officially as the head of state.¹⁴¹ Still
others view the role of head of state as being shared by both the sovereign
and her viceroys.¹⁴⁷ ¹⁴⁸ ¹⁴⁹ Since 1927, governors general have been
received on state visits abroad as though they were heads of state.¹⁵⁰

Officials at Rideau Hall have attempted to use the Letters Patent of 1947
as justification for describing the governor general as head of state.
However, the document makes no such distinction,¹⁵¹ nor does it effect an
abdication of the sovereign's powers in favour of the viceroy,⁶⁸ as it only
allows the governor general to "act on The Queen's behalf".¹⁵² ¹⁵³ Michael
D. Jackson, former protocol officer for Saskatchewan, argued that Rideau
Hall had been attempting to "recast" the governor general as head of state
since the 1970s and doing so preempted both the Queen and all of the
lieutenant governors.¹³⁹ This caused not only "precedence wars" at
provincial events (where the governor general usurped the lieutenant
governor's proper spot as most senior official in attendance)¹⁵⁴ ¹⁵⁵ and
Governor General Adrienne Clarkson to accord herself precedence before the
Queen at a national occasion,¹⁵⁶ but also constitutional issues by
"unbalancing ... the federalist symmetry".¹⁰⁰ ¹⁵⁷ This has been regarded as
both a natural evolution and as a dishonest effort to alter the
constitution without public scrutiny.¹⁵¹ ¹⁵⁸

In a poll conducted by Ipsos-Reid following the first prorogation of the
40th parliament on 4 December 2008, it was found that 42% of the sample
group thought the prime minister was head of state, while 33% felt it was
the governor general. Only 24% named the Queen as head of state,¹³⁸ a
number up from 2002, when the results of an EKOS Research Associates survey
showed only 5% of those polled knew the Queen was head of state (69%
answered that it was the prime minister).¹⁵⁹

Federal constitutional role

Canada's constitution is based on the Westminster parliamentary model,
wherein the role of the Queen is both legal and practical, but not
political.⁷¹ The sovereign is vested with all the powers of state,
collectively known as the Royal Prerogative,¹⁶⁰ leading the populace to be
considered subjects of the Crown.¹⁶¹ However, as the sovereign's power
stems from the people³⁰ ¹⁶² and the monarch is a constitutional one, he or
she does not rule alone, as in an absolute monarchy. Instead, the Crown is
regarded as a corporation sole, with the monarch being the centre of a
construct in which the power of the whole is shared by multiple
institutions of government¹⁶³ —the executive, legislative, and judicial¹⁰
—acting under the sovereign's authority,¹¹³ ¹⁶⁴ which is entrusted for
exercise by the politicians (the elected and appointed parliamentarians and
the ministers of the Crown generally drawn from among them) and the judges
and justices of the peace.²⁹ The monarchy has thus been described as the
underlying principle of Canada's institutional unity and the monarch as a
"guardian of constitutional freedoms"⁴⁵ ¹²⁹ whose "job is to ensure that
the political process remains intact and is allowed to function."⁷¹

The Great Seal of Canada "signifies the power and authority of the Crown
flowing from the sovereign to [the] parliamentary government"¹⁶⁵ and is
applied to state documents such as royal proclamations and letters patent
commissioning cabinet ministers, senators, judges, and other senior
government officials.¹⁶⁶ The "lending" of royal authority to the Cabinet is
illustrated by the great seal being entrusted by the governor general, the
official keeper of the seal, to the Minister of Innovation, Science, and
Economic Development, who is ex officio the Registrar General of Canada.¹⁶⁶
Upon a change of government, the seal is temporarily returned to the
governor general and then "lent" to the next incoming registrar general.¹⁶⁵

The Crown is the pinnacle of the Canadian Forces, with the constitution
placing the monarch in the position of commander-in-chief of the entire
force, though the governor general carries out the duties attached to the
position and also bears the title of Commander-in-Chief in and over
Canada.¹⁶⁷ Further, included in Canada's constitution are the various
treaties between the Crown and Canadian First Nations, Inuit, and Métis
peoples, who view these documents as agreements directly and only between
themselves and the reigning monarch, illustrating the relationship between
sovereign and aboriginals.¹⁶⁸ ¹⁶⁹ ¹⁷⁰

Executive (Queen-in-Council)

The government of Canada—formally termed Her Majesty's Government¹⁷¹ —is
defined by the constitution as the Queen acting on the advice of her Privy
Council;¹⁷¹ ¹⁷² ¹⁷³ ¹⁷⁴ what is technically known as the Queen-in-Council,⁹
or sometimes the Governor-in-Council,⁸⁵ referring to the governor general
as the Queen's stand-in. One of the main duties of the Crown is to "ensure
that a democratically elected government is always in place,"¹⁴⁹ which
means appointing a prime minister to thereafter head the Cabinet¹⁷⁵ —a
committee of the Privy Council charged with advising the Crown on the
exercise of the Royal Prerogative.¹⁷⁴ The Queen is informed by her viceroy
of the swearing-in and resignation of prime ministers and other members of
the ministry,¹⁷⁵ remains fully briefed through regular communications from
her Canadian ministers, and holds audience with them whenever possible.¹³³
By convention, the content of these communications and meetings remains
confidential so as to protect the impartiality of the monarch and her
representative.⁷¹ ¹⁷⁶ The appropriateness and viability of this tradition
in an age of social media has been questioned.¹⁷⁷ ¹⁷⁸

In the construct of constitutional monarchy and responsible government, the
ministerial advice tendered is typically binding,¹⁷⁹ meaning the monarch
reigns but does not rule, the Cabinet ruling "in trust" for the monarch.¹⁸⁰
This has been the case in Canada since the Treaty of Paris ended the reign
of the territory's last absolute monarch, King Louis XV. However, the Royal
Prerogative belongs to the Crown and not to any of the ministers²⁹ ¹⁶⁴ ¹⁸¹
and the royal and viceroyal figures may unilaterally use these powers in
exceptional constitutional crisis situations (an exercise of the reserve
powers),[n 15] thereby allowing the monarch to make sure "that the
government conducts itself in compliance with the constitution."¹⁴⁹ There
are also a few duties which must be specifically performed by, or bills
that require assent by, the Queen.⁶⁸ ¹⁸² ¹⁸³

The Royal Prerogative also extends to foreign affairs, including the
ratification of treaties, alliances, international agreements, and
declarations of war,¹⁸⁴ the accreditation of Canadian high commissioners
and ambassadors and receipt of similar diplomats from foreign states,¹⁸⁵
¹⁸⁶ and the issuance of Canadian passports,¹⁸⁷ which remain the sovereign's
property.¹⁸⁸ It also includes the creation of dynastic and national
honours,¹⁸⁹ though only the latter are established on official ministerial
advice.

Parliament (Queen-in-Parliament)

All laws in Canada are the monarch's and the sovereign is one of the three
components of parliament¹⁹⁰ ¹⁹¹ —formally called the Queen-in-Parliament⁹
—but the monarch and viceroy do not participate in the legislative process
save for the granting of Royal Assent, which is necessary for a bill to be
enacted as law. Either figure or a delegate may perform this task and the
constitution allows the viceroy the option of deferring assent to the
sovereign.¹⁹² The governor general is further responsible for summoning the
House of Commons, while either the viceroy or monarch can prorogue and
dissolve the legislature, after which the governor general usually calls
for a general election. The new parliamentary session is marked by either
the monarch, governor general, or some other representative reading the
Speech from the Throne.¹⁹³ Members of Parliament must recite the Oath of
Allegiance before they may take their seat. Further, the official
opposition is traditionally dubbed as Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition,¹²⁹
¹⁹⁴ ¹⁹⁵ illustrating that, while its members are opposed to the incumbent
government, they remain loyal to the sovereign (as personification of the
state and its authority).¹⁹⁶

The monarch does not have the prerogative to impose and collect new taxes
without the authorization of an Act of Parliament. The consent of the Crown
must, however, be obtained before either of the houses of parliament may
even debate a bill affecting the sovereign's prerogatives or interests and
no act of parliament binds the Queen or her rights unless the act states
that it does.¹⁹⁷

Courts (Queen-on-the-Bench)

The sovereign is responsible for rendering justice for all her subjects and
is thus traditionally deemed the fount of justice.¹⁹⁸ Her position in the
Canadian courts formally dubbed the Queen on the Bench.⁹ The monarch does
not personally rule in judicial cases; this function of the royal
prerogative is instead performed in trust and in the Queen's name by
officers of Her Majesty's court.¹⁹⁸ Common law holds the notion that the
sovereign "can do no wrong": the monarch cannot be prosecuted in her own
courts—judged by herself—for criminal offences. Civil lawsuits against the
Crown in its public capacity (that is, lawsuits against the
Queen-in-Council) are permitted, but lawsuits against the monarch
personally are not cognizable. In international cases, as a sovereign and
under established principles of international law, the Queen of Canada is
not subject to suit in foreign courts without her express consent.¹⁷² The
monarch, and by extension the governor general, also grants immunity from
prosecution,¹⁹⁹ exercises the royal prerogative of mercy and may pardon
offences against the Crown.²⁰⁰ ²⁰¹ Since 1878, the prerogative of pardon
has always been exercised on the basis of ministerial advice—i.e., upon the
recommendation of ministers.²⁰²

The Arms of Her Majesty in Right of Canada are traditionally displayed in
Canadian courtrooms.²⁰³ A portrait of the Queen is also typically found in
Canadian courtrooms.²⁰⁴

Cultural role

Royal presence and duties

Members of the Royal Family have been present in Canada since the late 18th
century, their reasons including participating in military manoeuvres,
serving as the federal viceroy, or undertaking official royal tours. A
prominent feature of the latter are numerous royal walkabouts, the
tradition of which was initiated in 1939 by Queen Elizabeth when she was in
Ottawa and broke from the royal party to speak directly to gathered
veterans.²⁰⁵ ²⁰⁶ Usually important milestones, anniversaries, or
celebrations of Canadian culture will warrant the presence of the
monarch,²⁰⁵ while other royals will be asked to participate in lesser
occasions. A household to assist and tend to the monarch forms part of the
royal party.

Official duties involve the sovereign representing the Canadian state at
home or abroad, or her relations as members of the Royal Family
participating in government organized ceremonies either in Canada or
elsewhere;[n 16]²²⁴ ²²⁵ ²²⁶ ²²⁷ sometimes these individuals are employed in
asserting Canada's sovereignty over its territories.[n 17] The advice of
the Canadian Cabinet is the impetus for royal participation in any Canadian
event, though, at present, the Chief of Protocol and his staff in the
Department of Canadian Heritage are, as part of the State Ceremonial and
Canadian Symbols Program,²²⁹ ²³⁰ responsible for orchestrating any official
events in or for Canada that involve the Royal Family.²³¹

Conversely, unofficial duties are performed by Royal Family members on
behalf of Canadian organizations of which they may be patrons, through
their attendance at charity events, visiting with members of the Canadian
Forces as colonel-in-chief, or marking certain key anniversaries.²²⁴ ²²⁷
The invitation and expenses associated with these undertakings are usually
borne by the associated organization.²²⁴ In 2005 members of the Royal
Family were present at a total of 76 Canadian engagements, as well as
several more through 2006 and 2007.²³²

Apart from Canada, the Queen and other members of the Royal Family
regularly perform public duties in the other fifteen nations of the
Commonwealth in which the Queen is head of state. This situation, however,
can mean the monarch and/or members of the Royal Family will be promoting
one nation and not another; a situation that has been met with criticism.[n
18]

Symbols, associations, and awards

Main article: Canadian royal symbols

The main symbol of the monarchy is the sovereign herself,¹⁶³ described as
"the personal expression of the Crown in Canada,"²³⁴ and her image is thus
used to signify Canadian sovereignty and government authority—her effigy,
for instance, appearing on currency, and her portrait in government
buildings.¹²⁹ The sovereign is further both mentioned in and the subject of
songs, loyal toasts, and salutes.²³⁵ A royal cypher, appearing on buildings
and official seals, or a crown, seen on provincial and national coats of
arms, as well as police force and Canadian Forces regimental and maritime
badges and rank insignia, is also used to illustrate the monarchy as the
locus of authority,²³⁶ the latter without referring to any specific
monarch.

Since the days of King Louis XIV,²³⁷ the monarch is the fount of all
honours in Canada and the orders,²³⁷ ²³⁸ decorations, and medals form "an
integral element of the Crown."²³⁷ Hence, the insignia and medallions for
these awards bear a crown, cypher, and/or effigy of the monarch. Similarly,
the country's heraldic authority was created by the Queen and, operating
under the authority of the governor general, grants new coats of arms,
flags, and badges in Canada. Use of the royal crown in such symbols is a
gift from the monarch showing royal support and/or association, and
requires her approval before being added.²³⁶ ²³⁹

Members of the Royal Family also act as ceremonial colonels-in-chief,
commodores-in-chief, captains-general, air commodores-in-chief, generals,
and admirals of various elements of the Canadian Forces, reflecting the
Crown's relationship with the country's military through participation in
events both at home and abroad.[n 19] The monarch also serves as the
Commissioner-in-Chief, Prince Charles as Honorary Commissioner, and Prince
Edward as Honorary Deputy Commissioner of the Royal Canadian Mounted
Police.²⁴⁰

A number of Canadian civilian organizations have association with the
monarchy, either through their being founded via a royal charter, having
been granted the right to use the prefix royal before their name, or
because at least one member of the Royal Family serves as a patron. In
addition to the The Prince's Charities Canada, established by Charles,
Prince of Wales, some other charities and volunteer organizations have also
been founded as gifts to, or in honour of, some of Canada's monarchs or
members of the Royal Family, such as the Victorian Order of Nurses (a gift
to Queen Victoria for her Diamond Jubilee in 1897), the Canadian Cancer
Fund (set up in honour of King George V's Silver Jubilee in 1935), and the
Queen Elizabeth II Fund to Aid in Research on the Diseases of Children. A
number of awards in Canada are likewise issued in the name of previous or
present members of the Royal Family. Further, organizations will give
commemorative gifts to members of the Royal Family to mark a visit or other
important occasion.

Canada's royal family and house

Further information: Commonwealth realm § Royal family

The Canadian Royal Family is a group of people related to the country's
monarch²⁴¹ and, as such, belonging to the House of Windsor. There is no
legal definition of who is or is not a member of the group, though the
Government of Canada maintains a list of immediate members,²⁴² ²⁴³ and
stipulates that those in the direct line of succession who bear the style
of Royal Highness (Altesse Royale) are subjects of,²⁴⁴ and owe their
allegiance specifically to, the reigning king or queen of Canada.²⁴⁵

The family members are distantly descended from, among others, Arab,
Armenian, Cuman, French, German, Hungarian, Italian, Mongolian, Portuguese,
and Serbian ethnicities.[n 20]²⁴⁷ Moreover, they are distant relations of
the Belgian, Danish, Greek, Norwegian, Spanish, and Swedish royal
families²⁴⁷ and, given the shared nature of the Canadian monarch, most are
also of members of the British Royal Family. However, because Canada and
the UK are independent of one another, it is incorrect to refer in the
Canadian context to the family of the monarch as the "British Royal
Family"²⁴⁸ —as is frequently done by Canadian and other media²⁴⁹ ²⁵⁰ —and
there exist some differences between the official lists of each.[n 21]
Further, in addition to the five Canadian citizens in the Royal Family,[n
22] the sovereign and those among her relations who do not meet the
requirements of Canadian citizenship law are considered Canadian,²⁵⁶ ²⁵⁷
²⁵⁸ which entitles them to Canadian consular assistance and the protection
of the Queen's armed forces of Canada when they are in need of protection
or aid outside of the Commonwealth realms,²⁴⁵ as well as to substantive
appointment to Canadian orders or receipt of Canadian decorations.²⁵⁹ ²⁶⁰
Beyond legalities, members of the Royal Family have, on occasion, been said
by the media and non-governmental organisations to be Canadian,[n 23] have
declared themselves to be Canadian,[n 24] and some past members have lived
in Canada for extended periods as viceroy or for other reasons.[n 25]

Unlike in the United Kingdom, the monarch is the only member of the Royal
Family with a title established through Canadian law. It would be possible
for others to be granted distinctly Canadian titles (as is the case for the
Duke of Rothesay (Prince Charles) in Scotland), but they have always been,
and continue to only be, accorded the use of a courtesy title in Canada,
which is that which they have been granted via letters patent in the UK,
though they are also in Canada translated to French.²⁷⁴

According to the Canadian Royal Heritage Trust, Prince Edward Augustus,
Duke of Kent and Strathearn—due to his having lived in Canada between 1791
and 1800, and fathering Queen Victoria—is the "ancestor of the modern
Canadian Royal Family".²⁷¹ Nonetheless, the concept of the Canadian Royal
Family did not emerge until after the passage of the Statute of Westminster
in 1931, when Canadian officials only began to overtly consider putting the
principles of Canada's new status as an independent kingdom into effect.²⁷⁵
At first, the monarch was the only member of the Royal Family to carry out
public ceremonial duties solely on the advice of Canadian ministers; King
Edward VIII became the first to do so when in July 1936 he dedicated the
Canadian National Vimy Memorial in France.[n 16] Over the decades, however,
the monarch's children, grandchildren, cousins, and their respective
spouses began to also perform functions at the direction of the Canadian
Crown-in-Council, representing the monarch within Canada or abroad. But it
was not until October 2002 when the term Canadian Royal Family was first
used publicly and officially by one of its members: in a speech to the
Nunavut legislature at its opening, Queen Elizabeth II stated: "I am proud
to be the first member of the Canadian Royal Family to be greeted in
Canada's newest territory."²⁷⁶ Princess Anne used it again when speaking at
Rideau Hall in 2014.²⁷⁷ By 2011, both Canadian and British media were
referring to "Canada's royal family" or the "Canadian royal family".²⁷⁸ ²⁷⁹
²⁸⁰

The press frequently follows the movements of the Royal Family, and can, at
times, affect the group's popularity, which has fluctuated over the years.
Mirroring the mood in the United Kingdom, the family's lowest approval was
during the mid-1980s to 1990s, when the children of the monarch were
enduring their divorces and were the targets of negative tabloid reporting.

Federal residences and royal household

Main article: Government Houses of Canada

A number of buildings across Canada are reserved by the Crown for the use
of the monarch and her viceroys. Each is called Government House, but may
be customarily known by some specific name. The sovereign's and governor
general's official residences are Rideau Hall in Ottawa and the Citadelle
in Quebec City.[n 26] Each of these royal seats holds pieces from the Crown
Collection.²⁹⁴ Further, though neither was ever used for their intended
purpose, Hatley Castle in British Columbia was purchased in 1940 by King
George VI in Right of Canada to use as his home during the course of World
War II,²⁹⁵ and the Emergency Government Headquarters, built in 1959 at CFS
Carp and decommissioned in 1994, included a residential apartment for the
sovereign or governor general in the case of a nuclear attack on Ottawa.²⁹⁶
²⁹⁷

Monarchs and members of their family have also owned in a private capacity
homes and land in Canada: King Edward VIII owned Bedingfield Ranch, near
Pekisko, Alberta;²⁹⁸ the Marquess of Lorne and Princess Louise owned a
cottage on the Cascapédia River in Quebec;²⁹⁹ and Princess Margaret owned
Portland Island between its gifting to her by the Crown in Right of British
Columbia in 1958 and her death in 2002, though she offered it back to the
Crown on permanent loan in 1966 and the island and surrounding waters
eventually became Princess Margaret Marine Park.³⁰⁰ ³⁰¹

To assist the Queen in carrying out her official duties on behalf of
Canada, she appoints various people to her Canadian household. Along with
the Canadian Secretary to the Queen,²³¹ the monarch's entourage includes
two ladies-in-waiting, the Canadian Equerry-in-Waiting to the Queen, the
Queen's Police Officer, the Duke of Edinburgh's Police Officer,³⁰² the
Queen's Honorary Physician, the Queen's Honorary Dental Surgeon, and the
Queen's Honorary Nursing Officer³⁰³ —the latter three being drawn from the
Canadian Forces.⁹⁹ Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex, also has a Canadian
private secretary and his wife,³⁰⁴ Sophie, Countess of Wessex, a
lady-in-waiting.³⁰⁵ Air transportation for the Royal Family is provided by
the Royal Canadian Air Force 412 Transport Squadron.

There are three household regiments specifically attached to the Royal
Household—the Governor General's Foot Guards, the Governor General's Horse
Guards, and the Canadian Grenadier Guards. There are also two chapels royal
in Ontario.³⁰⁶ Though not officially a royal chapel, St. Bartholomew's
Anglican Church, located across MacKay Street from Rideau Hall, is
regularly used by governors general and their families and sometimes by the
sovereign and other members of the Royal Family, as well as by viceregal
household staff, their families, and members of the Governor General's Foot
Guards, for whom the church also serves as a regimental chapel.³⁰⁷

History

Main article: History of monarchy in Canada
Further information: List of Canadian monarchs

The Canadian monarchy can trace its ancestral lineage back to the kings of
the Angles and the early Scottish kings and through the centuries since the
claims of King Henry VII in 1497 and King Francis I in 1534; both being
blood relatives of the current Canadian monarch. Former Prime Minister
Stephen Harper said of the Crown that it "links us all together with the
majestic past that takes us back to the Tudors, the Plantagenets, the Magna
Carta, habeas corpus, petition of rights, and English common law."³⁰⁸
Though the first French and British colonizers of Canada interpreted the
hereditary nature of some indigenous North American chieftainships as a
form of monarchy,³⁰⁹ ³¹⁰ ³¹¹ it is generally accepted that Canada has been
a territory of a monarch or a monarchy in its own right only since the
establishment of colony of Canada in the early 16th century;⁴⁴ according to
historian Jacques Monet, the Canadian Crown is one of the few that have
survived through uninterrupted succession since before its inception.⁵³

After the Canadian colonies of France were, via war and treaties, ceded to
the British Crown, and the population was greatly expanded by those loyal
to George III fleeing north from persecution during and following the
American Revolution, British North America was in 1867 confederated by
Queen Victoria to form Canada as a kingdom in its own right.⁶⁰ ¹³³ ³¹² By
the end of the First World War, the increased fortitude of Canadian
nationalism inspired the country's leaders to push for greater independence
from the King in his British Council, resulting in the creation of the
uniquely Canadian monarchy through the Statute of Westminster, which was
granted Royal Assent in 1931.³¹³ ³¹⁴ Only five years later, Canada had
three successive kings in the space of one year, with the death of George
V, the accession and abdication of Edward VIII, and his replacement by
George VI.

The latter became in 1939 the first reigning monarch of Canada to tour the
country (though previous kings had done so before their accession). As the
ease of travel increased, visits by the sovereign and other Royal Family
members became more frequent and involved, seeing Queen Elizabeth II
officiate at various moments of importance in the nation's history, one
being when she proclaimed the country to be fully independent, via
constitutional patriation, in 1982.²⁶⁷ That act is said to have entrenched
the monarchy in Canada,³¹⁵ due to the stringent requirements, as laid out
in the amending formula, that must be met in order to alter the monarchy in
any way.¹⁰⁴

Through the 1960s and 1970s, the rise of Quebec nationalism and changes in
Canadian identity created an atmosphere where the purpose and role of the
monarchy came into question. Some references to the monarch and the
monarchy were removed from the public eye and moves were made by the
federal government to constitutionally alter the Crown's place and role in
Canada, first by explicit legal amendments and later by subtle attrition
impelled by elements of the public service, the Cabinet, and governors
general and their staff alike.¹⁵⁷ ³¹⁶ ³¹⁷ But, provincial and federal
ministers, along with loyal national citizen's organizations, ensured that
the system remained the same in essence.³¹⁸ By 2002, the royal tour and
associated fêtes for the Queen's Golden Jubilee proved popular with
Canadians across the country,³¹⁹ ³²⁰ ³²¹ though Canada's first republican
organization since the 1830s was also founded that year. Celebrations took
place to mark Queen Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee in 2012,³²² ³²³ the
first such event in Canada since that for Victoria in 1897. On 9 September
2015, she became the second-longest reigning monarch in Canadian history
(preceded only by King Louis XIV);³²⁴ events were organised to celebrate
her as the "longest-reigning sovereign in Canada's modern era."³²⁵

Public understanding

Kingston, Ontario, named for King George III
Patricia Lake, named for Princess Patricia of Connaught
Princess Elizabeth Avenue, named for Queen Elizabeth II (formerly Princess
Elizabeth)
It has been theorised the monarchy is so prevalent in Canada—by way of all
manner of symbols, place names, royal tours, etc.—that Canadians fail to
take note of it.

Commentators have in the late 20th and early 21st centuries stated that
contemporary Canadians had and have a poor understanding of the Canadian
monarchy,³²⁶ Michael D. Jackson saying in his book The Crown and Canadian
Federalism that this is part of a wider ignorance about Canadian civics.³²⁷
While David Smith researched for his 1995 book The Invisible Crown, he
found it difficult to "find anyone who could talk knowledgeably about the
subject".³²⁸ Former Governor General Adrienne Clarkson said there is "an
abysmal lack of knowledge about the system"³²⁹ and Senator Lowell Murray
wrote in 2003: "The Crown has become irrelevant to most Canadian's
understanding of our system of Government", which he attributed to the
"fault of successive generations of politicians, of an educational system
that has never given the institution due study, and of past viceregal
incumbents themselves".³³⁰ These comments were echoed by teacher and author
Nathan Tidridge, who asserted that, beginning in the 1960s, the role of the
Crown disappeared from provincial education curricula, as the general
subject of civics came to receive less attention.³¹⁷ He said Canadians are
being "educated to be illiterate, ambivalent, or even hostile toward our
constitutional monarchy".³²⁷ Michael Valpy also pointed to the fact that
"The crown's role in the machinery of Canada's constitutional monarchy
rarely sees daylight. Only a handful of times in our history has it been
subjected to glaring sunshine, unfortunately resulting in a black hole of
public understanding as to how it works."³³¹ He later iterated: "the
public's attention span on the constitutional intricacies of the monarchy
is clinically short".³³²

John Pepall argued in 1990 that a "Liberal-inspired republican
misconception of the role" of governor general had taken root, though the
Conservative government headed by Brian Mulroney exacerbated the matter.³³³
The position of prime minister has simultaneously undergone, with
encouragement from its occupants,³³³ what has been described as a
"presidentialisation",³³⁴ ³³⁵ to the point that its incumbents publicly
outshine the actual head of state.³³⁶ ³³⁷ Additionally, it has been
theorised the monarchy is so prevalent in Canada—by way of all manner of
symbols, place names, royal tours, etc.—that Canadians fail to take note of
it; the monarchy "functions like a tasteful wallpaper pattern in Canada:
enjoyable in an absent-minded way, but so ubiquitous as to be almost
invisible".²⁵⁸ David S. Donovan felt that Canadians mostly considered the
monarch and her representatives as purely ceremonial and symbolic
figures.³³⁸ It was argued by Alfred Neitsch that this undermined the
Crown's legitimacy as a check and balance in the governmental system.³³⁹

In the 2010s, a "growing interest in the Crown and its prerogatives" was
observed, as evidenced by "a burst of articles, books and conferences".
This was attributed to the coincidental occurrence of publicly prominent
events over a number of years, including the 2008 prorogation dispute; an
increased use of royal symbols as directed by the Cabinet while headed by
Stephen Harper, including two consecutive royal tours; court cases focusing
on the Oath of Citizenship; and increasingly active governors. Smith and
Philippe Lagassé noted in early 2016 that post-secondary students were
giving more focus to the subject of the Crown.³²⁸

Debate

To date, outside of academic circles, there has been little national debate
on the Canadian monarchy, a subject about which most Canadians are
generally unaware.³⁴⁰ Out of Canada's three most prominent political
parties, neither the Liberal Party nor the Conservative Party is officially
in favour of abolishing the monarchy (though the latter makes support for
constitutional monarchy a founding principle in its policy declaration³⁴¹ )
and the New Democratic Party (NDP) has no official position on the role of
the Crown. Only some Members of Parliament belonging to these parties and
the leaders of the Bloc Québécois have made any statements suggesting
abolition of the monarchy.³⁴² ³⁴³ ³⁴⁴ Canada has two special-interest
groups representing the debate, who frequently argue the issue in the
media: the Monarchist League of Canada and Citizens for a Canadian
Republic.³⁴⁵ ³⁴⁶ There are also other organizations that support and
advocate the monarchy, such as the United Empire Loyalists' Association of
Canada,³⁴⁷ the Canadian Royal Heritage Trust,³⁴⁸ the Orange Order in
Canada,³⁴⁹ the Friends of the Canadian Crown,³⁵⁰ and Canadian Friends of
the Royal Family.³⁵¹

The idea of a uniquely Canadian monarch,³⁵² either one descended from the
present queen or coming from a First Nations royal house,⁴⁹ ³⁵³ ³⁵⁴ ³⁵⁵ has
been proffered as an alternative. However, there has been no popular or
official support for such a change.

See also

- Current Commonwealth realms
- States headed by Elizabeth II
- Monarchies in the Americas
- List of monarchies

Notes

[1] The date of the first establishment of monarchy in Canada varies: some
  sources give the year as 1497, when John Cabot landed somewhere along the
  North American coast (most likely Nova Scotia or Newfoundland) claiming
  an undefined extent of land for King Henry VII,³⁷ ³⁸ ³⁹ while others put
  it at 1534, when the colony of Canada was founded in the name of King
  Francis I.⁴⁰ ⁴¹ ⁴² ⁴³ ⁴⁴ ⁴⁵ Although the exact date differs, the fact
  that a monarchical form of governance has existed since the 16th century
  is in common agreement.⁴⁶ ⁴⁷ ⁴⁸ ⁴⁹ ⁵⁰
[2] The term was first coined by Governor General the Lord Grey in 1905,
  when he stated in a telegram to King Edward VII regarding the
  inauguration of Alberta and Saskatchewan into Confederation: "[each one]
  a new leaf in Your Majesty's Maple Crown".⁴² ⁵⁴ ⁵⁵
[3] On a number of occasions, the sovereign has carried out foreign
  relations as the representative uniquely of Canada, such as the visits to
  the United States by King George VI in 1939 and Queen Elizabeth II in
  1957.
[4] The English Court of Appeal ruled in 1982, while "there is only one
  person who is the Sovereign within the British Commonwealth ... in
  matters of law and government the Queen of the United Kingdom, for
  example, is entirely independent and distinct from the Queen of
  Canada."⁵⁸
[5] In 1997, then Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair intended
  to offer a life peerage to Canadian businessman Conrad Black. However,
  citing the 1919 Nickle Resolution, the Canadian Cabinet advised the Queen
  not to grant Black such an honour. If Blair had not yielded, the Queen
  would have been in the situation of having to grant an honour on the
  advice of her British prime minister and to object to the same as Queen
  of Canada on the advice of then Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien.
[6] For example, Edward VIII was never crowned, yet was undoubtedly king
  during his short time on the throne.
[7] The only Canadian monarch to abdicate, Edward VIII, did so with the
  authorization of the Canadian government granted in His Majesty's
  Declaration of Abdication Act, 1936, and the Succession to the Throne
  Act, 1937, later confirmed this in law.
[8] Gary Toffoli of the Canadian Royal Heritage Trust stated that the
  approval given by the Queen in her Canadian Council in 1981 to the
  marriage of Charles, Prince of Wales, and Lady Diana Spencer⁹¹ separately
  to the same approval given by the Queen in her British Council
  illustrated the existence of the Royal Marriages Act in Canadian law.⁹²
  In 1947, the King in his Canadian Council gave the same consent to the
  marriage of Princess Elizabeth to Philip Mountbatten, again separate from
  the approval he gave in his British Council.⁹¹
[9] For example, if a lawsuit is filed against the federal government, the
  respondent is formally described as Her Majesty the Queen in Right of
  Canada, or simply Regina.⁹⁹ Likewise, in a case in which a party sues
  both the province of Saskatchewan and the federal government, the
  respondents would be formally called Her Majesty the Queen in Right of
  Saskatchewan and Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada.¹⁰²
[10] Illustrative of this arrangement is property transfers; of this, the
  Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources states: "When public land is
  required by the federal government or one of its departments, or any
  provincial ministry, the land itself is not transferred. What is
  transferred is the responsibility to manage the lands on behalf of Her
  Majesty the Queen (HMQ). This is accomplished by an Order in Council or a
  Minister's Order which transfers management of land either from HMQ in
  right of Ontario to HMQ in right of Canada as represented by a department
  or to HMQ in right of Ontario as represented by another ministry. The
  Crown does not transfer ownership to itself."¹⁰³
[11] The sovereign has been described by Eugene Forsey as the "symbolic
  embodiment of the people—not a particular group or interest or party, but
  the people, the whole people";⁷¹ his daughter, Helen Forsey, said of his
  opinion on the Crown: "For him, the essence of the monarchy was its
  impartial representation of the common interests of the citizenry as a
  whole, as opposed to those of any particular government."⁷¹ The
  Department of Canadian Heritage said the Crown serves as the "personal
  symbol of allegiance, unity and authority for all Canadians,"⁶⁰ ¹⁰⁷ a
  concept akin to that expressed by King Louis XIV: "l'État, c'est moi",
  or, "I am the state".¹⁰⁸ Robertson Davies stated in 1994: "the Crown is
  the consecrated spirit of Canada,"¹⁰⁹ and past Ontario chairman of the
  Monarchist League of Canada Gary Toffoli opined: "The Queen is the legal
  embodiment of the state at both the national and the provincial levels
  ... she is our sovereign and it is the role of the Queen, recognized by
  the constitutional law of Canada, to embody the state."¹¹⁰
[12] As Peter Boyce put it: "The Crown as a concept cannot be disentangled
  from the person of the monarch, but standard reference to the Crown
  extends well beyond the Queen's person."¹²⁰
[13] The Supreme Court found in the 1980 case Attorney General of Quebec v.
  Labrecque that civil servants in Canada are not contracted by an
  abstraction called "the state", but rather they are employed by the
  monarch, who "enjoys a general capacity to contract in accordance with
  the rule of ordinary law."¹²⁵
[14] It is stated in the Rules & Forms of the House of Commons of Canada
  that "allegiance to the King means allegiance to the Country."¹²⁸
[15] See 'Responsibilities' and Note 1 at Cabinet of Canada.
[16] Though the Royal Family represents other countries abroad, as directed
  by their respective cabinets, and typically the governor general will
  undertake state visits and other foreign duties on behalf of the Queen of
  Canada,¹¹³ ²⁰⁷ ²⁰⁸ members of the Royal Family will also take part in
  Canadian events overseas.²⁰⁹ ²¹⁰ ²¹¹ ²¹² ²¹³ ²¹⁴ ²¹⁵ ²¹⁶ ²¹⁷ ²¹⁸ ²¹⁹ ²²⁰
  ²²¹ ²²² ²²³
[17] In 1970, Queen Elizabeth II, the Duke of Edinburgh, Prince Charles,
  and Princess Anne undertook a tour of Northern Canada, in part to
  demonstrate to an unconvinced American government and the Soviet Union
  that Canada had certain claim to its Arctic territories, which were
  strategic during the Cold War.²²⁸
[18] Former external affairs minister Mitchell Sharp commented on a
  situation wherein Elizabeth II was in Latin America to promote British
  goods at the same time a Canadian ministerial trip to the same area was
  underway to promote Canadian products. Sharp stated: "We couldn't ask Her
  Majesty to perform the function she was performing for Britain on that
  Latin American trip because the Queen is never recognized as Queen of
  Canada, except when she is in Canada."²³³ The Queen's participation in
  Canadian events overseas contradicts Sharp's statement, however.[n 3][n
  16]
[19] Such events include Troopings of the Colour, inspections of the
  troops, and anniversaries of key battles; whenever the sovereign or a
  member of her family is in Ottawa, they lay a wreath at the National War
  Memorial.
[20] Moroccan and Chinese officials claim, respectively, that members of
  the Royal Family are also directly descended from the Islamic prophet,
  Muhammad and Tang Dynasty Chinese Emperors.²⁴⁶
[21] For instance, while he never held the style His Royal Highness, Angus
  Ogilvy was included in the Department of Canadian Heritage's royal family
  list, but was not considered a member of the British Royal Family.²⁵¹
[22] Two Canadian citizens married into the Royal Family: In 1988, Sylvana
  Jones (née Tomaselli in Placentia, Newfoundland) wed George Windsor, Earl
  of St Andrews, a great-grandson of King George V, and, on 18 May 2008,
  Autumn Kelly, originally from Montreal, married Queen Elizabeth II's
  eldest grandson, Peter Phillips.²⁵² The latter couple has two children,
  14th and 15th in line to the throne, who each hold dual Canadian and
  British citizenship,²⁵³ ²⁵⁴ as do the three children of George Windsor,
  though only the youngest, Lady Amelia Windsor, is in line to the throne,
  currently 36th.²⁵⁵ More distantly, Princes Boris and Hermann Friedrich of
  Leiningen, great-great-great grandsons of Queen Victoria, are also
  Canadian citizens.
[23] As early as 1959, it was recognized that the Queen was "equally at
  home in all her realms";²⁶¹ By the 1960s, loyal societies in Canada
  recognized the Queen's cousin, Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady
  Ogilvy, as a "Canadian princess";²⁶² and, at the time of the 2011 royal
  tour of Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Catherine, Duchess of
  Cambridge, both Michael Valpy, writing for the CBC, and The Globe and
  Mail referred to William as "a prince of Canada".²⁶³ ²⁶⁴
[24] Princess Elizabeth, Duchess of Edinburgh, said in 1951 that when in
  Canada she was "amongst fellow countrymen".⁶⁹ ²⁶⁵ When queen, she, in
  1983, before departing the United States for Canada, said "I'm going home
  to Canada tomorrow" and,²⁶⁶ in 2005, said she agreed with the statement
  earlier made by her mother, Queen Elizabeth, that Canada felt like a
  "home away from home".²⁶⁷ Similarly, the Queen stated in 2010, in Nova
  Scotia, "it is very good to be home".²⁶⁸
[25] Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, served as the Commander of
  British North American troops in Canada's Maritimes for nine years after
  1791, mostly in Halifax;²⁶⁹ his granddaughter, Princess Louise,
  Marchioness of Lorne, lived in Canada between 1878 and 1883 as viceregal
  consort;²⁷⁰ and her brother, Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and
  Strathearn, resided in Canada first through 1870 as a member of the
  Canadian Militia, defending Canada from the Fenian Raids,²⁷¹ and then as
  governor general from 1911 until 1916.²⁷² Later, for six years beginning
  in 1940, Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone (a great-grandchild of the
  Duke of Kent), lived in Canada with her husband, the Earl of Athlone
  (himself a great-grandchild of King George III),²⁷¹ while he served as
  governor general.²⁷³
[26] While the government houses are the Queen's official residences in
  Canada, they are almost exclusively occupied by the sovereign's
  representative in each of those jurisdictions that have a government
  house or houses.²⁸¹ Two government houses—Rideau Hall and the Citadelle
  of Quebec—are regarded as federal residences of the Canadian monarch and
  his or her representative, the governor general.²⁸² ²⁸³ ²⁸⁴ ²⁸⁵ ²⁸⁶ ²⁸⁷
  ²⁸⁸ ²⁸⁹ ²⁹⁰ ²⁹¹ ²⁹² ²⁹³

Citations

[1] Department of Canadian Heritage. "Crown in Canada > Royal Family > His
  Royal Highness The Prince of Wales". Queen's Printer for Canada.
  Retrieved 1 August 2013.
[2] ³ ⁴ ⁵ ⁶
[3] David E. Smith (June 2010). "The Crown and the Constitution: Sustaining
  Democracy?" (PDF). Conference on the Crown. Ottawa: Queen's University.
  p. 6. Retrieved 3 March 2016.
[4] Smith, David E. (1995). The Invisible Crown. Toronto: University of
  Toronto Press. pp. 87–90. ISBN 0-8020-7793-5.
[5] Government of Canada (2015). "Crown of Maples" (PDF). Queen's Printer
  for Canada. pp. 16–18. Retrieved 3 March 2016.
[6] Department of Canadian Heritage (February 2009), Canadian Heritage
  Portfolio (PDF) (2 ed.), Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada, p. 3, ISBN
  978-1-100-11529-0, retrieved 5 July 2009
[7] ⁸ ⁹ ¹⁰
[8] Victoria (1867), Constitution Act, 1867, III.15, Westminster: Queen's
  Printer (published 29 March 1867), retrieved 15 January 2009
[9] MacLeod 2012, p. 17
[10] Department of Canadian Heritage 2009, p. 4
[11] J.A. Weiler (13 August 2014). "McAteer v. Canada (Attorney General),
  2014 ONCA 578". Court of Appeal for Ontario. Retrieved 17 February 2016.
[12] Government of Canada. "Discover Canada - Understanding the Oath".
  Citizenship and Immigration Canada. Retrieved 17 February 2016.
[13] ¹⁴ ¹⁵ ¹⁶ ¹⁷
[14] "Parliamentary Framework - Role of the Crown". Parliament of Canada.
  October 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2016.
[15] Philippe Lagassé (2 March 2015). "Citizenship and the hollowed
  Canadian Crown". Institute for Research on Public Policy. Retrieved 17
  February 2016.
[16] John Allen (1849). "Inquiry into the rise and growth of the royal
  prerogative in England". Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans. pp. 4–7.
  Retrieved 17 February 2016.
[17] Thomas Isaac (1994). "The Concept of Crown and Aboriginal
  Self-Government" (PDF). The Canadian Journal of Native Studies. Retrieved
  17 February 2016.
[18] ¹⁹ ²⁰ ²¹ ²² ²³
[19] Claude Bouchard (16 February 2016). "Jugement No. 200-17-018455-139"
  (PDF) (in French). Cour supérieure du Québec. p. 16. Retrieved 17
  February 2016 – via Le Devoir.
[20] Romaniuk, Scott Nicholas; Wasylciw, Joshua K. (February 2015).
  "Canada's Evolving Crown: From a British Crown to a "Crown of Maples"".
  American, British and Canadian Studies Journal. 23 (1).
  doi:10.1515/abcsj-2014-0030.
[21] Department of Canadian Heritage (2015). "Crown of Maples:
  Constitutional Monarchy in Canada" (PDF). Her Majesty the Queen in Right
  of Canada. p. 3. Retrieved 16 February 2016.
[22] "Queen and Canada". The Royal Household. Retrieved 16 February 2016.
[23] "The Queen of Canada". Government of Canada. Retrieved 16 February
  2016.
[24] ²⁵ ²⁶ ²⁷
[25] Hicks, Bruce (2012). "The Westminster Approach to Prorogation,
  Dissolution and Fixed Date Elections" (PDF). Canadian Parliamentary
  Review. 35 (2): 20.
[26] McLeod 2008, p. 36
[27] Government of Canada (4 December 2015). "Why does the Governor General
  give the Speech?". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 17 December
  2015.
[28] Marleau, Robert; Montpetit, Camille. "House of Commons Procedure and
  Practice > 1. Parliamentary Institutions". Queen's Printer for Canada.
  Archived from the original on 28 August 2011. Retrieved 28 September
  2009.
[29] MacLeod 2012, p. 16
[30] Forsey 2005, p. 1
[31] ²⁹ ³² ³³
[32] Roberts 2009, p. 15
[33] MacLeod 2012, p. 20
[34] Cabinet Secretary and Clerk of the Executive Council (April 2004),
  Executive Government Processes and Procedures in Saskatchewan: A
  Procedures Manual (PDF), Regina: Queen's Printer for Saskatchewan, p. 10,
  retrieved 30 July 2009
[35] Cabinet Secretary and Clerk of the Executive Council 2004, p. 9
[36] Jackson, Michael D. (2013), The Crown and Canadian Federalism, Dundurn
  Press, p. 55, ISBN 978-1-4597-0989-8, retrieved 6 June 2014
[37] Parsons, John (1 July 2008). "John Cabot". Historica Canada. Retrieved
  20 January 2014.
[38] Stephen Harper quoted in MacLeod 2008, p. vii
[39] Bousfield, Arthur; Toffoli, Garry. "The Sovereigns of Canada".
  Canadian Royal Heritage Trust. Archived from the original on 16 August
  2007. Retrieved 5 March 2010.
[40] "Why Canada Needs the Monarchy", The Canadian Encyclopedia, Historica
  Canada, retrieved 18 February 2015
[41] Department of Canadian Heritage. "Ceremonial and Canadian Symbols
  Promotion > The Canadian Monarchy". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved
  14 May 2009.
[42] Kenney, Jason (23 April 2007). "Speech to the Lieutenant Governors
  Meeting". Written at Regina. In Department of Canadian Heritage. Speeches
  > The Honourable Jason Kenney. Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada.
  Retrieved 27 January 2010.
[43] Valpy, Michael (13 November 2009). "The monarchy: Offshore, but
  built-in". The Globe and Mail. Toronto. Retrieved 14 November 2009.
[44] MacLeod 2012, p. 6
[45] Parliament of Canada. "Canada: A Constitutional Monarchy". Queen's
  Printer for Canada. Retrieved 25 September 2009.
[46] MacLeod 2012, p. 2
[47] Monet, Jacques. "The Canadian Encyclopedia". In Marsh, James Harley.
  Government > Parliamentary Institutions > Governor General. Toronto:
  Historica Foundation of Canada. Archived from the original on 11 February
  2010. Retrieved 5 March 2010.
[48] The Royal Household. "The Queen and the Commonwealth > Queen and
  Canada > History and present government". Queen's Printer. Retrieved 5
  March 2010.
[49] Coyne, Andrew (13 November 2009). "Defending the royals". Maclean's.
  Toronto: Roger's Communications. ISSN 0024-9262. Retrieved 18 February
  2010.
[50] Editorial (26 May 2012), "Celebrating the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth
  II, Queen of Canada", Toronto Star, retrieved 27 May 2012
[51] ³⁸ ⁴² ⁴³ ⁴⁵ ⁵² ⁵³
[52] MacLeod 2012, pp. 2–3, 39
[53] Monet, Jacques (2007). "Crown and Country" (PDF). Canadian Monarchist
  News. Toronto: Monarchist League of Canada. Summer 2007 (26): 8. Archived
  from the original (PDF) on 25 June 2008. Retrieved 15 June 2009.
[54] Grey, Albert (1 September 1905) [4 March 1905]. "Grey to Edward VII".
  In Doig, Ronald P. Earl Grey's Papers: An Introductory Survey (1 ed.).
  London: Private Libraries Association.
[55] "The way forward with Canada's maple Crown". The Globe and Mail.
  Toronto. 14 November 2009. Retrieved 14 November 2009.
[56] Bowden, James; Lagassé, Philippe (6 December 2012), "Succeeding to the
  Canadian throne", Ottawa Citizen, archived from the original on 10
  January 2013, retrieved 6 December 2012
[57] Trepanier 2004, p. 28
[58] R v Foreign Secretary, Ex parte Indian Association (as referenced in
  High Court of Australia: Sue v Hill [1999] HCA 30; 23 June 1999;
  S179/1998 and B49/1998), QB 892 at 928 (English Court of Appeal June
  1999).
[59] Buchan, John (1969). Canadian Occasions: Addresses. Manchester: Ayer
  Publishing. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-8369-1275-3.
[60] Department of Canadian Heritage. "Ceremonial and Canadian Symbols
  Promotion > The crown in Canada". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved
  19 February 2009.
[61] Romney, Paul (1999). Getting it wrong: how Canadians forgot their past
  and imperilled Confederation. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p.
  273. ISBN 978-0-8020-8105-6.
[62] Aird, John (1985), Loyalty in a changing world (PDF), Toronto: Queen's
  Printer for Ontario, p. 3, ISBN 0-7729-0213-5
[63] "King of Canada", Ottawa Citizen, p. 21, 9 November 1945, retrieved 14
  October 2010
[64] Dawson, R. MacGregor; Dawson, W. F. (1989), Democratic Government in
  Canada (5 ed.), Toronto, Buffalo, London: University of Toronto Press, p.
  67, ISBN 978-0-8020-6703-6
[65] The Royal Household. "The Queen and the Commonwealth > Queen and
  Canada > The Queen's role in Canada". Queen's Printer. Retrieved 15 May
  2009.
[66] Scott, F. R. (January 1944). "The End of Dominion Status". The
  American Journal of International Law. American Society of International
  Law. 38 (1): 34–49. doi:10.2307/2192530. JSTOR 2192530.
[67] Donovan, David (2009), The Governor General and Lieutenant Governors:
  Canada's Misunderstood Viceroys (PDF), Canadian Political Science
  Association, p. 3, retrieved 29 January 2013
[68] Heard, Andrew (1990), Canadian Independence, Vancouver: Simon Fraser
  University, retrieved 25 August 2010
[69] MacLeod 2012, p. 3
[70] Saskatchewan Office of the Provincial Secretary. "About OPS > Protocol
  Office > Protocol in Practice > The Crown". Queen's Printer for
  Saskatchewan. Retrieved 16 May 2009.
[71] Forsey, Helen (1 October 2010). "As David Johnson Enters Rideau Hall
  ...". The Monitor. Ottawa: Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives.
  Retrieved 23 January 2011.
[72] Mallory, J.R. (August 1956). "Seals and Symbols: From Substance to
  Form in Commonwealth Equality". The Canadian Journal of Economics and
  Political Science. Montreal: Blackwell Publishing. 22 (3): 281–291. ISSN
  0008-4085. JSTOR 138434.
[73] "Royal Style and Titles Act 1985". CanLII. Retrieved 27 November 2015.
[74] Moore, Oliver (29 June 2010). "Aye, aye, Ma'am". The Globe and Mail.
  Toronto. Retrieved 30 June 2010.
[75] John, Ward (12 November 2009). "Prince Charles joins in national
  Remembrance Day ceremonies". The Telegram. Retrieved 30 June 2010.
[76] Deachman, Bruce (9 November 2009). "Royals arrive in Ottawa in final
  leg of cross-Canada tour". Ottawa Citizen. Retrieved 30 June 2010.
[77] "Royal Respect for Canada's Vimy Heroes" (PDF). Canadian Monarchist
  News. Toronto: Monarchist League of Canada. Summer 2007 (26): 4. 2007.
  Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 June 2008. Retrieved 30 June 2010.
[78] Paperny, Anna Mehler (26 June 2011). "Behind the royal tour, a
  businesslike Usher of the Black Rod". The Globe and Mail. Toronto. p. 1.
  Retrieved 30 June 2011.
[79] Treble, Patricia (8 July 2010). "The Queen's man on the ground".
  Maclean's. Toronto: Rogers Communications (July 2010). ISSN 0024-9262.
  Retrieved 10 July 2010.
[80] Government of Canada. "Frequently Asked Questions". 2010 Royal Tour.
  Archived from the original on 21 June 2010. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
[81] Palmer, Sean; Aimers, John (2002). "The Cost of Canada's
  Constitutional Monarchy: $1.10 per Canadian" (2 ed.). Toronto: Monarchist
  League of Canada. Archived from the original on 19 June 2008. Retrieved
  15 May 2009.
[82] Charters, Claire; Erueti, Andrew (2008). Māori property rights and the
  foreshore and seabed: the last frontier. Melbourne: Victoria University
  Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-86473-553-9.
[83] Mishra, Shree Govind (2000). Democracy in India. Delhi: Sanbun
  Publishers. pp. 51–52. ISBN 978-3-473-47305-2.
[84] Elizabeth II (2005), Interpretation Act, 46.1.b, Ottawa: Queen's
  Printer for Canada (published 1 April 2005), retrieved 7 August 2009
[85] Elizabeth II 2005, 35.1
[86] Parliament of Canada, Legislative Summary of Bill C-53: Succession to
  the Throne Act, 2013, Queen's Printer for Canada
[87] MacLeod 2012, p. 37
[88] Edward VIII, Order in Council regarding Canadian Request and Consent
  for Enactment of United Kingdom Legislation altering Succession (1936)
  (PDF), James Bowden
[89] Toffoli, Gary (9 February 2013), Is There a Canadian Law of Succession
  and Is There a Canadian Process of Amendment? (PDF), Canadian Royal
  Heritage Trust, pp. 3–4, retrieved 12 February 2013
[90] Macgregor Dawson, Robert (1970). The Government of Canada (5th ed.).
  Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 63.
[91] Boyce, Peter John (2008a), The Queen's Other Realms: The Crown and Its
  Legacy in Australia, Canada and New Zealand, Sydney: Federation Press, p.
  81, ISBN 978-1-86287-700-9
[92] Various (20 March 2013). In Committee from the Senate: Legal and
  Constitutional Affairs - March 20, 2013 (Digital video). Ottawa: CPAC.
[93] Supreme Court of Canada (28 September 1981), Re: Resolution to amend
  the Constitution, [1981] 1 SCR 753, Queen's Printer for Canada, p. 785
[94] Gallant, Jacques (4 September 2013). "Markham law graduate fighting
  Catholic ban on royal succession". Toronto Star. Retrieved 4 September
  2013.
[95] Yogaretnam, Shaamini (24 August 2013). "The boy who won't be king:
  uOttawa law grad challenging succession rules". Ottawa Citizen. Retrieved
  4 September 2013.
[96] "Royal succession law not subject to charter challenge: court". CTV
  News. August 26, 2014. Retrieved August 29, 2014.
[97] Teskey v. Canada (Attorney General), Blair, Pepall, and Hourigan
  (Court of Appeal for Ontario 26 August 2014).
[98] Kennedy, W. P. M. (1954), "The Regency Acts 1937–53", University of
  Toronto Law Journal, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 10 (2): 248,
  ISSN 0381-1638, JSTOR 824845
[99] Bousfield, Arthur; Toffoli, Gary. "Facts About Canada's Monarchy". The
  Canadian Royal Heritage Trust. Archived from the original on 5 May 2008.
  Retrieved 28 May 2009.
[100] Roberts 2009, p. 13
[101] Jackson, Michael D. (2003). "Golden Jubilee and Provincial Crown"
  (PDF). Canadian Monarchist News. Toronto: Monarchist League of Canada. 7
  (3): 6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 October 2007. Retrieved 21
  May 2009.
[102] Chief Myles Venne and all of the Councllors of the Lac La Ronge
  Indian Band v. Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada and Her Majesty
  the Queen in Right of the Province of Saskatchewan, Q.B. No. 2655 of 1987
  (Court of Queen's Bench for Saskatchewan 14 July 1987).
[103] Ministry of Natural Resources (24 January 2006). "Disposition of
  Public Land to Other Governments and Agencies" (PDF). 3.2.B. Toronto:
  Queen's Printer for Ontario: 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14
  January 2015. Retrieved 25 April 2010.
[104] Elizabeth II (1982), The Constitution Act, 1982, V.41.a, Ottawa:
  Queen's Printer for Canada (published 17 April 1982), retrieved 16 May
  2009
[105] Cheadle, Bruce (4 November 2012), Harper creates new panel to ensure
  'non-partisan' vice regal appointments, The Canadian Press, archived from
  the original on 7 February 2013, retrieved 4 November 2012
[106] Office of the Prime Minister of Canada (4 November 2012). "PM
  announces new Advisory Committee on Vice-Regal Appointments". Queen's
  Printer for Canada. Retrieved 4 November 2012.
[107] Department of Canadian Heritage (2010), Canada: Symbols of Canada
  (PDF), Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada, p. 3, retrieved 4 December
  2016
[108] Derwyn, Shea (10 April 1996), "Bill 22, Legislative Assembly Oath of
  Allegiance Act, 1995 > 1720", Committee Transcripts: Standing Committee
  on the Legislative Assembly, Toronto: Queen's Printer for Ontario,
  retrieved 16 May 2009
[109] Davies, Robertson (8 August 1996). Hunting Stuart and The Voice of
  the People. Toronto: Simon & Pierre. ISBN 978-0-88924-259-3.
[110] Toffoli, Gary (10 April 1996), "Bill 22, Legislative Assembly Oath of
  Allegiance Act, 1995 > 1620", Committee Transcripts: Standing Committee
  on the Legislative Assembly, Toronto: Queen's Printer for Ontario,
  retrieved 16 May 2009
[111] MacLeod 2012, p. 51
[112] Marleau, Robert; Montpetit, Camille (2000), House of Commons
  Procedure and Practice, Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada, ISBN
  2-89461-378-4, 1. Parliamentary Institutions > Institutional Framework >
  The Crown, archived from the original on 17 October 2015
[113] Table Research Branch of the House of Commons (March 2008).
  "Compendium of Procedure". Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada: 1.
  Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 December 2009. Retrieved 14
  October 2009.
[114] Citizenship and Immigration Canada (2009), Discover Canada (PDF),
  Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada, p. 2, ISBN 978-1-100-12739-2,
  retrieved 3 December 2009
[115] Tidridge 2011, p. 17
[116] Legislative Assembly of Ontario (1996). "Committee Transcripts".
  Standing Committee on the Legislative Assembly - 1996-Apr-10 - Bill 22,
  Legislative Assembly Oath of Allegiance Act, 1995. Toronto: Her Majesty
  the Queen in Right of Ontario. Retrieved 28 November 2015.
[117] Tildridge, Nathan (2011). Canada's Constitutional Monarchy. Toronto:
  Dundurn. pp. 79, 143.
[118] Bell, Lynne; Bousfield, Arthur; Toffoli, Gary (1997). Queen and
  Consort: Elizabeth and Philip: 60 Years of Marriage. Toronto: Dundurn
  Press. p. 125.
[119] Department of Canadian Heritage (2010). Symbols of Canada (PDF).
  Ottawa: Queen Printer for Canada. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-100-14692-8.
[120] Boyce 2008a, p. 5
[121] Bell, Lynne; Bousfield, Arthur; Toffoli, Gary (2007), Queen and
  Consort, Toronto: Dundurn Press, p. 125, ISBN 978-1-55002-725-9
[122] Elizabeth II (9 October 2012), Financial Administration Act, 83.1:
  Queen's Printer for Canada, retrieved 6 December 2012
[123] Elizabeth II (21 May 2004). "Memorandum for Understanding of
  Cooperation on Addressing Climate Change" (PDF). Toronto: Queen's Printer
  for Canada: 1. Retrieved 16 May 2009.
[124] Assembly of First Nations; Elizabeth II (2004). "A First Nations –
  Federal Crown Political Accord". 1. Ottawa: Assembly of First Nations: 3.
  Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 December 2009. Retrieved 29
  September 2009.
[125] Smith 1995, p. 79
[126] Department of National Defence. "DCBA 414 011759Z Apr 09 MFSI Annual
  Rates for the Fiscal Year 2009/2010". Queen's Printer for Canada.
  Archived from the original on 28 August 2009. Retrieved 16 May 2009.
[127] Canada (PDF) (Map). Queen's Printer for Canada. 2006. Retrieved 16
  May 2009.
[128] Beauchesne, Arthur (1958). Rules & Forms of the House of Commons of
  Canada (4 ed.). Toronto: The Carswell Company Limited. p. 14. ISBN
  0-459-32210-9.
[129] Citizenship and Immigration Canada 2009, p. 29
[130] MacLeod 2012, p. 30
[131] Bousfield 2002, p. 78
[132] "The Form and Order of Service that is to be performed and the
  Ceremonies that are to be observed in the Coronation of Her Majesty Queen
  Elizabeth II in the Abbey Church of St. Peter, Westminster, on Tuesday,
  the second day of June 1953". Anglican Liturgical Library. Retrieved 16
  May 2009.
[133] The Royal Household. "The Queen and the Commonwealth > Queen and
  Canada". Queen's Printer. Retrieved 14 May 2009.
[134] McLeod 2008, p. 51
[135] Aird 1985, p. 2
[136] Roach v. Canada (Attorney General), 05-CV-301832 CP (Ontario Superior
  Court 23 January 2009).
[137] Forsey 2005, p. 34
[138] "In the Wake of Constitutional Crisis: New Survey Demonstrates that
  Canadians Lack Basic Understanding of Our Country's Parliamentary System"
  (PDF). Toronto: Ipsos Reid. 15 December 2008: 1. Retrieved 18 May 2010.
[139] Boswell, Randy (7 October 2009). "Governor General calling herself
  'head of state' riles monarchists". Ottawa Citizen. Archived from the
  original on 10 October 2009. Retrieved 7 October 2009.
[140] McWhinney, Edward (2005). The Governor General and the Prime
  Ministers. Vancouver: Ronsdale Press. p. 8. ISBN 1-55380-031-1.
[141] Franks, C.E.S. (9 April 2010), "Keep the Queen and choose another
  head of state", The Globe and Mail, Toronto, retrieved 23 January 2011
[142] Jean, Michaëlle (5 October 2009). "Speech at UNESCO". Written at
  Paris. In Office of the Governor General of Canada. Media > Speeches.
  Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 7 October 2009.
[143] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "The Office > Annual
  Reports > Report on Performance". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 7
  October 2009.
[144] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "The Office > Annual
  Reports > 2003–2004 > Annual Report 2003–2004". Queen's Printer for
  Canada. Retrieved 7 October 2009.
[145] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Governor General > Role
  and Responsibilities". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 15 May 2009.
[146] "Media > News Releases and Messages > For the First Time, a Head of
  State is Officially Welcomed at the Governor General's Residence at the
  Citadelle: One of the Highlights of the Governor General's Program During
  Her Stay in Quebec City from September 18 to 24, 2006". Office of the
  Governor General of Canada. Queen's Printer for Canada. 18 September
  2006. Retrieved 4 December 2016.
[147] Heard, Andrew (January 2009). "The Governor General's Decision to
  Prorogue Parliament: Parliamentary Democracy Defended or Endangered"
  (PDF). Points of View. Edmonton: Centre for Constitutional Studies.
  Discussion Paper No. 7: 12. ISBN 978-0-9811751-0-2. Retrieved 10 October
  2009.
[148] Geddes, John (9 October 2009). "How the term "head of state" is
  actually used in Canada". Maclean's. Toronto: Roger's Communications.
  ISSN 0024-9262. Retrieved 10 October 2009.
[149] Boyce, Peter (2008b), The Crown and its Legacy in Australia, Canada
  and New Zealand, Sydney: Federation Press, p. 29, ISBN 978-1-86287-700-9
[150] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Governor General > State
  Visits". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 7 October 2009.
[151] Gardner, Dan (9 October 2009). "A very Canadian coup". Ottawa
  Citizen. Retrieved 10 October 2009.
[152] Department of Canadian Heritage (24 September 2014). "The Crown". Her
  Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada. Retrieved 8 November 2015.
[153] Department of Canadian Heritage (2 October 2014). "Governor General
  Ceremonies". Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada. Retrieved 8
  November 2015.
[154] Jackson, Michael (2002). "Political Paradox: The Lieutenant Governor
  in Saskatchewan". In Leeson, Howard A. Saskatchewan Politics Into the
  21st Century. Regina: Canadian Plains Research Center.
[155] Gardner, Dan (17 February 2009). "A stealth campaign against the
  Queen". Calgary Herald. Archived from the original on 17 June 2009.
  Retrieved 26 February 2009.
[156] Fidelis (2004). "Canadian Confusion on Juno Beach" (PDF). Canadian
  Monarchist News. Toronto: Monarchist League of Canada. Summer 2004 (22):
  2. Retrieved 16 August 2012.
[157] Gardner, Dan (13 February 2009). "Governor General to Dan Gardner:
  you're right". Ottawa Citizen. Retrieved 26 July 2009.
[158] Geddes, John (9 October 2009). "If you do all the head-of-state
  stuff, aren't you the head of state?". Maclean's. Toronto: Roger's
  Communications. ISSN 0024-9262. Retrieved 10 October 2009.
[159] EKOS Research Associates (30 May 2002). "F. Monarchy". Trust and the
  Monarchy: an examination of the shifting public attitudes toward
  government and institutions (PDF). Montreal: EKOS Research Associates. p.
  47. Retrieved 8 February 2009.
[160] Privy Council Office (2008). Accountable Government: A Guide for
  Ministers and Ministers of State—2008. Ottawa: Queen's Printer for
  Canada. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-100-11096-7. Archived from the original on 18
  March 2010. Retrieved 17 May 2009.
[161] Prince, Peter (24 November 2003). "We are Australian: The
  Constitution and Deportation of Australian-born Children". Queen's
  Printer for Australia. Research Paper no. 3 200304, Law and Bills Digest
  Group. Retrieved 16 May 2009.
[162] Boyce 2008a, p. 2
[163] Tidridge 2011, p. 16
[164] Cox, Noel (September 2002). "Black v Chrétien: Suing a Minister of
  the Crown for Abuse of Power, Misfeasance in Public Office and
  Negligence". Murdoch University Electronic Journal of Law. Perth: Murdoch
  University. 9 (3): 12. Retrieved 17 May 2009.
[165] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "The Great Seal of Canada".
  Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 14 December 2015.
[166] Department of Canadian Heritage. "he Great Seal of Canada". Queen's
  Printer for Canada. Retrieved 14 December 2015.
[167] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Governor General > Role
  and Responsibilities > Commander-in-Chief of Canada". Queen's Printer for
  Canada. Retrieved 20 May 2009.
[168] McKeon, Tim; Monaghan, Tania D.; Robinson, Carrie; Meehan, Dan
  (2007), In the Kawaskimhon Aboriginal Moot Court, University of Manitoba,
  p. 2, archived from the original (Paper) on 19 November 2009, retrieved
  20 May 2009
[169] McKeon 2007, p. 7
[170] "About Us > Treaty Principles > Fundamental Treaty Principles".
  Confederacy of Treaty Six First Nations. Archived from the original on 6
  July 2011. Retrieved 20 May 2009.
[171] MacLeod 2012, p. 18
[172] Wrong, Humphrey Hume (10 November 1952). "Telegram 219". In
  Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada. Relations
  With the United States. Documents on Canadian External Relations. 18 –
  867. Ottawa. ISBN 0-87609-352-7. Retrieved 18 May 2009.
[173] Victoria 1867, III.9 & 11
[174] Marleau 2000, The Executive
[175] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Media > Fact Sheets > The
  Swearing-In of a New Ministry". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 18
  May 2009.
[176] Panetta, Alexander (5 December 2008). "Off the record: what GG told
  Harper not for public consumption". 660 News (Rogers Broadcasting). The
  Canadian Press. Archived from the original on 29 December 2008. Retrieved
  7 December 2012.
[177] Tyler, Tracey (6 December 2008). "Politicians, scholars say Governor
  General must dispel secrecy". Toronto Star. Archived from the original on
  9 December 2008. Retrieved 7 December 2008.
[178] Cohn, Martin Regg (13 January 2013), "Lt.-Gov. David Onley explains
  prorogation decision", Toronto Star, retrieved 15 January 2013
[179] Russell, Peter (1983). "Bold Statecraft, Questionable Jurisprudence".
  In Banting, Keith G.; Simeon, Richard. And no one cheered: federalism,
  democracy, and the Constitution Act. Toronto: Taylor & Francis. p. 217.
  ISBN 978-0-458-95950-1. Retrieved 12 June 2010.
[180] MacLeod 2012, p. 8
[181] Neitsch 2008, p. 23
[182] Michener, Roland (19 November 1970). "The Empire Club of Canada
  Speeches 1970–1971". Toronto: Empire Club of Canada (published 1971):
  130–149. Retrieved 18 May 2009. |contribution= ignored (help)
[183] Victoria 1867, IV.26
[184] Brode, Patrick (1 May 2006), "War power and the Royal Prerogative",
  Law Times, retrieved 22 October 2012
[185] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "The Governor General – the
  evolution of Canada's oldest public institution". Queen's Printer for
  Canada. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
[186] "Martin Government Removes Queen From Diplomatic Documents" (PDF).
  Canadian Monarchist News. Toronto: Monarchist League of Canada. Spring
  2005 (23): 2. 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 June 2008.
  Retrieved 17 March 2007.
[187] Elizabeth II (2006), Canadian Passport Order (PDF), 4.4, Ottawa:
  Queen's Printer for Canada (published 28 June 2006), retrieved 19 May
  2009
[188] Elizabeth II 2006, 3.b, 3.c
[189] Brode, Patrick (1 May 2006), "War power and the Royal Prerogative",
  Law Times, retrieved 28 May 2015
[190] Victoria 1867, VI.91
[191] Victoria 1867, IV.17
[192] Victoria 1867, IV.55
[193] Library of Parliament. "Parliament > Officers and Officials of
  Parliament > Procedural Officers and Senior Officials > Senate". Queen's
  Printer for Canada. Archived from the original on 1 December 2008.
  Retrieved 19 May 2009.
[194] Marleau 2000, The Opposition
[195] Schmitz, Gerald (December 1988). "The Opposition in a Parliamentary
  System". Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada. ISBN 0-660-13283-4. Archived
  from the original on 25 April 2009. Retrieved 21 May 2009.
[196] Ignatieff, Michael (2012), Ibbitson, John, ed., "Michael Ignatieff's
  timely warning on the politics of facism", The Globe and Mail, Toronto
  (published 30 October 2012), retrieved 30 October 2012
[197] Elizabeth II 2005, 17
[198] Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). Senate. 17 February 2000. col.
  1500–1510.
[199] Public Prosecution Service of Canada (October 2005). The Federal
  Prosecution Service Deskbook. Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada. 35.4.3.
  Archived from the original on 21 May 2009. Retrieved 30 May 2009.
[200] Dimmock, Gary (27 February 2008). "The quality of mercy". Ottawa
  Citizen. Retrieved 4 August 2008.
[201] Dunsmuir, Molly (22 November 2004). "Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide"
  (Paper). Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 20 May 2009.
[202] James Mallory, "The Pattern of the Constitution" in Essential
  Readings in Canadian Constitutional Politics (eds. Peter H. Russell &
  Christian Leuprecht: University of Toronto Press, 2011), p. 16.
[203] John Honsberger, Osgoode Hall: An Illustrated History (Osgoode
  Society for Canadian Legal History, 2004)), pp. 219-20.
[204] Calgary courtroom home to special exhibit, CTV News (March 19, 2012).
[205] Benoit 2002, p. 3
[206] Pigott, Peter (2005). Royal Transport: An Inside Look at the History
  of Royal Travel. Toronto: Dundurn Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-55002-572-9.
[207] Library and Archives Canada. "Politics and Government > By Executive
  Decree > The Governor General". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 18
  May 2009.
[208] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "The Office > Annual
  Reports > 2004–2005 > Report on Performance". Queen's Printer for Canada.
  Retrieved 22 May 2009.
[209] Veterans Affairs Canada. "Canada Remembers > Memorials to Canadians'
  Achievements and Sacrifices > First World War Memorials in Europe > Vimy
  Memorial > The Battle of Vimy Ridge > The Canadian National Vimy Memorial
  – Fast Facts". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 24 May 2009.
[210] Foot, Richard (4 April 2007). "Vimy memorial had a turbulent history
  of its own". The Vancouver Sun. p. A4.
[211] Elizabeth II (1957). "Radio address to Canadians" (PDF). In The Royal
  Household. Images and Broadcasts > The Queen's Speeches. London: Queen's
  Printer. Retrieved 3 October 2008.
[212] "Royal Visit". Time. New York: Time Inc. IXX (17). 21 October 1957.
  ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved 22 May 2009.
[213] Buckner, Phillip Alfred (31 July 2005). Canada and the End of Empire.
  Vancouver: UBC Press. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-7748-0916-0.
[214] The Royal Household. "Past events (Court Circular) > Search the Court
  Circular > 13 May 1998". Queen's Printer. Retrieved 22 May 2009.
[215] Canadian Royal Heritage Trust. "Elizabeth II Queen of Canada".
  Canadian Royal Heritage Trust. Archived from the original on 18 April
  2008. Retrieved 22 May 2009.
[216] Valpy, Michael (8 June 2004). "A Queen and her agent may mix". The
  Globe and Mail.
[217] "Remembering Vimy – 90th Anniversary Celebrations on CTV, April 9".
  CTV. 4 April 2007. Retrieved 22 May 2009.
[218] "Royal Respect for Canada's Vimy Heroes, Queen of Canada Rededicates
  Memorial on French Soil" (PDF). Canadian Monarchist News. Toronto:
  Monarchist League of Canada. Summer 2007 (26): 3. 2007. Archived from the
  original (PDF) on 25 June 2008. Retrieved 22 May 2009.
[219] "Prince Charles, Clarkson honour D-Day fallen". CTV. 6 June 2004.
  Retrieved 22 May 2009.
[220] The Royal Household. "Past events (Court Circular) > Search the Court
  Circular > 14 April 2007". Queen's Printer. Retrieved 22 May 2009.
[221] "Another Member of the Canadian Royal Family Performs Duties Abroad"
  (PDF). Canadian Monarchist News. Toronto: Monarchist League of Canada.
  Summer 2007 (26): 4. 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 June
  2008. Retrieved 22 May 2009.
[222] The Royal Household. "Past events (Court Circular) > Search the Court
  Circular > 7–8 June 2008". Queen's Printer. Retrieved 22 May 2009.
[223] Bousfield 2002, p. 67
[224] Government of Canada. "2010 Royal Tour > Frequently Asked Questions >
  Who pays for Royal Tours of Canada?". Queen's Printer for Canada.
  Retrieved 15 June 2010.
[225] "Queen arrives in Saskatchewan". CBC. 18 May 2005. Archived from the
  original on 3 December 2010. Retrieved 22 May 2009.
[226] The Royal Household (2005). "The Queen and The Duke of Edinburgh pay
  a centenary visit to Canada, 17 – May 24, 2005". Royal Insight Magazine.
  London: Queen's Printer. May 2005. Retrieved 22 May 2009.
[227] Jackson, Michael (2004). "The "Working" Princess: Saskatchewan
  Welcomes the Princess Royal" (PDF). Canadian Monarchist News. Toronto:
  Monarchist League of Canada. Summer 2004 (24): 8. Archived from the
  original (PDF) on 25 June 2008. Retrieved 22 May 2009.
[228] Davison, Janet (7 November 2014). "Princess Anne's Ottawa tour will
  honour 'everyday heroes'". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved
  23 November 2014.
[229] Canada Post (January–March 2006). "Queen Elizabeth: 1926–2006".
  Canada's Stamp Details. Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada. XV (1).
  Archived from the original on 23 October 2007. Retrieved 14 September
  2007.
[230] Department of Canadian Heritage. "Subjects > Citizenship and Identity
  > Ceremonial and Canadian Symbols Promotion > Reinforcement of
  constitutional links with the institutions of the Canadian Monarchy".
  Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 22 May 2009.
[231] "Debates of the Senate" (PDF). Parliamentary Debates (Hansard).
  Senate. 27 May 2008. col. 1373–1374. Archived from the original (PDF) on
  26 March 2009.
[232] Berezovsky 2009, p. 2
[233] Sharp, Mitchell (1994). Which Reminds Me: A Memoir. Toronto:
  University of Toronto Press. p. 223. ISBN 978-0-8020-0545-8.
[234] MacKinnon 1976, p. 69
[235] Department of National Defence (1 April 1999), The Honours, Flags and
  Heritage Structure of the Canadian Forces (PDF), Ottawa: Queen's Printer
  for Canada, pp. 404, 449–450, A-AD-200-000/AG-000, retrieved 23 May 2009
[236] Department of Canadian Heritage 2010, p. 2
[237] McCreery, Christopher (10 June 2010). "The Crown and Honours: Getting
  it Right". Kingston: Queen's University Press: 1. Archived from the
  original (PDF) on 26 August 2010. Retrieved 11 August 2010.
[238] Royal Canadian Mounted Police. "Honours and Recognition Programs >
  Canadian National Honours". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 20 May
  2009.
[239] "Royal Crown and Cypher". Government of Canada. Retrieved 4 December
  2016.
[240] Jackson 2013, p. 57
[241] Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development (2000).
  Commissioners of the Territories (PDF). Ottawa: Queen's Printer for
  Canada. p. 82. ISBN 0-662-63769-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13
  June 2011. Retrieved 24 May 2009.
[242] "The Royal Family". Queen's Printer for Canada. 24 September 2014.
  Retrieved 12 December 2015.
[243] Copps, Sheila (26 April 2006). "PM should ignore flag bureaucrats".
  Toronto Sun. Retrieved 29 July 2007.
[244] Department of National Defence 1999, p. 281
[245] Noonan 1998
[246] Bell 2007, p. 128
[247] Bousfield 2002, p. 22
[248] Office of the Provincial Secretary. "About OPS > Protocol Office >
  Royal Visits > Royal Family Titles". Queen's Printer for Saskatchewan.
  Archived from the original on 3 October 2011. Retrieved 1 October 2009.
[249] Howell, Peter (20 December 2006). "Queen rules for city critics".
  Toronto Star. Retrieved 24 May 2009.
[250] Canadian Press (11 April 2005). "Royal wedding details emerge".
  Winnipeg Sun. Retrieved 24 May 2009.
[251] Department of Canadian Heritage. "Ceremonial and Canadian Symbols
  Promotion > The Canadian Monarchy > Royal Family". Queen's Printer for
  Canada. Retrieved 24 May 2009.
[252] "Montrealer Autumn Kelly weds Queen's eldest grandson". CBC. 17 May
  2008. Retrieved 24 May 2009.
[253] "Queen's first great-grandchild has Canadian roots". CTV. 30 December
  2010. Retrieved 2 January 2011.
[254] "The Queen becomes a great grandmother for the second time". CTV. 30
  March 2012. Retrieved 30 March 2012.
[255] Royal Household. "The current Royal Family > Succession and
  precedence > Succession". Queen's Printer. Retrieved 4 March 2015.
[256] Aralt Mac Giolla Chainnigh v. the Attorney-General of Canada,
  T-1809-06, 14.4 (Federal Court of Canada 21 January 2008).
[257] Holloway, Ian (2007). "Constitutional Silliness and the Canadian
  Forces" (PDF). Canadian Monarchist News. Toronto: Monarchist League of
  Canada. Summer 2007 (26): 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 June
  2008. Retrieved 14 June 2009.
[258] Proudfoot, Shannon (27 June 2011), Will and Kate on way, but royal
  influence everywhere in Canada already, Postmedia, retrieved 15 July 2015
[259] Elizabeth II (2013), The Constitution of the Order of Canada, Queen's
  Printer for Canada, 9.2, retrieved 2 May 2013
[260] Elizabeth II (2013), The Constitution of the Order of Military Merit,
  Queen's Printer for Canada, retrieved 24 June 2013
[261] Buckner, Phillip (2005). "The Last Great Royal Tour: Queen
  Elizabeth's 1959 Tour to Canada". In Buckner, Phillip. Canada and the End
  of Empire. Vancouver: UBC Press. p. 66. ISBN 0-7748-0915-9. Retrieved 24
  October 2009.
[262] Gowdy, Douglas M. (18 October 1967). "Loyal Societies Dinner in Honor
  of Princess Alexandra. Remarks by Douglas M. Gowdy. The Loyal Societies
  Toast to Canada by Col. B.J. Legge.". In Empire Club of Canada. The
  Empire Club of Canada Addresses, 1967–1968. Toronto: The Empire Club
  Foundation (published 1968). pp. 107–113. Retrieved 9 September 2009.
[263] Valpy, Michael (8 July 2011). "So long, young royals, you did good".
  CBC. Retrieved 8 July 2011.
[264] Editorial Board (30 June 2011). "The royal visit is no mere celebrity
  event". The Globe and Mail. Toronto. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
[265] Bousfield 2002, p. 66
[266] "Monarchy > Elizabeth II, Queen of Canada". Canadian Royal Heritage
  Trust. Retrieved 10 May 2012.
[267] MacLeod 2012, p. 11
[268] Treble, Patricia (2011). "Royal Redux". Maclean's: The Royal Tour.
  Toronto: Rogers Media: 66.
[269] Hall, Trevor (1989). Royal Canada: A History of Royal Visits for
  Canada since 1786. Toronto: Archive. ISBN 978-0-88665-504-4.
[270] Waite, P. B. (2000). "Campbell, John George Edward Henry Douglas
  Sutherland, Marquess of Lorne and 9th Duke of Argyll". In English, John.
  Dictionary of Canadian Biography. XIV. Ottawa: University of
  Toronto/Université Laval. Retrieved 24 May 2009.
[271] Toffoli, Gary. "The Royal Family and the Armed Forces". Canadian
  Royal Heritage Trust. Archived from the original on 1 July 2007.
  Retrieved 24 May 2009.
[272] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Governor General > Former
  Governors General > Field Marshal His Royal Highness the Prince Arthur,
  Duke of Connaught and Strathearn". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved
  30 April 2009.
[273] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Governor General > Former
  Governors General > Major General The Earl of Athlone". Queen's Printer
  for Canada. Retrieved 24 March 2009.
[274] Government of Canada. "Membres de la Famille royale". Queen's Printer
  for Canada. Retrieved 1 December 2014.
[275] Galbraith 1989, p. 7
[276] Elizabeth II (4 October 2002). "Speech Given by The Queen at the
  Legislative Assembly of Nunavut on Friday 4 October 2002". Written at
  Iqualuit. In Voost, Geraldine. Etoile's Unofficial Royalty Site. London:
  Geraldine Voost (published 1 September 2004). Retrieved 24 May 2009.
[277] Pedwell, Terry. "Princess Anne to take part in Remembrance Day and
  rededication of memorial". The Canadian Press. Retrieved 1 December 2014.
[278] Rayner, Gordon (30 June 2011). "Royal tour: Prince William and Kate
  Middleton fly to Canada for first overseas tour as married couple". The
  Telegraph. London. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
[279] Palmer, Randall (30 June 2011). "Canadian cities ready to welcome
  Royals". Toronto Sun. Toronto. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
[280] Hough, Andrew (30 May 2011). "Royal tour: Duke and Duchess of
  Cambridge's 14,000-mile first official trip". The Telegraph. London.
  Retrieved 5 July 2011.
[281] MacLeod 2012, p. XVII
[282] MacLeod 2012, p. 34
[283] Galbraith 1989, p. 9
[284] Bousfield 2002, pp. 10,190
[285] Skaarup, Harold A (2012). Shelldrake: Canadian Artillery Museums and
  Gun Monuments. Bloomington: iUniverse. p. 119.
[286] Tidridge, Nathan (2015). The Queen at the Council Fire: The Treaty of
  Niagara, Reconciliation, and the Dignified Crown in Canada. Toronto:
  Dundurn Press. ISBN 978-1-4597-3068-7. Retrieved 8 December 2015.
[287] Bousfield, Arthur; Toffoli, Gary (2010). Royal Tours 1786–2010: Home
  to Canada. Toronto: Dundurn Press. p. 168. ISBN 978-1-4597-1165-5.
  Retrieved 8 December 2015.
[288] Aimers, John (April 1996). "The Palace on the Rideau". Monarchy
  Canada. Toronto: Monarchist League of Canada (Spring 1996). Archived from
  the original on 6 June 2008. Retrieved 20 February 2009.
[289] Tidridge 2011, pp. 92, 259
[290] Lanctot, Gustave (1964). Royal Tour of King George VI and Queen
  Elizabeth in Canada and the United States of America 1939. Toronto: E.P.
  Taylor Foundation. ASIN B0006EB752.
[291] Buchan, John (2009). Complete Works of John Buchan (Illustrated).
  Essex: Delphi Classics. ISBN 978-1-909496-58-3.
[292] Toffoli, Gary (April 1995). "The Hnatyshyn Years". Monarchy Canada.
  Toronto: Monarchist League of Canada (Spring 1995). Archived from the
  original on 12 October 2006. Retrieved 20 February 2009.
[293] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Rideau Hall". Queen's
  Printer for Canada. Retrieved 25 May 2009.
[294] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Media > Fact Sheets >
  Collection of Art and Furniture at Rideau Hall > The Crown Collection at
  Rideau Hall". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 27 May 2009.
[295] Campagnolo, Iona (5 February 2007). "Speech to Retired Heads of
  Mission Association's Gala Dinner". In Office of the Lieutenant Governor
  of British Columbia. Government House. Victoria: Queen's Printer for
  British Columbia. ISBN 0-662-50343-0. Archived from the original on 1 May
  2009. Retrieved 27 May 2009.
[296] Boutros, Magdaline (August–September 2008). "Deep History".
  Destinations. Ottawa: Via Rail. 5 (4).
[297] "City designates Diefenbunker a heritage site". CBC. 13 April 2006.
  Archived from the original on 12 August 2007. Retrieved 27 May 2009.
[298] Department of Canadian Heritage. "Ceremonial and Canadian Symbols
  Promotion > The Canadian Monarchy > Royal Visit 2001 > Getting to Know
  the Prince(s) of Wales". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 8 August
  2007.
[299] McDougall, D. Blake. "Public information > Princess Louise Caroline
  Alberta > II. Canada Years (1878–1883)". Queen's Printer for Alberta.
  Retrieved 3 October 2009.
[300] British Columbia Archives. "Golden Jubilee > Welcoming the Royals:
  The Archival Legacy > The Legacy". Queen's Printer for British Columbia.
  Retrieved 27 May 2009.
[301] "Princess Margaret leaves her fortune to her children". Hello!.
  London: Hello Ltd. 26 June 2002. Retrieved 27 May 2009.
[302] Archives of Ontario. "A Celebration of the Golden Jubilee of Queen
  Elizabeth II > Behind the Scenes". Queen's Printer for Ontario. Archived
  from the original on 15 December 2008. Retrieved 27 May 2009.
[303] Department of National Defence, Canadian Forces Dress Instructions
  (PDF), Queen's Printer for Canada, pp. 3–7–3, archived from the original
  (PDF) on 21 July 2011, retrieved 15 November 2010
[304] Office of the Governor General of Canada (10 September 2012).
  "Working Visit to Canada by The Earl and Countess of Wessex". Queen's
  Printer for Canada. Retrieved 10 September 2012.
[305] "How Prince Edward and Sophie forged deep ties with Canada". CBC. 18
  September 2012. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
[306] "Mohawk Chapel > History". Her Majesty's Chapel of the Mohawks.
  Retrieved 28 May 2009.
[307] "The History and Architecture of St. Barts". St. Bartholomew's
  Anglican Church. Retrieved 15 December 2014.
[308] Harper, Stephen. "Prime Minister Harper introduces Australian
  counterpart to Parliament". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 12
  November 2008.
[309] Odrowaz-Sypniewska, Margaret. "The Four Indian Kings". The Courtly
  Lives of Kings, Peerage, Saints, Knights, and the Commoners. Retrieved 24
  May 2009.
[310] Ferguson, Will (27 October 2003). "The Lost Kingdom". Maclean's.
  Toronto: Rogers Communications. ISSN 0024-9262. Retrieved 23 December
  2006.
[311] Bousfield 2002, p. 8
[312] "Heritage Saint John > Canadian Heraldry". Heritage Resources of
  Saint John and New Brunswick Community College. Retrieved 3 July 2009.
[313] MacLeod 2012, p. 9
[314] Phillips, Stephen (2004), "Republicanism in Canada in the reign of
  Elizabeth II: the dog that didn't bark", Canadian Monarchist News,
  Toronto: Monarchist League of Canada, Summer 2004 (22): 19, archived from
  the original (PDF) on 17 December 2009, retrieved 24 May 2009
[315] MacLeod 2012, p. 12
[316] Joyal, Serge (10 June 2010). "Diminishing the Crown". The Globe and
  Mail. Toronto. Retrieved 13 August 2010.
[317] Tidridge 2011, p. 19
[318] Phillips 2004, p. 20
[319] "Queen drops puck, raises cheer in arena". CBC. 6 October 2002.
  Retrieved 13 May 2006.
[320] "Queen helps CBC TV mark 50th anniversary". CBC. 10 October 2002.
  Retrieved 13 May 2006.
[321] "Queen begins visit to New Brunswick". CBC. 11 October 2002.
  Retrieved 13 May 2006.
[322] "PM announces the appointment of Kevin MacLeod as Canadian Secretary
  to the Queen" (Press release). Office of the Prime Minister. 1 April
  2009. Retrieved 29 November 2009.
[323] Kenney, Jason (23 April 2007), "Lieutenant Governors Meeting",
  written at Regina, in Department of Canadian Heritage, Speeches > The
  Honourable Jason Kenney, Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada, retrieved 29
  November 2009
[324] Office of the Prime Minister of Canada (18 May 2015), Statement by
  the Prime Minister of Canada on the occasion of Victoria Day, Queen's
  Printer for Canada, retrieved 21 May 2015
[325] Office of the Governor General of Canada (9 September 2015). "Message
  from the Governor General of Canada Marking the Historic Reign of Her
  Majesty The Queen". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 9 September
  2015.
[326] Boyce 2008a, p. 115
[327] Jackson 2013, p. 11
[328] Treble, Patricia (14 November 2015), "The Crown is everywhere. So why
  don't we understand it?", Maclean's, Toronto: Rogers Media, retrieved 15
  November 2015
[329] Clarkson, Adrienne (2009). Russell, Peter; Sossin, Lorne, eds.
  Parliamentary Democracy in Crisis. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
  p. ix. ISBN 978-1-4426-1014-9.
[330] Murray, Lowell (2003), Joyal, Serge Joyal, ed., 'Which Criticisms are
  Founded?' Protecting Canadian Democracy: The Senate You Never Knew,
  Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, p. 136
[331] Valpy, Michael (2009), Russell, Peter H.; Sossin, Lorne, eds., "The
  'Crisis'" (PDF), Parliamentary Democracy in Crisis, Toronto: University
  of Toronto Press: 4
[332] Valpy, Michael (8 June 2015). "Who takes the Crown". National Post.
  Retrieved 8 June 2015.
[333] Pepall, John (1 March 1990). "Who is the Governor General?". The
  Idler. Toronto. Retrieved 15 July 2015.
[334] Geddes, John (25 January 2009). "Will the prorogation of Parliament
  set off a populist revolt?". Maclean's. Toronto: Kenneth Whyte. ISSN
  0024-9262. Retrieved 27 January 2010.
[335] "Time to address democratic deficit", Toronto Star, 27 January 2010,
  retrieved 27 January 2010
[336] Jackson, Michael D. (2009). "The Senior Realms of the Queen".
  Canadian Monarchist News. Toronto: Monarchist League of Canada. Autumn
  2009 (30): 10. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 November 2009.
  Retrieved 17 January 2010.
[337] Blair, Louisa (2001). Venne, Michel, ed. Vive Quebec!: new thinking
  and new approaches to the Quebec nation. Toronto: James Lorimer &
  Company. p. 91. ISBN 978-1-55028-734-9.
[338] Donovan, David S. (27 May 2009), The Governor General and Lieutenant
  Governors: Canada's Misunderstood Viceroys (PDF), Canadian Political
  Science Association, p. 2, retrieved 22 October 2012
[339] Neitsch, Alfred Thomas (2006). In loco Regis: The Contemporary Role
  of the Governor General and Lieutenant Governor in Canada. Edmonton:
  University of Alberta Press. p. 39.
[340] EKOS 2002, p. 34
[341] "Policy Declaration". Ottawa: Conservative Party. 29 March 2005: 1.
  Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 December 2010. Retrieved 1 June
  2010.
[342] "Manley regrets focus on anti-monarchy comments". CTV. 6 October
  2002. Retrieved 28 May 2009.
[343] "Bloc Québécois leader calls monarchy "ridiculous"". CTV. 7 May 2008.
  Retrieved 28 May 2009.
[344] Thompson, Elizabeth (17 April 2007). "Royal rumble: Queen not welcome
  at Quebec celebrations, Duceppe says". The Gazette. Retrieved 28 May
  2009.
[345] "Who we are and what we do". Monarchist League of Canada. Archived
  from the original on 23 April 2008. Retrieved 28 May 2009.
[346] "Our goals". Citizens for a Canadian Republic. Retrieved 28 May 2009.
[347] Mackenzie, Anne (2008). "A Short History of the United Empire
  Loyalists" (PDF). The United Empire Loyalists' Association of Canada: 5.
  Retrieved 28 May 2009.
[348] "Discovering Canada's Monarchy". Canadian Royal Heritage Trust.
  Archived from the original on 15 April 2008. Retrieved 28 May 2009.
[349] "Purpose Statement > What the Association Stands For". Loyal Orange
  Association. Retrieved 28 May 2009.
[350] "Ottawa Conference Discusses Monarchy" (PDF). Canadian Monarchist
  News. Toronto: Monarchist League of Canada (31): 10. Spring–Summer 2010.
  Retrieved 17 June 2010.
[351] "Canadians apathetic about Prince Charles: poll". CBC. 26 October
  2009. Retrieved 21 September 2015.
[352] Bethune, Brian; Treble, Patricia (1 July 2010). "Who will wear the
  crown in Canada?". Maclean's. Toronto: Rogers Communications (July 2010).
  ISSN 0024-9262. Retrieved 6 July 2010.
[353] Clarke, George Elliott (7 June 2005). "Speech to the University of
  Alberta Convocation". In Lingley, Scott. Clarke calls on grads to help
  achieve the ideals of Canada. Calgary: University of Alberta Senate.
  Retrieved 24 May 2009.
[354] "Arguments for Repatriating the Monarchy". The Monarchist. 25 June
  2010. Retrieved 23 June 2010.
[355] Gillespie, Kevin (2010). "A Uniquely Canadian Crown?" (PDF). Canadian
  Monarchist News. Toronto: Monarchist League of Canada. Spring-Summer 2010
  (31): 11. Retrieved 18 December 2014.

References

- Benoit, Paul (2002), "The Crown and the Constitution" (PDF), Canadian
  Parliamentary Review, Ottawa: Commonwealth Parliamentary Association, 25
  (2), retrieved 21 May 2009
- Bousfield, Arthur; Toffoli, Gary (2002), Fifty Years the Queen, Toronto:
  Dundurn Press, ISBN 1-55002-360-8
- Forsey, Eugene (2005), How Canadians Govern Themselves (PDF) (6 ed.),
  Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada, ISBN 0-662-39689-8, archived from the
  original (PDF) on 31 March 2012, retrieved 14 May 2009
- Galbraith, William (1989), "Fiftieth Anniversary of the 1939 Royal
  Visit", Canadian Parliamentary Review, Ottawa: Commonwealth Parliamentary
  Association, 12 (3), retrieved 5 December 2015
- MacKinnon, Frank (1976), The Crown in Canada, Calgary: Glenbow-Alberta
  Institute, p. 69, ISBN 978-0-7712-1016-7
- MacLeod, Kevin S. (2015), A Crown of Maples (3 ed.), Ottawa: Queen's
  Printer for Canada, ISBN 978-0-662-46012-1, retrieved 20 February 2015
- MacLeod, Kevin S. (2012), A Crown of Maples (PDF) (2 ed.), Ottawa:
  Queen's Printer for Canada, retrieved 20 February 2015
- McWhinney, Edward (2005), The Governor General and the Prime Ministers,
  Vancouver: Ronsdale Press, ISBN 1-55380-031-1
- Neitsch, Alfred Thomas (2008), "A Tradition of Vigilance: The Role of
  Lieutenant Governor in Alberta", Canadian Parliamentary Review, Ottawa:
  Commonwealth Parliamentary Association, 30 (4), archived from the
  original (PDF) on 12 February 2010 July 2012, retrieved 22 May 2009 Check
  date values in: |archive-date= (help)
- Noonan, Peter C. (1998), The Crown and Constitutional Law in Canada,
  Calgary: Sripnoon Publications, ISBN 978-0-9683534-0-0
- Roberts, Edward (2009), "Ensuring Constitutional Wisdom During
  Unconventional Times", Canadian Parliamentary Review, Ottawa:
  Commonwealth Parliamentary Association, 23 (1), archived from the
  original (PDF) on 12 February 2010 July 2012, retrieved 21 May 2009 Check
  date values in: |archive-date= (help)
- Smith, David E. (1995), The Invisible Crown, Toronto: University of
  Toronto Press, ISBN 0-8020-7793-5
- Tidridge, Nathan (2011), Canada's Constitutional Monarchy: An
  Introduction to Our Form of Government, Toronto: Dundurn Press, ISBN
  978-1-4597-0084-0
- Trepanier, Peter (2004), "Some Visual Aspects of the Monarchical
  Tradition", Canadian Parliamentary Review, Ottawa: Commonwealth
  Parliamentary Association, 27 (2), archived from the original (PDF) on 8
  March 2010 December 2011, retrieved 8 October 2009 Check date values in:
  |archive-date= (help)

Further information

Reading

- Bousfield, Arthur; Toffoli, Gary (1991). Royal Observations: Canadians
  and Royalty. Hamilton: Dundurn Press. ISBN 1-55002-076-5.
- Canadian Press (2002). Queen Elizabeth II and the Royal Family in Canada
  (Golden Jubilee). Toronto: Quarry Heritage. ISBN 1-55082-301-9.
- Coates, Colin (2006). Majesty In Canada: Essays On The Role of Royalty.
  Hamilton: Dundurn Press. ISBN 1-55002-586-4.
- Farthing, John (1957), Robinson, Judith, ed., Freedom Wears a Crown
  (First ed.), Toronto: Kingswood House, ASIN B002CZW3T2
- MacKinnon, Frank (1976). The Crown in Canada. Calgary, Alta.:
  Glenbow-Alberta Institute: McClelland and Stewart West. 189 p. ISBN
  0-7712-1016-7 pbk
- Monet, Jacques (1979). The Canadian Crown. Toronto-Vancouver: Clarke,
  Irwin & Company Ltd. ISBN 0-7720-1252-0.
- Munro, Kenneth (1977). Coates, Colin, ed. "The Crown and French Canada:
  The role of the Governors-General in Making the Crown relevant,
  1867–1917". Imperial Canada. The University of Edinburgh: 109–121.
- Munro, Kenneth (March 2001). "Canada as Reflected in her Participation in
  the Coronation of her Monarchs in the Twentieth Century". Journal of
  Historical Sociology. 14: 21–46. doi:10.1111/1467-6443.00133.
- Smith, David E. (1999). The Republican Option in Canada: Past and
  Present. Toronto-Buffalo-London: University of Toronto Press. ISBN
  0-8020-4469-7.
- Tasko, Patti (2007). Canada's Queen: Elizabeth II: A Celebration of Her
  Majestys Friendship with the People of Canada. Toronto: John Wiley &
  Sons. ISBN 0-470-15444-6.
- Tidridge, Nathan; Guthrie, Gavin (2007). The Canadian Monarchy: Exploring
  the role of Canada's Crown in the day-to-day life of our country.
  Toronto: Monarchist League of Canada. ISBN 0-9781853-0-7.
- Vaughan, Frederick (2004). Canadian Federalist Experiment: From Defiant
  Monarchy to Reluctant Republic. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University
  Press. ISBN 0-7735-2537-8.

Viewing

- Howe, John (1957). The Sceptre and the Mace (Film). Ottawa: National Film
  Board.

External links

- Canada: A Constitutional Monarchy from the Parliament of Canada
- Buckingham Palace website for the Canadian Monarchy
- Maple Leaf Web: The Monarchy in Canada
- The Canadian Crown
- Film footage of Queen Elizabeth II in Canada on YouTube
- The Royal Collection: Film footage of the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh
  in Canada, 1951
- Film footage of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth in Canada, 1939 on
  YouTube
- National Film Board of Canada films on the Canadian monarchy
- Succession to the Crown: foiled by Canada? (18th Sept 2014), Anne Twomey
  video (39:15 mins.)

Government of Canada

The Government of Canada (French: Gouvernement du Canada) or more formally
Her Majesty's Government¹ ² ³ (French: Gouvernement de Sa Majesté), is the
federal government of Canada, a country in North America, composed of 10
provinces, Ottawa (the nation's capital), and 3 territories. The head of
government is Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, whose party the Liberal Party
of Canada won the majority of seats in the Canadian Parliament in the 2015
Canadian federal election.

In Canadian English, the term can mean either the collective set of
institutions or specifically the Queen-in-Council. In both senses, the
construct was established at Confederation—through the Constitution Act,
1867—as a federal constitutional monarchy, wherein the Canadian Crown acts
as the core, or "the most basic building block,"⁴ of its Westminster-style
parliamentary democracy.⁵ The Crown is thus the foundation of the
executive, legislative, and judicial branches of the Canadian government,
with powers vested in the Prime Minister, the Canadian Parliament, and
federal courts. ⁶ ⁷ ⁸ Further elements of governance are outlined in the
rest of the Canadian constitution, which includes written statutes, court
rulings, and unwritten conventions developed over centuries.⁹

Usage

In Canadian English, the word government is used to refer both to the whole
set of institutions that govern the country (as in American usage, but
where Britons would use state), and to the current political leadership (as
in British usage, but where Americans would use administration).

In federal department press releases, the government has sometimes been
referred to by the phrase [last name of prime minister] Government; this
terminology has been commonly employed in the media.¹⁰ In late 2010, an
informal instruction from the Office of the Prime Minister urged government
departments to consistently use in all department communications the term
(at that time Harper Government) in place of Government of Canada.¹¹ The
same cabinet earlier directed its press department to use the phrase
Canada's New Government.¹⁰

Monarchy

Main article: Monarchy of Canada

As per the Constitution Acts of 1867 and 1982, Canada is a constitutional
monarchy, wherein the role of the reigning sovereign is both legal and
practical, but not political.¹² The Crown is regarded as a corporation
sole, with the monarch, vested as she is with all powers of state,¹³ at the
centre of a construct in which the power of the whole is shared by multiple
institutions of government acting under the sovereign's authority.¹⁴ ¹⁵ ¹⁶
The executive is thus formally called the Queen-in-Council, the legislature
the Queen-in-Parliament, and the courts as the Queen on the Bench.⁷

Royal Assent is required to enact laws and, as part of the Royal
Prerogative, the royal sign-manual gives authority to letters patent and
orders in council, though the authority for these acts stems from the
Canadian populace and,¹⁷ ¹⁸ within the conventional stipulations of
constitutional monarchy, the sovereign's direct participation in any of
these areas of governance is limited.¹⁹ ²⁰ The Royal Prerogative also
includes summoning, proroguing, and dissolving parliament in order to call
an election, and extends to foreign affairs: the negotiation and
ratification of treaties, alliances, international agreements, and
declarations of war;²¹ the accreditation of Canadian, and receipt of
foreign, diplomats; and the issuance of passports.²²

The person who is monarch of Canada (currently Queen Elizabeth II) is also
the monarch of 15 other countries in the Commonwealth of Nations, though,
he or she reigns separately as King or Queen of Canada, an office that is
"truly Canadian" and "totally independent from that of the Queen of the
United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms".²³ ²⁴ On the advice of
the Canadian Prime Minister, the sovereign appoints a federal viceregal
representative—the Governor General of Canada (currently David
Johnston)—who, since 1947, is permitted to exercise almost all of the
monarch's Royal Prerogative, though there are some duties which must be
specifically performed by, or bills that require assent by, the king or
queen.

Executive power

Main article: Queen's Privy Council for Canada

The government is defined by the constitution as the Queen acting on the
advice of her privy council.¹ ²⁵ ²⁶ ²⁷ However, the Privy
Council—consisting mostly of former members of parliament, chief justices
of the supreme court, and other elder statesmen—rarely meets in full. As
the stipulations of responsible government require that those who directly
advise the monarch and governor general on how to exercise the Royal
Prerogative be accountable to the elected House of Commons, the day-to-day
operation of government is guided only by a sub-group of the Privy Council
made up of individuals who hold seats in parliament.²⁷ This body of
ministers of the Crown is the Cabinet.

One of the main duties of the Crown is to ensure that a democratic
government is always in place,²⁸ which means appointing a prime minister
(at present Justin Trudeau) to thereafter head the Cabinet.²⁹ Thus, the
governor general must appoint as prime minister the person who holds the
confidence of the House of Commons; in practice, this is typically the
leader of the political party that holds more seats than any other party in
that chamber, currently the Liberal Party. Should no party hold a majority
in the commons, the leader of one party—either the one with the most seats
or one supported by other parties—will be called by the governor general to
form a minority government. Once sworn in by the viceroy, the prime
minister holds office until he or she resigns or is removed by the governor
general, after either a motion of non-confidence or his party's defeat in a
general election.

The monarch and governor general typically follow the near-binding advice
of their ministers. It is important to note, however, that the Royal
Prerogative belongs to the Crown and not to any of the ministers,¹⁶ ³⁰ who
rule "in trust" for the monarch and,³¹ upon losing the confidence of the
commons, must relinquish the Crown's power back to it,³² whereupon a new
government, which can hold the lower chamber's confidence, is installed by
the governor general. The royal and viceroyal figures may unilaterally use
these powers in exceptional constitutional crisis situations.[n 1]
Politicians can sometimes try to use to their favour the complexity of the
relationship between the monarch, viceroy, ministers, and parliament, and
the public's general unfamiliarity with it.[n 2]

Legislative power

Main article: Parliament of Canada

The Parliament of Canada, the bicameral national legislature located on
Parliament Hill in the national capital of Ottawa, consists of the Queen
(represented by the governor general), the appointed Senate (upper house),
and the elected House of Commons (lower house).³³ The governor general
summons and appoints each of the 105 senators on the advice of the prime
minister,³⁴ while the 338 members of the House of Commons (Members of
Parliament) are directly elected by eligible voters in the Canadian
populace, with each member representing a single electoral district for a
period mandated by law of not more than four years;³⁵ the constitution
mandates a maximum of five years. Per democratic tradition, the House of
Commons is the dominant branch of parliament; the Senate and Crown rarely
oppose its will. The Senate, thus, reviews legislation from a less partisan
standpoint.

The Constitution Act, 1867, outlines that the governor general is
responsible for summoning parliament in the Queen's name. A parliamentary
session lasts until a prorogation, after which, without ceremony, both
chambers of the legislature cease all legislative business until the
governor general issues another royal proclamation calling for a new
session to begin. After a number of such sessions, each parliament comes to
an end via dissolution. As a general election typically follows, the timing
of a dissolution is usually politically motivated, with the prime minister
selecting a moment most advantageous to his or her political party. The end
of a parliament may also be necessary, however, if the majority of Members
of Parliament revoke their confidence in the Prime Minister's ability to
govern, or the legally mandated (as per the Canada Elections Act) four-year
maximum is reached; no parliament has been allowed to expire in such a
fashion.

Judicial power

Main article: Court system of Canada

The sovereign is responsible for rendering justice for all her subjects,
and is thus traditionally deemed the fount of justice.³⁶ However, she does
not personally rule in judicial cases; instead the judicial functions of
the Royal Prerogative are performed in trust and in the Queen's name by
officers of Her Majesty's courts.

The Supreme Court of Canada—the country's court of last resort—has nine
justices appointed by the governor general on recommendation by the prime
minister and led by the Chief Justice of Canada, and hears appeals from
decisions rendered by the various appellate courts from the provinces and
territories. Below this is the Federal Court, which hears cases arising
under certain areas of federal law.³⁷ It works in conjunction with the
Federal Court of Appeal and Tax Court of Canada.³⁸

Federalism

Main article: Canadian federalism

The powers of the parliaments in Canada are limited by the constitution,
which divides legislative abilities between the federal and provincial
governments; in general, the legislatures of the provinces may only pass
laws relating to topics explicitly reserved for them by the constitution,
such as education, provincial officers, municipal government, charitable
institutions, and "matters of a merely local or private nature,"³⁹ while
any matter not under the exclusive authority of the provincial legislatures
is within the scope of the federal parliament's power. Thus, the parliament
at Ottawa alone can pass laws relating to, amongst other things, the postal
service, the census, the military, criminal law, navigation and shipping,
fishing, currency, banking, weights and measures, bankruptcy, copyrights,
patents, First Nations, and naturalization.⁴⁰ In some cases, however, the
jurisdictions of the federal and provincial parliaments may be more vague.
For instance, the federal parliament regulates marriage and divorce in
general, but the solemnization of marriage is regulated only by the
provincial legislatures. Other examples include the powers of both the
federal and provincial parliaments to impose taxes, borrow money, punish
crimes, and regulate agriculture.

Public understanding

Further information: Monarchy of Canada § Public understanding

Polls have suggested Canadians generally do not have a solid understanding
of civics,⁴¹ which has been theorised to be a result of less attention
being given to the subject in provincial education curricula, beginning in
the 1960s.⁴² By 2008, a poll showed only 24% of respondents could name the
Queen as head of state;⁴³ Senator Lowell Murray wrote five years earlier:
"The Crown has become irrelevant to most Canadian's understanding of our
system of Government."⁴⁴ John Robson opined in 2015: "intellectually,
voters and commentators succumb to the mistaken notion that we elect
'governments' of prime ministers and cabinets with untrammelled authority,
that indeed ideal 'democracy' consists precisely in this kind of
plebiscitary autocracy."⁴⁵ Politicians have, on occasion, taken advantage
of such misunderstandings, as when then members of the Cabinet, headed by
Stephen Harper, suggested in 2008 a change of government by way of a
non-confidence vote by a coalition of opposition parties was undemocratic
and tantamount to a coup d'état⁴⁶ and Harper in 2015 stated Canadians
voters elect governments.⁴⁷

See also

- Structure of the Canadian federal government
- Politics of Canada
- .gc.ca

Notes

[1] See 'Responsibilities' and Note 1 at Cabinet of Canada.
[2] It was said by Helen Forsey: "The inherent complexity and subtlety of
  this type of constitutional situation can make it hard for the general
  public to fully grasp the implications. That confusion gives an
  unscrupulous government plenty of opportunity to oversimplify and
  misrepresent, making much of the alleged conflict between popular
  democracy—supposedly embodied in the Prime Minister—and the
  constitutional mechanisms at the heart of responsible government, notably
  the 'reserve powers' of the Crown, which gets portrayed as illegitimate."
  As examples, she cited the campaign of William Lyon Mackenzie King
  following the King–Byng Affair of 1926 and Stephen Harper's comments
  during the 2008–2009 Canadian parliamentary dispute.¹²

References

[1] MacLeod, Kevin S. (2008), A Crown of Maples (1 ed.), Ottawa: Queen's
  Printer for Canada, p. 18, ISBN 978-0-662-46012-1, retrieved 21 June 2009
[2] Government of Canada. "Speech From the Throne > Frequently Asked
  Questions". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 4 June 2010.
[3] Grand Chief's Office, Treaty 3 Between Her Majesty, the Queen, and the
  Saulteaux Tribe of the Ojibway Indians at the Northwest Angle on the Lake
  of the Woods With Adhesions, The Grand Council of Treaty #3, retrieved 4
  June 2010
[4] Department of Canadian Heritage (February 2009), Canadian Heritage
  Portfolio (PDF) (2 ed.), Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada, p. 3, ISBN
  978-1-100-11529-0, retrieved 5 July 2009
[5] Coyne, Andrew (13 November 2009). "Defending the royals". Maclean's.
  Toronto: Rogers Communications. ISSN 0024-9262. Retrieved 17 November
  2009.
[6] Victoria (1867), Constitution Act, 1867, III.15, Westminster: Queen's
  Printer (published 29 March 1867), retrieved 15 January 2009
[7] MacLeod 2008, p. 17
[8] Department of Canadian Heritage 2009, p. 4
[9] Brooks, Stephen Farper (2007). Canadian Democracy: An Introduction (5
  ed.). Don Mills: Oxford University Press. p. 126. ISBN 978-0-19-543103-2.
[10] Cheadle, Bruce (3 March 2011), "Tories re-brand government in Stephen
  Harper's name", The Globe and Mail, retrieved 26 April 2011
[11] "Tories defend use of 'Harper Government'". CTV. 7 March 2011.
  Retrieved 9 May 2011.
[12] Forsey, Helen (1 October 2010). "As David Johnson Enters Rideau Hall
  ...". The Monitor. Ottawa: Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives.
  Retrieved 23 January 2011.
[13] Privy Council Office (2008). Accountable Government: A Guide for
  Ministers and Ministers of State – 2008. Ottawa: Queen's Printer for
  Canada. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-100-11096-7. Retrieved 17 May 2009.
[14] Smith, David E. (10 June 2010), "The Crown and the Constitution:
  Sustaining Democracy?" (PDF), The Crown in Canada: Present Realities and
  Future Options, Kingston: Queen's University, p. 6, retrieved 18 May 2010
[15] Table Research Branch of the House of Commons (March 2008), Compendium
  of Procedure (PDF), Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada, p. 1, retrieved
  14 October 2009
[16] Cox, Noel (September 2002). "Black v Chrétien: Suing a Minister of the
  Crown for Abuse of Power, Misfeasance in Public Office and Negligence".
  Murdoch University Electronic Journal of Law. Perth: Murdoch University.
  9 (3): 12. Retrieved 17 May 2009.
[17] Forsey, Eugene (2005). How Canadians Govern Themselves (PDF) (6 ed.).
  Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada. p. 1. ISBN 0-662-39689-8. Retrieved
  14 May 2008.
[18] Marleau, Robert; Montpetit, Camille (2000). "House of Commons > 1.
  Parliamentary Institutions". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 28
  September 2009.
[19] MacLeod 2008, p. 16
[20] Russell, Peter (1983), "Bold Statecraft, Questionable Jurisprudence",
  in Banting, Keith G.; Simeon, Richard, And no one cheered: federalism,
  democracy, and the Constitution Act, Toronto: Taylor & Francis, p. 217,
  ISBN 978-0-458-95950-1
[21] Brode, Patrick (1 May 2006), "War power and the Royal Prerogative",
  Law Times, retrieved 22 October 2012
[22] Elizabeth II (2006). "Canadian Passport Order" (PDF). 4.4. Ottawa:
  Queen's Printer for Canada (published 28 June 2006). Retrieved 19 May
  2009.
[23] Crown of Maples- Constitutional Monarchy in Canada (2008 ed.). Queen's
  Printer for Canada. 2008. pp. 5, 12, 20, 40, 49. ISBN 978-0-662-46012-1.
  Retrieved 2 May 2012.
[24] "The Queen and Canada: History and present Government". The Royal
  Household. Retrieved 2 May 2012.
[25] Wrong, Humphrey Hume (10 November 1952), Department of Foreign Affairs
  and International Trade Canada, ed., "Relations With the United States
  (Telegram 219)", Documents on Canadian External Relations, Ottawa, 18 –
  867, retrieved 18 May 2009
[26] Victoria 1867, III.9 & 11
[27] Marleau & Montpetit 2000, The Executive
[28] Boyce, Peter (2008), written at Sydney, Jackson, Michael D., ed., "The
  Senior Realms of the Queen; The Queen's Other Realms: The Crown and its
  Legacy in Australia, Canada and New Zealand (ISBN 9-781-86287-700-9)"
  (PDF), Canadian Monarchist News, Toronto: Monarchist League of Canada
  (published October 2009), Autumn 2009 (30), p. 9, archived from the
  original (PDF) on 29 December 2009, retrieved 22 October 2009
[29] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Media > Fact Sheets > The
  Swearing-In of a New Ministry". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 18
  May 2009.
[30] Neitsch, Alfred Thomas (2008). "A Tradition of Vigilance: The Role of
  Lieutenant Governor in Alberta" (PDF). Canadian Parliamentary Review.
  Ottawa: Commonwealth Parliamentary Association. 30 (4): 23. Retrieved 22
  May 2009.
[31] MacLeod 2008, p. 8
[32] Nathan Tidridge (2011). Canada's Constitutional Monarchy: An
  Introduction to Our Form of Government. Dundurn. p. 65. ISBN
  978-1-4597-0084-0.
[33] Victoria 1867, IV.17
[34] Victoria 1867, IV.24
[35] Elizabeth II (31 May 2000), Canada Elections Act, 56.1.2, Ottawa:
  Queen's Printer for Canada, retrieved 20 November 2009
[36] "Debates of the Senate (Hansard), 2nd Session, 36th Parliament, Volume
  138, Issue 29". Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). Senate. 17 February
  2000. col. 1500–1510.
[37] Federal Court. "About the Court > Jurisdiction". Queen's Printer for
  Canada. Retrieved 20 November 2009.
[38] Elizabeth II (27 March 2002), Courts Administration Service Act, 2.a,
  Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada, retrieved 18 November 2009
[39] Victoria 1867, VI.92
[40] Victoria 1867, VI.91
[41] Jackson, Michael D. (2013), The Crown and Canadian Federalism, Dundurn
  Press, p. 11, ISBN 978-1-4597-0989-8, retrieved 6 June 2014
[42] Tidridge, Nathan (2011), Canada's Constitutional Monarchy: An
  Introduction to Our Form of Government, Toronto: Dundurn Press, p. 19,
  ISBN 978-1-4597-0084-0
[43] "In the Wake of Constitutional Crisis: New Survey Demonstrates that
  Canadians Lack Basic Understanding of Our Country's Parliamentary System"
  (PDF). Toronto: Ipsos Reid. 15 December 2008: 1. Retrieved 18 May 2010.
[44] Murray, Lowell (2003), Joyal, Serge Joyal, ed., 'Which Criticisms are
  Founded?' Protecting Canadian Democracy: The Senate You Never Knew,
  Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, p. 136
[45] Robson, John (2 November 2015). "Trudeau's menacing promise of
  electoral reform". National Post. Retrieved 5 November 2015.
[46] Akin, David; de Souza, Mike; Mayeda, Andrew; O'Neill, Juliet (2
  December 2008). "Duceppe, Dion, Layton form coalition Gov. Gen. told NDP,
  BQ, Grits ready to form new government". CanWest. Retrieved 3 July 2009.
[47] Urquhart, Ian (9 August 2015). "A Conservative minority government?
  Not possible". Toronto Star. Retrieved 7 November 2015.

Further reading

- Bourinot, John George (2008), Flint, Thomas Barnard, ed., Parliamentary
  Procedure and Practice in the Dominion of Canada (4th ed.), Lawbook
  Exchange, ISBN 978-1-58477-881-3
- Dawson, R. MacGregor; Dawson, W. F. (1989). Ward, Norman, ed. Democratic
  Government in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN
  0-8020-6703-4. Retrieved 14 January 2011.
- Johnson, David (2006), Thinking government: public sector management in
  Canada (2nd ed.), Broadview Press, ISBN 1-55111-779-7
- Hale, Geoffrey (2006), Uneasy partnership: the politics of business and
  government in Canada, Broadview Press, ISBN 978-1-55111-504-7
- Malcolmson, Patrick; Myers, Richard (2009), The Canadian Regime: An
  Introduction to Parliamentary Government in Canada (4th ed.), University
  of Toronto Press, ISBN 978-1-4426-0047-8
- Morton, Frederick Lee (2002), Law, politics, and the judicial process in
  Canada, Frederick Lee, ISBN 1-55238-046-7
- Roy, Jeffrey (2006), E-government in Canada: transformation for the
  digital age, University of Ottawa Press, ISBN 978-0-7766-0617-0
- Roy, Jeffrey (2007), Business and government in Canada, University of
  Ottawa Press, ISBN 978-0-7766-0658-3

External links

- Government of Canada (Official)
  + Public Accounts of Canada, from 1995, in pdf
  + Wayback Times: Archives of the Government of Canada website
- Information on the Government of Canada
- Federal Government

Politics of Canada

This article is about national politics in Canada. For provincial politics,
see Provinces and territories of Canada. For municipal politics, see
Municipal government in Canada.

The politics of Canada function within a framework of parliamentary
democracy and a federal system of parliamentary government with strong
democratic traditions. Canada is a constitutional monarchy, in which the
Monarch is head of state. The country has a multi-party system in which
many of its legislative practices derive from the unwritten conventions of
and precedents set by the United Kingdom's Westminster Parliament. However,
Canada has evolved variations: party discipline in Canada is stronger than
in the United Kingdom and more parliamentary votes are considered motions
of confidence, which tends to diminish the role of non-Cabinet Members of
Parliament, (MPs). Such members, in the government caucus, and junior or
lower-profile members of opposition caucuses, are known as backbenchers.
Backbenchers can, however, exert their influence by sitting in
parliamentary committees, like the Public Accounts Committee or the
National-Defence Committee.

The two dominant political parties in Canada have historically been the
Liberal Party of Canada and Conservative Party of Canada (or its
predecessors), however, the social-democratic New Democratic Party (NDP)
has risen to prominence, and even threatened to upset the two other
established parties during the 2011 election. Smaller parties like the
Quebec nationalist Bloc Québécois, and the Green Party of Canada have also
been able to exert their own influence over the political process.
Far-right politics has never been a prominent force in Canadian society.¹

Context

BC
AB
SK
MB
ON
QC
NB
PE
NS
NL
YT
NT
NU
A map of Canada's provinces and territories

Canada's governmental structure was originally established by the British
Parliament through the British North America Act (now known as the
Constitution Act, 1867),² but the federal model and division of powers were
devised by Canadian politicians. Particularly after World War I, citizens
of the self-governing Dominions, such as Canada, began to develop a strong
sense of identity, and, in the Balfour Declaration of 1926, the British
government expressed its intent to grant full autonomy to these regions.

Thus in 1931, the British Parliament passed the Statute of Westminster,
giving legal recognition to the autonomy of Canada and other Dominions.
Following this, Canadian politicians were unable to obtain consensus on a
process for amending the constitution until 1982, meaning amendments to
Canada's constitution continued to require the approval of the British
parliament until that date. Similarly, the Judicial Committee of the Privy
Council in Britain continued to make the final decision on criminal appeals
until 1933 and on civil appeals until 1949.³

Summary of governmental organization

Main article: Government of Canada
Name Canada (for conventional and legal use; "Dominion of Canada" remains
  legal but rarely used)
Further information: Canada's name
Type of government Westminster style federal parliamentary democracy within
  a constitutional monarchy.
Capital Ottawa
Administrative divisions Ten provinces and three territories*: Alberta,
  British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador,
  Northwest Territories*, Nova Scotia, Nunavut*, Ontario, Prince Edward
  Island, Quebec, Saskatchewan, Yukon*.
National holiday Canada Day, July 1 (known until 1982 as Dominion Day).
Constitution Westminster system, based on unwritten conventions and written
  legislation.
Legal system English common law for all matters within federal jurisdiction
  and in all provinces and territories except Quebec, which is based on the
  civil law, based on the Custom of Paris in pre-revolutionary France as
  set out in the Civil Code of Quebec; accepts compulsory International
  Court of Justice jurisdiction, with reservations.
Further information: Law of Canada
Suffrage Citizens aged 18 years or older. Only two adult citizens in Canada
  cannot vote: the Chief Electoral Officer, and the Deputy Chief Electoral
  Officer. The Governor General is eligible to vote, but abstains due to
  constitutional convention. Citizens residing outside of Canada for a
  period greater than 5 years are excluded from voting beginning 2015.
Participation in international organizations ABEDA, ACCT, ACS (observer),
  AfDB, APEC, AsDB, Australia Group, BIS, C, CCC, CDB (non-regional),
  Council of Europe (observer), Commonwealth of Nations, EAPC, EBRD, ECE,
  ECLAC, ESA (cooperating state), FAO, La Francophonie, G-8, G-10, IADB,
  IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICCt, ICJ, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC,
  IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO,
  ITU, LRTAP, MINURCA, MINURSO, MIPONUH, MONUC, NAM (guest), NAFTA, NATO,
  NEA, NORAD North American Aerospace Defense Command, NORTHCOM, NSG, OAS,
  OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UN Security Council (prior/temporary), UNCTAD,
  UNDOF, UNECE, UNESCO, UNFICYP, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMIK,
  UNMOP, UNTAET, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO, Zangger
  Committee.
Description of national flag A red maple leaf centred on a Canadian pale:
  three vertical bands of red (hoist side), white (double width, square),
  and red, with a length twice that of its height.
Further information: Flag of Canada

Monarchy

Head of state Elizabeth II, Queen of Canada (since February 6, 1952).
Viceroy David Lloyd Johnston, Governor General of Canada (since October 1,
  2010).

Executive power

Head of government Prime Minister Justin Trudeau (since November 4, 2015).
Cabinet Ministers (usually around thirty) chosen by the Prime Minister and
  appointed by the Governor General to lead various ministries and
  agencies, generally with regional representation. Traditionally most, if
  not all, cabinet ministers will be members of the leader's own party in
  the House of Commons or Senate (see Cabinet of Canada); however this is
  not legally or constitutionally mandated, and occasionally, the Prime
  Minister will appoint a cabinet minister from another party.
Elections The monarchy is hereditary. The Governor General is appointed by
  the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister for a non-specific term,
  though it is traditionally approximately five years. Following
  legislative elections, the leader of the majority party in the House of
  Commons is usually designated by the Governor General to become Prime
  Minister.
Further information: Monarchy of Canada, Monarchy in the Canadian
provinces, Lieutenant-Governor (Canada), Premier (Canada), and Elections in
Canada

Legislative power

The bicameral Parliament of Canada consists of three parts: the monarch,
the Senate, and the House of Commons.

Currently, the Senate, which is frequently described as providing
"regional" representation, has 105 members appointed by the Governor
General on the advice of the Prime Minister to serve until age 75. It was
created with equal representation from each of Ontario, Quebec, the
Maritime region and the Western Provinces. However, it is currently the
product of various specific exceptions, additions and compromises, meaning
that regional equality is not observed, nor is
representation-by-population. The normal number of senators can be exceeded
by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister, as long as the
additional senators are distributed equally with regard to region (up to a
total of eight additional Senators). This power of additional appointment
has only been used once, when Prime Minister Brian Mulroney petitioned
Queen Elizabeth II to add eight seats to the Senate so as to ensure the
passage of the Goods and Services Tax legislation.

The House of Commons currently has 338 members elected in single-member
districts in a plurality voting system (first past the post), meaning that
members must attain only a plurality (the most votes of any candidate)
rather than a majority (50 percent plus one). The electoral districts are
also known as ridings.

Mandates cannot exceed five years; an election must occur by the end of
this time. This fixed mandate has been exceeded only once, when Prime
Minister Robert Borden perceived the need to do so during World War I. The
size of the House and apportionment of seats to each province is revised
after every census, conducted every five years, and is based on population
changes and approximately on representation-by-population.

Majority and minority governments

Canadians vote for their local Member of Parliament (MP) only. The party
leaders are elected prior to the general elections by party memberships.
Parties elect their leaders in run-off elections to ensure that the winner
receives more than 50% of the votes. Normally the party leader stands as a
candidate to be an MP during an election.

The election of a local MP gives a seat to one of the several political
parties. The party that gets the most seats normally forms the government,
with that party's leader becoming prime minister. The Prime Minister is not
directly elected by the general population, although the Prime Minister is
almost always directly elected as an MP within his or her constituency.

Canada's parliamentary system empowers political parties and their party
leaders. Where one party gets a majority of the seats in the House of
Commons, that party is said to have a "majority government." Through party
discipline, the party leader, who is only elected in one riding, exercises
a great deal of control over the cabinet and the parliament.

A minority government situation occurs when the party that holds the most
seats in the House of Commons holds less seats than the opposition parties
combined. In this scenario the party leader whose party has the most seats
in the House is selected by the Governor General to lead the government,
however, to create stability, the leader chosen must have the support of
the majority of the House, meaning they need the support of at least one
other party.

Federal-provincial relations

In Canada, the provinces are considered co-sovereign; sovereignty of the
provinces is passed on, not by the Governor General or the Canadian
parliament, but through the Crown itself. This means that the Crown is
"divided" into 11 legal jurisdictions; into 11 "Crowns" – one federal and
ten provincial.

Federal-provincial (or intergovernmental, formerly Dominion-provincial)
relations is a regular issue in Canadian politics: Quebec wishes to
preserve and strengthen its distinctive nature, western provinces desire
more control over their abundant natural resources, especially energy
reserves; industrialized Central Canada is concerned with its manufacturing
base, and the Atlantic provinces strive to escape from being less affluent
than the rest of the country.

In order to ensure that social programs such as health care and education
are funded consistently throughout Canada, the "have-not" (poorer)
provinces receive a proportionately greater share of federal "transfer
(equalization) payments" than the richer, or "have", provinces do; this has
been somewhat controversial. The richer provinces often favour freezing
transfer payments, or rebalancing the system in their favour, based on the
claim that they already pay more in taxes than they receive in federal
government services, and the poorer provinces often favour an increase on
the basis that the amount of money they receive is not sufficient for their
existing needs.

Particularly in the past decade, some scholars have argued that the federal
government's exercise of its unlimited constitutional spending power has
contributed to strained federal-provincial relations. This power, which
allows the federal government to spend the revenue it raises in any way
that it pleases, allows it to overstep the constitutional division of
powers by creating programs that encroach on areas of provincial
jurisdiction. The federal spending power is not expressly set out in the
Constitution Act, 1867; however, in the words of the Court of Appeal for
Ontario the power "can be inferred" from s. 91(1A), "the public debt and
property".⁴

A prime example of an exercise of the spending power is the Canada Health
Act, which is a conditional grant of money to the provinces. Regulation of
health services is, under the Constitution, a provincial responsibility.
However, by making the funding available to the provinces under the Canada
Health Act contingent upon delivery of services according to federal
standards, the federal government has the ability to influence health care
delivery. This spending power, coupled with Supreme Court rulings – such as
Reference re Canada Assistance Plan (B.C.) – that have held that funding
delivered under the spending power can be reduced unilaterally at any time,
has contributed to strained federal-provincial relations.

Quebec and Canadian politics

Except for three short-lived transitional or minority governments, prime
ministers from Quebec led Canada continuously from 1968 to early 2006.
Québécois led both Liberal and Progressive Conservative governments in this
period.

Monarchs, governors general, and prime ministers are now expected to be at
least functional, if not fluent, in both English and French. In selecting
leaders, political parties give preference to candidates who are fluently
bilingual.

Also, by law, three of the nine positions on the Supreme Court of Canada
must be held by judges from Quebec. This representation makes sure that at
least three judges have sufficient experience with the civil law system to
treat cases involving Quebec laws.⁵

National unity

Canada has a long and storied history of secessionist movements (see
Secessionist movements of Canada). National unity has been a major issue in
Canada since the forced union of Upper and Lower Canada in 1840.

The predominant and lingering issue concerning Canadian national unity has
been the ongoing conflict between the French-speaking majority in Quebec
and the English-speaking majority in the rest of Canada. Quebec's continued
demands for recognition of its "distinct society" through special political
status has led to attempts for constitutional reform, most notably with the
failed attempts to amend the constitution through the Meech Lake Accord and
the Charlottetown Accord (the latter of which was rejected through a
national referendum).

Since the Quiet Revolution, sovereigntist sentiments in Quebec have been
variably stoked by the patriation of the Canadian constitution in 1982
(without Quebec's consent) and by the failed attempts at constitutional
reform. Two provincial referenda, in 1980 and 1995, rejected proposals for
sovereignty with majorities of 60% and 50.6% respectively. Given the narrow
federalist victory in 1995, a reference was made by the Chrétien government
to the Supreme Court of Canada in 1998 regarding the legality of unilateral
provincial secession. The court decided that a unilateral declaration of
secession would be unconstitutional. This resulted in the passage of the
Clarity Act in 2000.

The Bloc Québécois, a sovereigntist party which runs candidates exclusively
in Quebec, was started by a group of MPs who left the Progressive
Conservative (PC) party (along with several disaffected Liberal MPs), and
first put forward candidates in the 1993 federal election. With the
collapse of the PCs in that election, the Bloc and Liberals were seen as
the only two viable parties in Quebec. Thus, prior to the 2006 election,
any gain by one party came at the expense of the other, regardless of
whether national unity was really at issue. The Bloc, then, benefited (with
a significant increase in seat total) from the impressions of corruption
that surrounded the Liberal Party in the leadup to the 2004 election.
However, the newly unified Conservative party re-emerged as a viable party
in Quebec by winning 10 seats in the 2006 election. In the 2011 election,
the New Democratic Party succeeded in winning 59 of Quebec's 75 seats,
successfully reducing the number of seats of every other party
substantially. The NDP surge nearly destroyed the Bloc, reducing them to 4
seats, far below the minimum requirement of 12 seats for Official party
status.

Newfoundland and Labrador is also a problem regarding national unity. As
the Dominion of Newfoundland was a self-governing country equal to Canada
until 1949, there are large, though uncoordinated, feelings of Newfoundland
nationalism and anti-Canadian sentiment among much of the population. This
is due in part to the perception of chronic federal mismanagement of the
fisheries, forced resettlement away from isolated settlements in the 1960s,
the government of Quebec still drawing inaccurate political maps whereby
they take parts of Labrador, and to the perception that mainland Canadians
look down upon Newfoundlanders. In 2004, the Newfoundland and Labrador
First Party contested provincial elections and in 2008 in federal ridings
within the province. In 2004, then-premier Danny Williams ordered all
federal flags removed from government buildings as a result of lost
offshore revenues to equalization clawbacks.⁶ On December 23, 2004, premier
Williams made this statement to reporters in St. John's,

  "They basically slighted us, they are not treating us as a proper partner
  in Confederation. It's intolerable and it's insufferable and these flags
  will be taken down indefinitely.... It's also quite apparent to me that
  we were dragged to Manitoba in order to punish us, quite frankly, to try
  to embarrass us, to bring us out there to get no deal and send us back
  with our tail between our legs."
  — Premier Danny Williams⁶

Western alienation is another national-unity-related concept that enters
into Canadian politics. Residents of the four western provinces,
particularly Alberta, have often been unhappy with a lack of influence and
a perceived lack of understanding when residents of Central Canada consider
"national" issues. While this is seen to play itself out through many
avenues (media, commerce, and so on.), in politics, it has given rise to a
number of political parties whose base constituency is in western Canada.
These include the United Farmers of Alberta, who first won federal seats in
1917, the Progressives (1921), the Social Credit Party (1935), the
Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (1935), the Reconstruction Party
(1935), New Democracy (1940) and most recently the Reform Party (1989).

The Reform Party's slogan "The West Wants In" was echoed by commentators
when, after a successful merger with the PCs, the successor party to both
parties, the Conservative Party won the 2006 election. Led by Stephen
Harper, who is an MP from Alberta, the electoral victory was said to have
made "The West IS In" a reality. However, regardless of specific electoral
successes or failures, the concept of western alienation continues to be
important in Canadian politics, particularly on a provincial level, where
opposing the federal government is a common tactic for provincial
politicians. For example, in 2001, a group of prominent Albertans produced
the Alberta Agenda, urging Alberta to take steps to make full use of its
constitutional powers, much as Quebec has done.

Political conditions

Canada is considered by most sources to be a very stable democracy. In 2006
The Economist ranked Canada the third most democratic nation in its
Democracy Index, ahead of all other nations in the Americas and ahead of
every nation more populous than itself. In 2008, Canada was ranked World
No. 11 and again ahead of all countries more populous and No. 1 for the
Americas. (In 2008, the United States was ranked World No. 18, Uruguay
World No. 23, and Costa Rica World No. 27.)

The Liberal Party of Canada, under the leadership of Paul Martin,⁷ won a
minority victory in the June 2004 general elections. In December 2003,
Martin had succeeded fellow Liberal Jean Chrétien, who had, in 2000, become
the first Prime Minister to lead three consecutive majority governments
since 1945. However, in 2004 the Liberals lost seats in Parliament, going
from 172 of 301 Parliamentary seats to 135 of 308, and from 40.9% to 36.7%
in the popular vote. The Canadian Alliance, which did well in western
Canada in the 2000 election, but was unable to make significant inroads in
the East, merged with the Progressive Conservative Party to form the
Conservative Party of Canada in late 2003.

They proved to be moderately successful in the 2004 campaign, gaining seats
from a combined Alliance-PC total of 78 in 2000 to 99 in 2004. However, the
new Conservatives lost in popular vote, going from 37.7% in 2000 down to
29.6%. In 2006 the Conservatives, led by Stephen Harper, won a minority
government with 124 seats. They improved their percentage from 2004,
garnering 36.3% of the vote. During this election, the Conservatives also
made major breakthroughs in Quebec. They gained 10 seats here, whereas in
2004 they had no seats.

In the 2011 election, the Conservatives won a majority government with 167
seats. For the first time, the NDP became the Official Opposition, with 102
seats; the Liberals came in third with 34 seats. This was the first
election in which the Green Party won a seat, that of leader Elizabeth May;
the Bloc won 4 seats, losing Official Party status.

Realignment: Conservatives in power

See also: Realigning election § Canada

The Liberal Party, after dominating Canadian politics since the 1920s, was
in decline in early years of the 21st century. As Lang (2010) concluded,
they lost their majority in Parliament in the 2004 election, were defeated
in 2006, and in 2008 became little more than a "rump", falling to their
lowest seat count in decades and a mere 26% of the popular vote.
Furthermore, said Lang (a Liberal himself), its prospects "are as bleak as
they have ever been."⁸ In the 2011 election, the Liberals suffered a
crushing defeat, managing to secure only 18.9% of the vote share and only
34 seats. As a result, the Liberals lost their status as official
opposition to the NDP.

In explaining those trends, Behiels (2010) synthesized major studies and
reported that "a great many journalists, political advisors, and
politicians argue that a new political party paradigm is emerging"⁹ She
claimed they saw a new power configuration based on a right-wing political
party capable of sharply changing the traditional role of the state
(federal and provincial) in the twenty-first-century. Behiels said that
unlike Brian Mulroney, who tried but failed to challenge the long-term
dominance of the Liberals, Harper's attempt had proven to be more
determined, systematic and successful.¹⁰

Many commentators thought it signalled a major realignment. The Economist
said, "the election represents the biggest realignment of Canadian politics
since 1993."¹¹ Lawrence Martin, commentator for the Globe and Mail said,
"Harper has completed a remarkable reconstruction of a Canadian political
landscape that endured for more than a century. The realignment saw both
old parties of the moderate middle, the Progressive Conservatives and the
Liberals, either eliminated or marginalized."¹² Maclean's said, the
election marked "an unprecedented realignment of Canadian politics" as "the
Conservatives are now in a position to replace the Liberals as the natural
governing party in Canada."¹³

Despite the grim outlook and poor early poll numbers, when the 2015
election was held, the Liberals under Justin Trudeau had an unprecedented
comeback and the realignment was proved only temporary. Gaining 148 seats,
they won a majority government for the first time since 2000.¹⁴ The Toronto
Star claimed the comeback was "headed straight for the history books" and
that Harpers name would "forever be joined with that of his Liberal nemesis
in Canada's electoral annals".¹⁵ Spencer McKay for the National Post
suggested that "maybe we've witnessed a revival of Canada's 'natural
governing party'".¹⁶

Party funding reform

Funding changes were made to ensure greater reliance on personal
contributions. Personal donations to federal parties and campaigns benefit
from tax credits, although the amount of tax relief depends on the amount
given. Also only people paying income taxes receive any benefit from this.

A good part of the reasoning behind the change in funding was that union or
business funding should not be allowed to have as much impact on federal
election funding as these are not contributions from citizens and are not
evenly spread out between parties. They are still allowed to contribute to
the election but only in a minor fashion. The new rules stated that a party
had to receive 2% of the vote nationwide in order to receive the general
federal funding for parties. Each vote garnered a certain dollar amount for
a party (approximately $1.75) in future funding. For the initial
disbursement, approximations were made based on previous elections. The NDP
received more votes than expected (its national share of the vote went up)
while the new Conservative Party of Canada received fewer votes than had
been estimated and was asked to refund the difference. Quebec was the first
province to implement a similar system of funding many years before the
changes to funding of federal parties.

Federal funds are disbursed quarterly to parties, beginning at the start of
2005. For the moment, this disbursement delay leaves the NDP and the Green
Party in a better position to fight an election, since they rely more on
individual contributors than federal funds. The Green Party now receives
federal funds, since it for the first time received a sufficient share of
the vote in the 2004 election.¹⁷

In 2007, news emerged of a funding loophole that "could cumulatively exceed
the legal limit by more than $60,000," through anonymous recurrent
donations of $200 to every riding of a party from corporations or unions.
At the time, for each individual, the legal annual donation limit was
$1,100 for each party, $1,100 combined total for each party's associations,
and in an election year, an additional $1,100 combined total for each
party's candidates. All three limits increase on 1 April every year based
on the inflation rate. ¹⁸ ¹⁹ ²⁰

Elections

Main article: Elections in Canada
- Elections
  + House of Commons – direct plurality representation (last election held
    October 19, 2015)
  + Senate – appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime
    minister
- Election results
[1] The party totals are theoretical. They are the transposition of the
  2011 district results redistributed to the new districts formed in 2015.
[2] Includes Liberal candidate Cheryl Thomas from Victoria, who publicly
  withdrew from the election after the final list of candidates was
  released and thus remained on the ballot as the Liberal candidate.
[3] Includes Conservative candidate Jagdish Grewal from Mississauga—Malton,
  who was expelled by the Conservative Party after the final list of
  candidates was released and thus remained on the ballot as the
  Conservative candidate.
[4] Does not include José Núñez-Melo, an incumbent MP who was denied the
  NDP nomination in Vimy after the writ was dropped, and subsequently
  announced he was running as a Green candidate.
[5] Does not include Montcalm MP Manon Perreault, who sat as an independent
  before the writ was dropped, after which she announced her candidacy for
  Strength in Democracy.
See also: Canadian Senate

Political parties, leaders, and status

Ordered by number of elected representatives in the House of Commons

- Liberal Party – Justin Trudeau (Majority Government)
- Conservative Party – Rona Ambrose (Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition)
  (interim)
- New Democratic Party – Thomas Mulcair
- Bloc Québécois – Rhéal Fortin (interim)
- Green Party – Elizabeth May

Leaders debates

Main article: Canadian leaders debates

Leaders debates in Canada consist of two debates, one English and one
French, both produced by a consortium of Canada's five major television
broadcasters (CBC/SRC, CTV, Global and TVA) and usually consist of the
leaders of all parties with representation in the House of Commons.

These debates air on the networks of the producing consortium as well as
the public affairs and parliamentary channel CPAC and the American public
affairs network C-SPAN.

Judiciary

Main article: Supreme Court of Canada
See also: Court system of Canada and Law of Canada

The highest court in Canada is the Supreme Court of Canada and is the final
court of appeal in the Canadian justice system. The court is composed of
nine judges: eight Puisne Justices and the Chief Justice of Canada.
Justices of the Supreme Court of Canada are appointed by the
Governor-in-Council. The Supreme Court Act limits eligibility for
appointment to persons who have been judges of a superior court, or members
of the bar for ten or more years. Members of the bar or superior judge of
Quebec, by law, must hold three of the nine positions on the Supreme Court
of Canada.²¹

Government departments and structure

The Canadian government operates the public service using departments,
smaller agencies (for example, commissions, tribunals, and boards), and
crown corporations. There are two types of departments: central agencies
such as Finance, Privy Council Office, and Treasury Board Secretariat have
an organizing and oversight role for the entire public service; line
departments are departments which perform tasks in a specific area or
field, such as the departments of Agriculture, Environment, or Defence.

- Significant departments include Finance, Revenue, Human Resources and
  Skills Development, National Defence, Public Safety and Emergency
  Preparedness, and Foreign Affairs/International Trade.
Further information: Structure of the Canadian federal government

Scholar Peter Aucoin, writing about the Canadian Westminster system, has
raised concerns in the early 2000s about the centralization of power; an
increased number, role and influence of partisan-political staff;
personal-politicization of appointments to the senior public service; and,
the assumption that the public service is promiscuously partisan for the
government of the day.²²

Immigration

In 1967 Canada established a point-based system to determine if immigrants
should be eligible to enter the country, using meritorious qualities such
as the applicant's ability to speak both French and English, their level of
education, and other details that may be expected of a natural born
Canadian. This system was considered ground-breaking at the time since
prior systems were slanted on the basis of ethnicity. However, many foreign
nationals still found it challenging to secure work after immigrating,
resulting in a higher unemployment rate among immigrants. After winning
power in 2006, the conservative party has sought to curb this issue by
placing weight on whether or not the applicant has a standing job offer in
Canada. The change has been a source of some contention as opponents argue
that businesses use this change to suppress wages, with corporate owners
leveraging the knowledge that an immigrant should hold a job to
successfully complete the immigration process.²³

See also

- Australia–Canada relations
- Canadian nationalism
- Conservatism in Canada
- Council of the Federation
- Federal political financing in Canada
- Liberalism in Canada
- List of Canadian federal general elections
- List of Canadian federal electoral districts
- List of Canadian political scandals
- List of political parties in Canada
- Political culture of Canada
- Progressivism
- Socialism and social democracy in Canada
- Ten Percenter

References

[1] Emma Ambrose, Cas Mudde (2015). Canadian Multiculturalism and the
  Absence of the Far Right Nationalism and Ethnic Politics Vol. 21 Iss. 2.
[2] THE Constitution Act, 1867, s. 6.
[3] The Creation and Beginnings of the Supreme Court of Canada
[4] Canada Mortgage and Housing Corp. v. Iness, 2004 CanLII 15104 at
  paragraph 25.
[5] "Reference re Supreme Court Act, ss. 5 and 6". CanLII. Retrieved August
  5, 2015.
[6]
  http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/maple-leaf-flags-removed-in-offshore-feud-1.494970%22Maple+Leaf+flags+removed+in+offshore+feud%22.+http://www.cbc.ca/nl.+CBC+News.+Retrieved+16+August+2014.
  +External+link+in+%7Cwebsite=+(help)
[7] Aucoin, Peter. The democratic deficit: Paul Martin and parliamentary
  reform, Canadian Public Administration, Jan 1, 2003, Vol. 46, No. 4
  (Winter 2003), p. 427.
[8] Eugene Lang, "Whither the Liberals? Current State and Prospects of the
  Liberal Party of Canada," The Journal for International Relations and
  Global Trends, (2010) p. 195 online.
[9] Behiels cites Tom Flanagan, Harper's Team: Behind the Scenes in the
  Conservative Rise to Power (2nd ed. McGill-Queens U.P., 2009); Chantal
  Hébert, French Kiss: Stephen Harper's Blind Date with Quebec (Knopf
  Canada, 2007); William Johnson, Stephen Harper and the Future of Canada
  (2nd ed. McClelland & Stewart, 2006); Lloyd Mackay, Stephen Harper: The
  Case for Collaborative Governance (ECW Press, 2006); Bob Plamondon, Full
  Circle: Death and Resurrection in Canadian Conservative Politics (Key
  Porter Books, 2006); and Paul Wells, Right Side Up: The Fall of Paul
  Martin and the Rise of Stephen Harper's New Conservatism (Douglas Gibson
  Books, 2007).
[10] Michael D. Behiels, "Stephen Harper's Rise to Power: Will His 'New'
  Conservative Party Become Canada's 'Natural Governing Party' of the
  Twenty-First Century?," American Review of Canadian Studies Vol. 40, No.
  1, March 2010, 118–145.
[11] Economist May 3, 2011
[12] Lawrence Martin, "Harper's triumph: a realignment of historic
  proportions, Globe and Mail May 4, 2011
[13] Andrew Coyne, "The West is in and Ontario has joined it: How the
  election led to an unprecedented realignment of Canadian politics,"
  Maclean's May 6, 2011
[14] Andrew Coyne, "Liberal comeback unprecedented in Canadian history"
  National Post Oct 25 2015
[15] Chantal Hébert, "Liberal comeback headed for history books" Toronto
  Star Oct 20 2015
[16] Spencer McKay, "The Great Liberal Comeback" National Post Oct 29 2015
[17] Greens win spot in TV election debates, Reuters Canada, September 10,
  2008, (accessed September 10, 2008)
[18] Conacher, Duff (August 13, 2007). "Our Democracy for Sale, Still". The
  Tyee. Retrieved August 16, 2007.
[19] Leblanc, Daniel; Jane Taber (August 2, 2007). "Ottawa refuses to close
  donation loophole". Globe and Mail. Canada. Archived from the original on
  August 2, 2007. Retrieved August 16, 2007.
[20] Leblanc, Daniel (August 1, 2007). "Loophole tears lid off political
  donations". Globe and Mail. Canada. Retrieved August 16, 2007.
[21] Supreme Court Act, s. 6.
[22] Aucoin, Peter (2008). New Public Management and the Quality of
  Government: Coping with the New Political Governance in Canada,
  Conference on "New Public Management and the Quality of Government", SOG
  and the Quality of Government Institute, University of Gothenburg,
  Sweden, 13–15 November 2008, p.14.
[23]

Further reading

- Argyle, Ray. Turning Points: The Campaigns That Changed Canada - 2011 and
  Before (2011) 440pp excerpt and text search ch 1
- Bickerton, James (2009), Canadian Politics, University of Toronto Press,
  ISBN 978-1-4426-0121-5
- Courtney, John C.; Smith, David E. (2010), The Oxford handbook of
  Canadian politics, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-533535-4
- Clément, Dominique (2009), Canada's Rights Revolution: Social Movements
  and Social Change, 1937–82, Univ of British Columbia Press, ISBN
  978-0-7748-1480-5
- Dyck, Rand (2011), Canadian Politics, Concise Fifth Edition, Cengage
  Learning, ISBN 978-0-17-650343-7
- Hale, Geoffrey E. (2002), The politics of taxation in Canada, Broadview
  Press, ISBN 1-55111-300-7
- Hill, Tony L. (2002), Canadian politics, riding by riding, Prospect Park
  Press, ISBN 0-9723436-0-1
- Hyde, Anthony (1997). Promises, Promises: Breaking Faith in Canadian
  Politics. Toronto: Viking. viii, 218 p. ISBN 0-670-87710-7
- Lightbody, James (2006), City politics, Canada, Broadview Press, ISBN
  1-55111-753-3
- Macdonald, Douglas (2007), Business and environmental politics in Canada,
  Broadview Press, ISBN 978-1-55111-277-0
- Morton, Frederick Lee (2002), Law, politics, and the judicial process in
  Canada, Frederick Lee, ISBN 1-55238-046-7
- Newman, Stephen L. (2004), Constitutional politics in Canada and the
  United States, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-7914-5937-3
- Pammett, Jon H., and Christopher Dornan, eds. The Canadian Federal
  Election of 2011 (2011) excerpt and text search; 386pp; essays by experts
- Patten, Steve (2006), The Chrétien legacy: politics and public policy in
  Canada, McGill-Queen's University Press, ISBN 0-7735-3095-9
- Trimble, Linda; Arscott, Jane (2008), Still Counting: Women in Politics
  Across Canada, Univ of Toronto Press
- Wiseman, Nelson (2007), In search of Canadian political culture, Univ of
  British Columbia Press, ISBN 978-0-7748-1388-4
Political thought
- Katherine Fierlbeck, Political Thought in Canada: An Intellectual
  History, Broadview Press, 2006
- Ian McKay, Rebels, Reds, Radicals: Rethinking Canada's Left History,
  Between the Lines, 2006

External links

- Canada Newsnet (formerly PoliWonk) - Extensive Canadian Politics news and
  resources
- Canadian-Politics.com Comprehensive overview of politics in Canada
- CBC Digital Archives – Scandals, Boondoggles and White Elephants
- CBC Digital Archives – Campaigning for Canada
- Canadian Governments Compared
- Canadian Politics Online Digital Textbook

Executive branch

Governor General of Canada

The Governor General of Canada (French [masculine]: Gouverneur général du
Canada, or [feminine]: Gouverneure générale du Canada) is the federal
viceregal representative of the Canadian monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth
II. Because the person of the sovereign is shared equally both with the 15
other Commonwealth realms and the 10 provinces of Canada and resides
predominantly in her oldest realm, the United Kingdom, she, on the advice
of the Canadian prime minister,¹ appoints the governor general to carry out
most of her constitutional and ceremonial duties. The commission is for an
unfixed period of time—known as serving at Her Majesty's pleasure—though
five years is the normal convention. Beginning in 1959, it has also been
traditional to rotate between anglophone and francophone incumbents. Once
in office, the governor general maintains direct contact with the Queen,
wherever she may be at the time.²

The office began in the 16th and 17th centuries with the Crown-appointed
governors of the French colony of Canada followed by the British governors
of Canada in the 18th and 19th centuries. Subsequently, the office is,
along with the Crown, the oldest continuous institution in Canada.³ The
present incarnation of the office emerged with Canadian Confederation and
the passing of the British North America Act, which defines the role of the
governor general as "carrying on the Government of Canada on behalf and in
the Name of the Queen, by whatever Title he is designated".⁴ Although the
post initially still represented the government of the United Kingdom (that
is, the monarch in his British council), the office was gradually
Canadianized until, with the passage of the Statute of Westminster in 1931
and the establishment of a separate and uniquely Canadian monarchy, the
governor general become the personal representative of the independently
Canadian sovereign,⁵ ⁶ the governor general became the direct, personal
representative of the uniquely Canadian sovereign (the monarch in his
Canadian council).⁷ ⁸ Throughout this process of gradually increasing
Canadian independence, the role of governor general took on additional
responsibilities. For example, in 1904 the Militia Act granted permission
for the governor general to use the title of Commander-in-Chief of the
Canadian militia,⁹ in the name of the sovereign and actual
Commander-in-Chief,¹⁰ and in 1927 the first official international visit by
a governor general was made.¹¹ ¹² Finally, in 1947, King George VI issued
letters patent allowing the viceroy to carry out almost all of the
monarch's powers on his or her behalf. As a result, the day-to-day duties
of the monarch are carried out by the governor general, although, as a
matter of law, the governor general is not in the same constitutional
position as the sovereign;¹³ the office itself does not independently
possess any powers of the Royal Prerogative. In accordance with the
Constitution Act, 1982, any constitutional amendment that affects the
Crown, including the office of the Governor General, requires the unanimous
consent of each provincial legislature as well as the federal parliament.

The current governor general is David Johnston, who has served since 1
October 2010; Prime Minister Stephen Harper recommended him to succeed
Michaëlle Jean.¹⁴ Johnston's wife—who is thus the viceregal consort—is
Sharon Johnston.¹⁵

Spelling of title

The Government of Canada spells the title governor general without a
hyphen. The Canadian media still often use the governor-general spelling.

As governor is the noun in the title, it is pluralized; thus, governors
general, rather than governor generals. Moreover, both terms are
capitalized when used in the formal title preceding an incumbent's name.

Appointment

The position of governor general is mandated by both the Constitution Act
(previously the British North America Act), 1867, and the letters patent
issued in 1947 by King George VI.¹⁶ As such, on the recommendation of his
or her Canadian prime minister, the Canadian monarch appoints the governor
general by commission issued under the royal sign-manual and Great Seal of
Canada. That individual is, from then until being sworn-in, referred to as
the governor general-designate.¹⁶ ¹⁷ ¹⁸ ¹⁹ ²⁰ ²¹

Besides the administration of the oaths of office, there is no set formula
for the swearing-in of a governor general-designate.¹⁹ Though there may
therefore be variations to the following, the appointee will generally
travel to Ottawa, there receiving an official welcome and taking up
residence at 7 Rideau Gate,¹⁹ ²² and will begin preparations for their
upcoming role, meeting with various high level officials to ensure a smooth
transition between governors general. The sovereign will also hold an
audience with the appointee and will at that time induct both the governor
general-designate and his or her spouse into the Order of Canada as
Companions, as well as appointing the former as a Commander of both the
Order of Military Merit and the Order of Merit of the Police Forces (should
either person not have already received either of those honours).¹⁹

The swearing-in ceremony begins with the arrival at 7 Rideau Gate of one of
the ministers of the Crown, who then accompanies the governor
general-designate to Parliament Hill, where a Canadian Forces Guard of
Honour (consisting of the Army Guard, Royal Canadian Air Force Guard, and
Flag Party of the Royal Canadian Navy) awaits to give a general salute.
From there, the party is led by the Queen's parliamentary messenger—the
Usher of the Black Rod—to the Senate chamber, wherein all justices of the
Supreme Court, senators, members of parliament, and other guests are
assembled. The Queen's commission for the governor general-designate is
then read aloud by the Secretary to the Governor General and the required
oaths are administered to the appointee by either the chief justice or one
of the puisne justices of the Supreme Court; the three oaths are: the Oath
of Allegiance, the Oath of Office as Governor General and
Commander-in-Chief, and the Oath as Keeper of the Great Seal of Canada.
With the affixing of their signature to these three solemn promises, the
individual is officially the governor general, and at that moment the Flag
of the Governor General of Canada is raised on the Peace Tower,¹⁹ the
Viceregal Salute is played by the Central Band of the Canadian Forces, and
a 21-gun salute is conducted by the Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery.
The governor general is seated on the throne while a prayer is read, and
then receives the Great Seal of Canada (which is passed to the registrar
general for protection),²³ as well as the chains of both the Chancellor of
the Order of Canada and of the Order of Military Merit.²⁴ The governor
general will then give a speech, outlining whichever cause or causes he or
she will champion during his or her time as viceroy.¹⁹

The incumbent will generally serve for at least five years, though this is
only a developed convention, and the governor general still technically
acts at Her Majesty's pleasure (or the Royal Pleasure).²⁵ The prime
minister may therefore recommend to the Queen that the viceroy remain in
her service for a longer period of time, sometimes upwards of more than
seven years.[n 1] A governor general may also resign,[n 2] and two have
died in office.[n 3] In such a circumstance, or if the governor general
leaves the country for longer than one month, the Chief Justice of Canada
(or, if that position is vacant or unavailable, the senior puisne justice
of the Supreme Court) serves as Administrator of the Government and
exercises all powers of the governor general.[n 4]

Selection

In a speech on the subject of confederation, made in 1866 to the
Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada, John A. Macdonald said of
the planned governor: "We place no restriction on Her Majesty's prerogative
in the selection of her representative ... The sovereign has unrestricted
freedom of choice ... We leave that to Her Majesty in all confidence."²⁶
However, between 1867 and 1931, governors general were appointed by the
monarch on the advice of the British Cabinet. Thereafter, in accordance
with the Statute of Westminster 1931, the appointment was made by the
sovereign with the direction of his or her Canadian ministers only. Until
1952, all governors general were also either members of the Peerage or sons
of peers, and were born beyond Canada's borders. These viceroys spent a
relatively limited time in Canada, but their travel schedules were so
extensive that they could "learn more about Canada in five years than many
Canadians in a lifetime."²⁷ Still, though all Canadian nationals were as
equally British subjects as their British counterparts prior to the
implementation of the Canadian Citizenship Act in 1947, the idea of
Canadian-born persons being appointed governor general was raised as early
as 1919, when, at the Paris Peace Conference, Canadian prime minister
Robert Borden consulted with Prime Minister of South Africa Louis Botha and
the two agreed that the viceregal appointees should be long-term residents
of their respective Dominions.²⁸ Calls for just such an individual to be
made viceroy came again in the late 1930s,²⁹ but it was not until Vincent
Massey's appointment by King George VI in 1952 that the position was filled
by a Canadian-born individual. Massey stated of this that "a Canadian [as
governor general] makes it far easier to look on the Crown as our own and
on the Sovereign as Queen of Canada."³⁰ This practice continued until 1999,
when Queen Elizabeth II commissioned as her representative Adrienne
Clarkson, a Hong Kong-born refugee to Canada. Moreover, the practice of
alternating between anglophone and francophone Canadians was instituted
with the appointment of Georges Vanier, a francophone who succeeded the
anglophone Massey. All persons whose names are put forward to the Queen for
approval must first undergo background checks by the Royal Canadian Mounted
Police and the Canadian Security Intelligence Service.³¹ ³²

Although required by the tenets of constitutional monarchy to be
nonpartisan while in office, governors general were frequently former
politicians; a number held seats in the House of Lords by virtue of their
inclusion in the peerage. Appointments of former ministers of the Crown in
the 1980s and 1990s were criticized by Peter H. Russell, who stated in
2009: "much of [the] advantage of the monarchical system is lost in Canada
when prime ministers recommend partisan colleagues to be appointed governor
general and represent [the Queen]."³³ Clarkson was the first governor
general in Canadian history without either a political or military
background, as well as the first Asian-Canadian and the second woman,
following on Jeanne Sauvé. The third woman to hold this position was also
the first Caribbean-Canadian governor general, Michaëlle Jean.

There have been, from time to time, proposals put forward for modifications
to the selection process of the governor general. Most recently, the group
Citizens for a Canadian Republic has advocated the election of the nominee
to the Queen, either by popular or parliamentary vote;³⁴ a proposal echoed
by Adrienne Clarkson, who called for the prime minister's choice to not
only be vetted by a parliamentary committee,³⁵ ³⁶ but also submit to a
televised quiz on Canadiana.³⁷ Constitutional scholars, editorial boards,
and the Monarchist League of Canada have argued against any such
constitutional tinkering with the viceregal appointment process, stating
that the position being "not elected is an asset, not a handicap," and that
an election would politicize the office, thereby undermining the
impartiality necessary to the proper functioning of the governor general.³⁸
³⁹

A new approach was used in 2010 for the selection of David Johnston as
governor general-designate. For the task, Prime Minister Stephen Harper
convened a special search group—the Governor General Consultation
Committee⁴⁰ —was instructed to find a non-partisan candidate who would
respect the monarchical aspects of the viceregal office and conducted
extensive consultations with more than 200 people across the country.⁴¹ ⁴²
⁴³ ⁴⁴ In 2012, the committee was made permanent and renamed as the Advisory
Committee on Vice-Regal Appointments, with a modified membership and its
scope broadened to include the appointment of provincial lieutenant
governors and territorial commissioners (though the latter are not personal
representatives of the monarch).⁴⁵

Role

Further information: Monarchy of Canada § International and domestic
aspects

If, and because your Governor-General is in the service of the Crown, he
is, therefore ... in the service of Canada ... [A]loof though he be from
actual executive responsibility, his attitude must be that of ceaseless and
watchful readiness to take part ... in the fostering of every influence
that will sweeten and elevate public life; to ... join in making known the
resources and developments of the country; to vindicate, if required, the
rights of the people and the ordinariness and Constitution, and lastly, to
promote by all means in his power, without reference to class or creed,
every movement and every institution calculated to forward the social,
moral, and religious welfare of the inhabitants of the Dominion.⁴⁶

Governor General the Marquess of Aberdeen, 1893

Canada shares the person of the sovereign equally with 15 other countries
in the Commonwealth of Nations and that individual, in his or her capacity
as the Canadian sovereign, has 10 other legal personas within the Canadian
federation. As the sovereign works and resides predominantly outside of
Canada's borders, the governor general's primary task is to perform the
monarch's federal constitutional duties on his or her behalf.⁴⁷ ⁴⁸ As such,
the governor general carries "on the Government of Canada on behalf and in
the name of the Sovereign".⁴⁹

The governor general acts within the principles of parliamentary democracy
and responsible government as a guarantor of continuous and stable
governance and as a nonpartisan safeguard against the abuse of power.⁵⁰ ⁵¹
⁵² For the most part, however, the powers of the Crown are exercised on a
day-to-day basis by elected and appointed individuals, leaving the governor
general to perform the various ceremonial duties the sovereign otherwise
carries out when in the country; at such a moment, the governor general
removes him or herself from public,[n 5] though the presence of the monarch
does not affect the governor general's ability to perform governmental
roles.⁵⁴ ⁵⁵

Past governor general the Marquess of Lorne said of the job: "It is no easy
thing to be a governor general of Canada. You must have the patience of a
saint, the smile of a cherub, the generosity of an Indian prince, and the
back of a camel,"⁵⁶ and the Earl of Dufferin stated that the governor
general is "A representative of all that is august, stable, and sedate in
the government, the history, and the traditions of the country; incapable
of partizanship, and lifted far above the atmosphere of faction; without
adherents to reward or opponents to oust from office; docile to the
suggestions of his Ministers, and yet securing to the people the certainty
of being able to get rid of an Administration or Parliament the moment
either had forfeited their confidence."⁵⁷

Constitutional role

Further information: Monarchy of Canada § Federal constitutional role

Though the monarch retains all executive, legislative, and judicial power
in and over Canada,⁵⁸ ⁵⁹ the governor general is permitted to exercise most
of this, including the Royal Prerogative, in the sovereign's name; some as
outlined in the Constitution Act, 1867, and some through various letters
patent issued over the decades, particularly those from 1947 that
constitute the Office of Governor General of Canada;⁶⁰ they state: "And We
do hereby authorize and empower Our Governor General, with the advice of
Our Privy Council for Canada or of any members thereof or individually, as
the case requires, to exercise all powers and authorities lawfully
belonging to Us in respect of Canada."⁶¹ The office itself does not,
however, independently possess any powers of the Royal Prerogative, only
exercising the Crown's powers with its permission; a fact the Constitution
Act, 1867 left unchanged.⁶² Among other duties, the monarch retains the
sole right to appoint the governor general.⁷ It is also stipulated that the
governor general may appoint deputies—usually Supreme Court justices and
the Secretary to the Governor General—who can perform some of the viceroy's
constitutional duties in his or her stead,⁶³ and the Chief Justice of the
Supreme Court (or a puisne justice in the chief justice's absence) will act
as the Administrator of the Government upon the death, removal,
incapacitation, or absence of the governor general for more than one
month.⁶⁴

It is the governor general who is required by the Constitution Act, 1867,
to appoint for life persons to the Queen's Privy Council for Canada,⁶⁵ who
are all theoretically tasked with tendering to the monarch and viceroy
guidance on the exercise of the Royal Prerogative. Convention dictates,
though, that the governor general must draw from the privy council an
individual to act as prime minister—in almost all cases the Member of
Parliament who commands the confidence of the House of Commons. The prime
minister then directs the governor general to appoint other members of
parliament to a committee of the privy council known as the Cabinet, and it
is in practice only from this group of ministers of the Crown that the
Queen and governor general will take direction on the use of executive
power;⁶⁶ an arrangement called the Queen-in-Council or,⁵⁹ more
specifically, the Governor-in-Council. In this capacity, the governor
general will issue royal proclamations and sign orders in council. The
Governor-in-Council is also specifically tasked by the Constitution Act,
1867, to appoint in the Queen's name the lieutenant governors of the
provinces (with the Advisory Committee on Vice-Regal Appointments and the
premiers of the provinces concerned playing an advisory role),⁶⁷
senators,⁶⁸ the Speaker of the Senate,⁶⁹ supreme court justices,⁷⁰ and
superior and county court judges in each province, except those of the
Courts of Probate in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.⁷¹ The advice given by
the Cabinet is, in order to ensure the stability of government, by
political convention typically binding; both the Queen and her viceroy,
however, may in exceptional circumstances invoke the reserve powers, which
remain the Crown's final check against a ministry's abuse of power.[n 6]⁷²

The governor general, as the representative of the Canadian sovereign,
carries out the parliamentary duties of the sovereign in their absence,
such as summoning parliament, reading the Speech From the Throne, and
proroguing and dissolving parliament. The governor general also grants
Royal Assent in the Queen's name; legally, he or she has three options:
grant Royal Assent (making the bill law), withhold Royal Assent (vetoing
the bill), or reserve the bill for the signification of the Queen's
pleasure (allowing the sovereign to personally grant or withhold assent).⁷³
If the governor general withholds the Queen's assent, the sovereign may
within two years disallow the bill, thereby annulling the law in question.
No modern Canadian viceroy has denied Royal Assent to a bill. Provincial
viceroys, however, are able to reserve Royal Assent to provincial bills for
the governor general; this clause was last invoked in 1961 by the
Lieutenant Governor of Saskatchewan.⁷⁴

Ceremonial role

Further information: Monarchy of Canada § Cultural role

With most constitutional functions lent to Cabinet, the governor general
acts in a primarily ceremonial fashion. He or she will host members of
Canada's royal family, as well as foreign royalty and heads of state, and
will represent the Queen and country abroad on state visits to other
nations,⁷⁵ ⁷² though the monarch's permission is necessary, via the prime
minister, for the viceroy to leave Canada.⁷⁶ Also as part of international
relations, the governor general issues letters of credence and of recall
for Canadian ambassadors and receives the same from foreign ambassadors
appointed to Canada.

The governor general is also tasked with fostering national unity and
pride.⁷⁷ Queen Elizabeth II stated in 1959 to then Governor General Vincent
Massey "maintain[ing] the right relationship between the Crown and the
people of Canada [is] the most important function among the many duties of
the appointment which you have held with such distinction."⁷⁸ One way in
which this is carried out is travelling the country and meeting with
Canadians from all regions and ethnic groups in Canada,⁷⁵ continuing the
tradition begun in 1869 by Governor General the Lord Lisgar.⁷⁹ He or she
will also induct individuals into the various national orders and present
national medals and decorations. Similarly, the viceroy administers and
distributes the Governor General's Awards, and will also give out awards
associated with private organizations, some of which are named for past
governors general.⁷⁵ During a federal election, the governor general will
curtail these public duties, so as not to appear as though they are
involving themselves in political affairs.

Although the constitution of Canada states that the "Command-in-Chief of
the Land and Naval Militia, and of all Naval and Military Forces, of and in
Canada, is hereby declared to continue and be vested in the Queen,"¹⁰ the
governor general acts in her place as Commander-in-Chief of the Canadian
Forces and is permitted through the 1947 Letters Patent to use the title
Commander-in-Chief in and over Canada.⁹ ¹⁶ The position technically
involves issuing commands for Canadian troops, airmen, and sailors, but is
predominantly a ceremonial role in which the viceroy will visit Canadian
Forces bases across Canada and abroad to take part in military ceremonies,
see troops off to and return from active duty, and encourage excellence and
morale amongst the forces.⁹ The governor general also serves as honorary
Colonel of three household regiments: the Governor General's Horse Guards,
Governor General's Foot Guards and Canadian Grenadier Guards. This
ceremonial position is directly under that of Colonel-in-Chief, which is
held by the Queen. Since 1910, the governor general was also always made
the Chief Scout for Canada, which was renamed Chief Scout of Canada after
1946 and again in 2011 as Patron Scout.⁸⁰

Residences and household

Rideau Hall, located in Ottawa, is the official residence of the Canadian
monarch⁸¹ and of the governor general and is thus the location of the
viceregal household and the Chancellery of Honours. For a part of each year
since 1872, governors general have also resided at the Citadel (La
Citadelle) in Quebec City, Quebec.⁸² A governor general's wife is known as
the chatelaine of Rideau Hall, though there is no equivalent term for a
governor general's husband.

The viceregal household aids the governor general in the execution of the
royal constitutional and ceremonial duties and is managed by the Office of
the Secretary to the Governor General.⁸³ The Chancellery of Honours centres
around the Queen and is thus also located at Rideau Hall and administered
by the governor general. As such, the viceroy's secretary ex officio holds
the position of Herald Chancellor of Canada,⁸⁴ overseeing the Canadian
Heraldic Authority—the mechanism of the Canadian honours system by which
armorial bearings are granted to Canadians by the governor general in the
name of the sovereign.⁸⁴ These organized offices and support systems
include aides-de-camp, press officers, financial managers,⁸³ speech
writers, trip organizers, event planners, protocol officers, chefs and
other kitchen employees, waiters, and various cleaning staff, as well as
visitors' centre staff and tour guides at both official residences. In this
official and bureaucratic capacity, the entire household is often referred
to as Government House⁸⁵ and its departments are funded through the normal
federal budgetary process,⁸⁶ as is the governor general's salary of
CAD$288,900,⁸⁷ which has been taxed since of 2013.⁸⁸ ⁸⁹ Additional costs
are incurred from separate ministries and organizations such as the
National Capital Commission, the Department of National Defence, and the
Royal Canadian Mounted Police.⁹⁰

The governor general's air transportation is assigned to 412 Transport
Squadron of the Royal Canadian Air Force. The squadron uses Bombardier
Challenger 600 VIP jets to transport the governor general to locations
within and outside of Canada.

Symbols and protocol

As the personal representative of the monarch, the governor general follows
only the sovereign in the Canadian order of precedence, preceding even
other members of the Royal Family. Though the federal viceroy is considered
primus inter pares amongst his or her provincial counterparts, the governor
general also outranks the lieutenant governors in the federal sphere; at
provincial functions, however, the relevant lieutenant governor, as the
Queen's representative in the province, precedes the governor general.⁹¹
The incumbent governor general and his or her spouse are also the only
people in Canada, other than serving Canadian ambassadors and high
commissioners, entitled to the use of the style His or Her Excellency and
the governor general is granted the additional honorific of The Right
Honourable for their time in office and for life afterwards.⁹² ⁹³ ⁹⁴

Prior to 1952, all Governors General of Canada were members of the peerage.
Typically, individuals appointed as federal viceroy were already a peer,
either by inheriting the title, such as the Duke of Devonshire, or by prior
elevation by the sovereign in their own right, as was the case with the
Viscount Alexander of Tunis. None were life peers, the Life Peerages Act
1958 postdating the beginning of the tradition of appointing Canadian
citizens as governor general. John Buchan was, in preparation for his
appointment as governor general, made the Baron Tweedsmuir of Elsfield in
the County of Oxford by King George V, six months before Buchan was sworn
in as viceroy. The Leader of His Majesty's Loyal Opposition at the time,
William Lyon Mackenzie King, felt Buchan should serve as governor general
as a commoner;⁹⁵ however, George V insisted he be represented by a peer.
With the appointment of Vincent Massey as governor general in 1952,
governors general ceased to be members of the peerage; successive
governments since that date have held to the non-binding and defeated (in
1934) principles of the 1919 Nickle Resolution.

Under the orders' constitutions, the governor general serves as the
Chancellor and Principal Companion of the Order of Canada,⁹⁶ the Chancellor
of the Order of Military Merit,⁹⁷ and the Chancellor of the Order of Merit
of the Police Forces.⁹⁸ He or she also upon installation automatically
becomes a Knight or Dame of Justice and the Prior and Chief Officer in
Canada of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of
Jerusalem.⁹⁹ As acting commander-in-chief, the governor general is further
routinely granted the Canadian Forces Decoration by the Chief of the
Defence Staff on behalf of the monarch. All of these honours are retained
following an incumbent's departure from office, with the individual
remaining in the highest categories of the orders, and they may also be
further distinguished with induction into other orders or the receipt of
other awards.[n 7]

The Viceregal Salute—composed of the first six bars of the Royal Anthem
("God Save the Queen") followed by the first and last four bars of the
national anthem ("O Canada")—is the salute used to greet the governor
general upon arrival at, and mark his or her departure from most official
events.¹⁰¹ To mark the viceroy's presence at any building, ship, airplane,
or car in Canada, the governor general's flag is employed. The present form
was adopted on 23 February 1981 and,¹⁰² in the federal jurisdiction, takes
precedence over all other flags save the Queen's personal Canadian
standard.¹⁰³ When the governor general undertakes a state visit, however,
the national flag is generally employed to mark his or her presence.¹⁰²
This flag is also, along with all flags on Canadian Forces property, flown
at half-mast upon the death of an incumbent or former governor general.¹⁰⁴

The crest of the Royal Arms of Canada is employed as the badge of the
governor general, appearing on the viceroy's flag and on other objects
associated with the person or the office. This is the fourth such
incarnation of the governor general's mark since confederation.¹⁰⁵

History

Further information: List of Governors General of Canada

French and British colonies

French colonization of North America began in the 1580s and Aymar de Chaste
was appointed in 1602 by King Henry IV as Viceroy of Canada.¹⁰⁶ ¹⁰⁷ The
explorer Samuel de Champlain became the first unofficial Governor of New
France in the early 17th century,[n 8] serving until Charles Huault de
Montmagny was in 1636 formally appointed to the post by King Louis XIII.
The French Company of One Hundred Associates then administered New France
until King Louis XIV took control of the colony and appointed Augustin de
Saffray de Mésy as the first governor general in 1663,¹⁰⁹ after whom 12
more people served in the post.

With the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1763, France relinquished most
of its North American territories, including Canada, to Great Britain.¹¹⁰
King George III then issued in that same year a royal proclamation
establishing, amongst other regulations, the Office of the Governor of
Quebec to preside over the new Province of Quebec.¹¹¹ Nova Scotia and New
Brunswick remained completely separate colonies, each with their own
governor, until the cabinet of William Pitt adopted in the 1780s the idea
that they, along with Quebec and Prince Edward Island, should have as their
respective governors a single individual styled as Governor-in-Chief. The
post was created in 1786, with The Lord Dorchester as its first occupant.
However, the governor-in-chief directly governed only Quebec. It was not
until the splitting in 1791 of the Province of Quebec, to accommodate the
influx of United Empire Loyalists fleeing the American revolutionary war,
that the king's representative, with a change in title to Governor General,
directly governed Lower Canada, while the other three colonies were each
administered by a lieutenant governor in his stead.

Responsible government

The Rebellions of 1837 brought about great changes to the role of the
governor general, prompting, as they did, the British government to grant
responsible government to the Canadian provinces.¹¹² ¹¹³ As a result, the
viceroys became largely nominal heads, while the democratically elected
legislatures and the premiers they supported exercised the authority
belonging to the Crown; a concept first put to the test when, in 1849,
Governor-General of the Province of Canada and Lieutenant-Governor of
Canada East the Earl of Elgin granted Royal Assent to the Rebellion Losses
Bill, despite his personal misgivings towards the legislation.¹¹⁴

This arrangement continued after the reunification in 1840 of Upper and
Lower Canada into the Province of Canada, and the establishment of the
Dominion of Canada in 1867. The governor general carried out in Canada all
the parliamentary and ceremonial functions of a constitutional
monarch—amongst other things, granting Royal Assent, issuing
Orders-in-Council, and taking advice from the Canadian privy council.
However, the governor still remained not a viceroy, in the true sense of
the word, being still a representative of and liaison to the British
government⁵⁵ ¹¹⁵ —the Queen in her British council of ministers—who
answered to the Secretary of State for the Colonies in London and who,¹¹⁶
as a British observer of Canadian politics, held well into the First World
War a suite of offices in the East Block of Parliament Hill.[n 9] But, the
new position of Canadian high commissioner to the United Kingdom, created
in 1880, began to take over the governor general's role as a link between
the Canadian and British governments, leaving the viceroy increasingly as a
personal representative of the monarch.¹¹⁷ As such, the governor general
had to retain a sense of political neutrality; a skill that was put to the
test when the Marquess of Lorne disagreed with his Canadian prime minister,
John A. Macdonald, over the dismissal of Lieutenant Governor of Quebec Luc
Letellier de St-Just. On the advice of the Colonial Secretary, and to avoid
conflict with the cabinet of Canada, the Marquess did eventually concede,
and released St-Just from duty.¹¹⁸ The Governor General of Canada was then
in May 1891 called upon to resolve the Dominion's first cabinet crisis,
wherein Prime Minister Macdonald died, leaving the Lord Stanley of Preston
to select a new prime minister.

As early as 1880, the viceregal family and court attracted minor ridicule
from the Queen's subjects: in July of that year, someone under the
pseudonym Captain Mac included in a pamphlet called Canada: from the Lakes
to the Gulf, a coarse satire of an investiture ceremony at Rideau Hall, in
which a retired inn-keeper and his wife undergo the rigorous protocol of
the royal household and sprawl on the floor before the Duke of Argyll so as
to be granted the knighthood for which they had "paid in cold, hard
cash."¹¹⁹ Later, prior to the arrival of Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught
and Strathearn (the uncle of King George V), to take up the post of
governor general, there was a "feeble undercurrent of criticism" centring
on worries about a rigid court at Rideau Hall; worries that turned out to
be unfounded as the royal couple was actually more relaxed than their
predecessors.¹²⁰

Emerging nationality to an independent kingdom

During the First World War, into which Canada was drawn due to its
association with the United Kingdom, the governor general's role turned
from one of cultural patron and state ceremony to one of military inspector
and morale booster. Starting in 1914, Governor General Prince Arthur donned
his Field Marshal's uniform and put his efforts into raising contingents,
inspecting army camps, and seeing troops off before their voyage to Europe.
These actions, however, led to conflict with the Prince's prime minister at
the time, Robert Borden; though the latter placed blame on the Military
Secretary Edward Stanton, he also opined that the Duke "laboured under the
handicap of his position as a member of the Royal Family and never realized
his limitations as Governor General."¹²¹ Prince Arthur's successor, the
Duke of Devonshire, faced the Conscription Crisis of 1917 and held
discussions with his Canadian prime minister, as well as His Majesty's
Loyal Opposition members, on the matter. Once the government implemented
conscription, Devonshire, after consulting on the pulse of the nation with
Sir Wilfrid Laurier, Vincent Massey, Henri Bourassa, Archbishop of Montreal
Paul Bruchési, Duncan Campbell Scott, Vilhjalmur Stefansson, and Stephen
Leacock, made efforts to conciliate Quebec, though he had little real
success.¹²²

Canada's national sentiment had gained fortitude through the country's
sacrifices on the battlefields of the First World War and, by war's end,
the interference of the British government in Canadian affairs was causing
ever-increasing discontent amongst Canadian officials;[n 10] in 1918, the
Toronto Star was even advocating the end of the office.¹²⁴ The governor
general's role was also morphing to focus less on the larger Empire and
more on uniquely Canadian affairs,[n 11] including the undertaking of
official international visits on behalf of Canada, the first being that of
the Marquess of Willingdon to the United States, where he was accorded by
President Calvin Coolidge the full honours of representative of a head of
state.[n 12]¹¹ It would be another decade, however, before the King-Byng
Affair: another catalyst for change in the relationship between
Canada—indeed, all the Dominions—and the United Kingdom, and thus the
purpose of the governor general.

In 1926, Liberal prime minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, facing a
non-confidence vote in the House of Commons over a scandal in his party,
requested that Governor General the Lord Byng of Vimy dissolve parliament
and call an election. Byng, however, refused his Canadian prime minister's
advice, citing both the facts that King held the minority of seats in the
house and that a general election had been held only months earlier; he
thus called on Arthur Meighen to form a government. Within a week however,
Meighen's Conservative government lost its own non-confidence vote, forcing
the Governor General to dissolve parliament and call elections that saw
Mackenzie King returned to power.¹²⁶ King then went on to the Imperial
Conference that same year and there pushed for reorganizations that
resulted in the Balfour Declaration, which declared formally the practical
reality that had existed for some years: namely, that the Dominions were
fully autonomous and equal in status to the United Kingdom.¹²⁷ These new
developments were codified in the Statute of Westminster, through the
enactment of which on 11 December 1931, Canada, along with the Union of
South Africa and the Irish Free State, immediately obtained formal
legislative independence from the UK.¹²⁸ In addition, the Balfour
Declaration also held that the governor general would cease to act as the
representative of the British government. Accordingly, in 1928, the United
Kingdom appointed its first High Commissioner to Canada thus effectively
ending the governor general's diplomatic role as the British government's
envoy.¹²⁹

The governor general thus became solely the representative of the King
within Canadian jurisdiction, ceasing completely to be an agent of the
British Cabinet,[n 13]⁸ ¹³¹ and as such would be appointed by the monarch
granting his royal sign-manual under the Great Seal of Canada only on the
advice of his Canadian prime minister.¹³²

The Canadian Cabinet's first recommendation under this new system was
still, however, a British subject born outside of Canada: the Lord
Tweedsmuir. His birthplace aside, though, the professional author took
further than any of his predecessors the idea of a distinct Canadian
identity,¹³³ travelling the length and breadth of the country, including,
for the first time for a governor general, the Arctic regions.¹³⁴ Not all
Canadians, however, shared Tweedsmuir's views; the Baron raised the ire of
imperialists when he said in Montreal in 1937: "a Canadian's first loyalty
is not to the British Commonwealth of Nations, but to Canada and Canada's
King,"¹³⁵ a statement the Montreal Gazette dubbed as "disloyal."¹³⁶ During
Tweedsmuir's time as viceroy, which started in 1935, calls began to emerge
for a Canadian-born individual to be appointed as governor general; but
Tweedsmuir died suddenly in office in 1940, while Canada was in the midst
of the Second World War, and Prime Minister Mackenzie King did not feel it
was the right time to search for a suitable Canadian.¹³⁷ The Earl of
Athlone was instead appointed by King George VI, Athlone's nephew, to be
his viceroy for the duration of the war.

Quebec nationalism and constitutional patriation

It was in 1952, a mere five days before King George VI's death, that
Vincent Massey became the first Canadian-born person to be appointed as a
governor general in Canada since the Marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnal was made
Governor General of New France on 1 January 1755, as well as the first not
to be elevated to the peerage since Sir Edmund Walker Head in 1854. There
was some trepidation about this departure from tradition and Massey was
intended to be a compromise: he was known to embody loyalty, dignity, and
formality, as expected from a viceroy.¹³⁸ As his viceregal tenure neared an
end, it was thought that Massey, an anglophone, should be followed by a
francophone Canadian; and so, in spite of his Liberal Party attachments,
Georges Vanier was chosen by Conservative prime minister John Diefenbaker
as the next governor general. Vanier was subsequently appointed by Queen
Elizabeth II in person at a meeting of her Canadian Cabinet,¹³⁹ thus
initiating the convention of alternating between individuals from Canada's
two main linguistic groups. This move did not, however, placate those who
were fostering the new Quebec nationalist movement, for whom the monarchy
and other federal institutions were a target for attack. Though Vanier was
a native of Quebec and fostered biculturalism, he was not immune to the
barbs of the province's sovereigntists and, when he attended la Fête
St-Jean-Baptiste in Montreal in 1964, a group of separatists held placards
reading "Vanier vendu" ("Vanier sold out") and "Vanier fou de la Reine"
("Vanier Queen's jester").¹⁴⁰

In light of this regional nationalism and a resultant change in attitudes
towards Canadian identity, images and the role of the monarchy were
cautiously downplayed, and Vanier's successor, Roland Michener, was the
last viceroy to practice many of the office's ancient traditions, such as
the wearing of the Windsor uniform, the requirement of court dress for
state occasions, and expecting women to curtsey before the governor
general.¹⁴¹ At the same time, he initiated new practices for the viceroy,
including regular conferences with the lieutenant governors and the
undertaking of state visits.¹⁴¹ He presided over Canada's centennial
celebrations and the coincidental Expo 67, to which French president
Charles de Gaulle was invited. Michener was with de Gaulle when he made his
infamous "Vive le Québec libre" speech in Montreal and was cheered wildly
by the gathered crowd while they booed and jeered Michener.¹⁴² With the
additional recognition of the monarchy as a Canadian institution,¹⁴³ ¹⁴⁴
the establishment of a distinct Canadian honours system, an increase of
state visits coming with Canada's growing role on the world stage, and the
more prevalent use of television to visually broadcast ceremonial state
affairs, the governor general became more publicly active in national life.

The Cabinet in June 1978 put forward the constitutional amendment Bill
C-60, that, amongst other changes, vested executive authority directly in
the governor general and renamed the position as First Canadian,¹⁴⁵ ¹⁴⁶ ¹⁴⁷
but the proposal was thwarted by the provincial premiers.¹⁴⁸ ¹⁴⁹ ¹⁵⁰ When
the constitution was patriated four years later, the new amending formula
for the documents outlined that any changes to the Crown, including the
Office of the Governor General, would require the consent of all the
provincial legislatures plus the federal parliament.¹⁵¹ By 1984, Canada's
first female governor general—Jeanne Sauvé—was appointed. While it was she
who created the Canadian Heraldic Authority, as permitted by letters patent
from Queen Elizabeth II, and who championed youth and world peace, Sauvé
proved to be a controversial vicereine, closing to the public the grounds
of the Queen's residence and self-aggrandizingly breaching protocol on a
number of occasions.¹⁴⁷ ¹⁵² ¹⁵³

Withering and renaissance

Sarah, Duchess of York, said in 2009 that sometime during her marriage to
Prince Andrew, Duke of York, her husband was offered the position of
Governor General of Canada, and she speculated in hindsight that their
agreement to refuse the commission may have been a contributing factor in
their eventual break-up.¹⁵⁴ Instead, Sauvé's tenure as governor general was
book-ended by a series of appointments—Edward Schreyer, Ray Hnatyshyn, and
Roméo LeBlanc—that have been generally regarded as mere patronage postings
for former politicians and friends of the incumbent prime minister at the
time,[n 14]⁷⁷ ¹⁴⁷ and despite the duties they carried out, their combined
time in the viceregal office is generally viewed as unremarkable, at best,
damaging to the office, at worst;⁷⁷ ¹⁴⁷ ¹⁵⁵ ¹⁵⁶ ¹⁵⁷ as David Smith
described it: "Notwithstanding the personal qualities of the appointees,
which have often been extraordinary, the Canadian governor general has
become a hermetic head of state—ignored by press, politicians and
public."¹⁵⁸ It was theorized by Peter Boyce that this was due, in part, to
widespread misunderstanding about the governor general's role coupled with
a lack of public presence compared to the media coverage dedicated to the
increasingly presidentialized prime minister.⁷⁷

It was with the Queen's appointment of Adrienne Clarkson, on the advice of
then Prime Minister Jean Chrétien, that a shift in the office took place.
Clarkson was the first Canadian viceroy to have not previously held any
political or military position—coming as she did from a background of
television journalism with the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation—was the
first since 1952 to have been born outside of Canada, the first from a
visible minority (she is of Chinese ancestry), and, by her being
accompanied to Rideau Hall by her husband, author and philosopher John
Ralston Saul, the official appointment brought an unofficial pair to the
viceregal placement,¹⁵⁹ ¹⁶⁰ in that the governor general would not be the
only person actively exploring Canadian theory and culture. Clarkson
managed to bring the viceregal office back into the collective
consciousness of Canadians, winning praise for touring the country more
than any of her predecessors, her inspiring speeches, and her dedication to
the military in her role as the Commander-in-Chief's representative.¹⁶¹ ¹⁶²
¹⁶³ ¹⁶⁴ ¹⁶⁵ ¹⁶⁶ This did not come without a cost, however, as the attention
also drew widespread criticism of the Governor General's increased spending
on state affairs, for which the office was symbolically rebuked by
parliament when it voted in favour of cutting by 10% the viceregal budget
it had earlier supported,¹⁶⁷ ¹⁶⁸ as well as for fostering the notion,
through various demonstrations, that the governor general was ultimately
the Canadian head of state above the Queen herself,¹⁶⁹ ¹⁷⁰ ¹⁷¹ an approach
that was said by Jack Granatstein to have caused "a fury" with the Queen on
one occasion in 2004.¹⁷² This attitude was not unique to Clarkson, though;
it had been observed that, for some decades, staff at Rideau Hall and
various government departments in Ottawa had been pushing to present the
governor general as head of state,¹⁷³ part of a wider Liberal policy on the
monarchy that had been in effect at least since the proposed constitutional
changes in the 1970s,¹⁴⁷ if not the 1964 Truncheon Saturday riot in Quebec
City.¹⁷¹ Indeed, international observers opined that the viceroys had been,
over the years, making deliberate attempts to distance themselves from the
sovereign, for fear of being too closely associated with any "Britishness"
the monarch embodied.⁷⁷

Prime Minister Paul Martin followed Chrétien's example and, for Clarkson's
successor, put forward to the Queen the name of Michaëlle Jean, who was,
like Clarkson, a woman, a refugee, a member of a visible minority, a CBC
career journalist, and married to an intellectual husband who worked in the
arts.¹⁷⁴ Her appointment initially sparked accusations that she was a
supporter of Quebec sovereignty, and it was observed that she had on a few
occasions trodden into political matters,¹⁷⁵ ¹⁷⁶ ¹⁷⁷ as well as continuing
to foster the notion that the governor general had replaced the Queen as
head of state, thereby "unbalancing ... the federalist symmetry."¹⁷⁸ But
Jean ultimately won plaudits,¹⁵⁷ particularly for her solidarity with the
Canadian Forces and Canada's Aboriginal peoples, as well as her role in the
parliamentary dispute that took place between December 2008 and January
2009.¹⁷⁹ ¹⁸⁰ ¹⁸¹

With the appointment of David Johnston, a lifelong academic and former
University of Waterloo president and vice-chancellor, there was a signalled
emphasis for the Governor General to vigorously promote learning and
innovation. Johnston stated in his inaugural address: "[We want to be] a
society that innovates, embraces its talent and uses the knowledge of each
of its citizens to improve the human condition for all."¹⁸² There was also
a recognition of Johnston's expertise in constitutional law, following the
controversial prorogations of parliament in 2008 and 2009, which initiated
some debate about the governor general's role as the representative of
Canada's head of state.¹⁸³

Activities post-commission

Retired governors general usually either withdraw from public life or go on
to hold other public offices. Edward Schreyer, for instance, was appointed
Canadian High Commissioner to Australia upon his departure from the
viceregal role in 1984, and Michaëlle Jean became the UNESCO special envoy
to Haiti and, later, the Secretary-General of the Francophonie.¹⁸⁴ Schreyer
also become the first former governor general to run for elected office in
Canada when he unsuccessfully vied for a seat in the House of Commons as a
New Democratic Party candidate. Prior to 1952, several former viceroys
returned to political careers in the United Kingdom, sitting with party
affiliations in the House of Lords and, in some cases, taking a position in
the British Cabinet.[n 15] John Campbell was elected a Member of Parliament
in the United Kingdom in 1895, and remained so until he became the Duke of
Argyll and took his seat in the House of Lords. Others were made governors
in other countries or territories: the Viscount Monck was appointed Lord
Lieutenant of Dublin, the Earl of Aberdeen was appointed Lord Lieutenant of
Ireland, and the Earl of Dufferin, the Marquess of Lansdowne, The Earl of
Minto, and The Earl of Willingdon all subsequently served as Viceroy of
India.

An outgoing governor general may leave an eponymous award as a legacy, such
as the Stanley Cup, the Clarkson Cup, the Vanier Cup, or the Grey Cup. They
may found an institution, as Georges Vanier did with the Vanier Institute
of the Family and Adrienne Clarkson with the Institute for Canadian
Citizenship. Three former governors general have released memoirs: the Lord
Tweedsmuir (Memory Hold-the-Door), Vincent Massey (On Being Canadian and
What's Past is Prologue), and Adrienne Clarkson (Heart Matters).

Canadian institutions established by governors general

- Royal Society of Canada – The Marquess of Lorne
- Canada's first anti-tuberculosis association – The Earl of Minto
- The Battlefields Park – The Lord Grey
- King's Jubilee Cancer Fund – The Earl of Bessborough
- Vanier Institute of the Family – Georges Vanier¹⁸⁵
- Sauvé Foundation – Jeanne Sauvé
- Governor General Ramon John Hnatyshyn Education Fund – Ray Hnatyshyn¹⁸⁶
- International Council for Canadian Studies – Ray Hnatyshyn¹⁸⁶
- The Hnatyshyn Foundation – Ray Hnatyshyn¹⁸⁷
- Institute for Canadian Citizenship – Adrienne Clarkson
- Michaëlle Jean Foundation – Michaëlle Jean

See also

- Governor General's Awards
- List of awards presented by the Governor General of Canada
- Royal Canadian Air Force VIP aircraft
- Governor-General

Notes

[1] Georges Vanier acted as governor general between 15 September 1959 and
  5 March 1967, and Roland Michener served for just under seven years, from
  17 April 1967 to 14 January 1974.
[2] Roméo LeBlanc resigned the viceregal post in 1999 due to health
  concerns.
[3] The Lord Tweedsmuir died at the Montreal Neurological Institute and
  Hospital on 11 February 1940, and Georges Vanier died at Rideau Hall on 5
  March 1967.
[4] The only individuals to serve as administrators due to the deaths of
  governors general were Chief Justice Sir Lyman Poore Duff in 1940 and
  Chief Justice Robert Taschereau in 1967.
[5] Governor General the Lord Tweedsmuir said of King George VI being in
  the Senate in 1939 to grant Royal Assent to bills: "[When the King of
  Canada is present] I cease to exist as Viceroy, and retain only a shadowy
  legal existence as Governor General in Council."⁵³
[6] See Note 1 at Queen's Privy Council for Canada.
[7] Some seven years after he left office, the Earl Alexander of Tunis was
  appointed as a Member of the Order of Merit. Similarly, Vincent Massey
  was awarded the Royal Victorian Chain by Queen Elizabeth II approximately
  six months after leaving the viceregal post and was in 1967 invested into
  the Order of Canada.¹⁰⁰ Roland Michener was presented with the Royal
  Victorian Chain a few months before he retired as governor general.
[8] Kevin MacLeod, in his book A Crown of Maples, pegs the start date of
  Champlain's governorship at 1627,³ whereas the official website of the
  Governor General of Canada puts it at 1608.¹⁰⁸
[9] The offices were subsequently incorporated into the Prime Minister's
  Office (PMO), but have been restored to their 19th century appearance
  after the PMO moved to the Langevin Block in the 1970s, and are now
  preserved as a tourist attraction along with other historic offices in
  the East Block.⁶
[10] The appointment in 1916 of the Duke of Devonshire as governor general
  caused political problems, as Canadian prime minister Robert Borden had,
  counter to established common practice, not been consulted on the matter
  by his British counterpart, H.H. Asquith.¹²³
[11] During the Great Depression, the Earl of Bessborough voluntarily cut
  his salary by ten percent as a sign of his solidarity with the Canadian
  people.¹²⁵
[12] Governors general had been venturing to Washington to meet informally
  with the President of the United States since the time of the Viscount
  Monck.
[13] The ministers in attendance at the Imperial Conference agreed that:
  "In our opinion it is an essential consequence of the equality of status
  existing among the members of the British Commonwealth of Nations that
  the Governor General of a Dominion is the representative of the Crown,
  holding in all essential respects the same position in relation to the
  administration of public affairs in the Dominion as is held by His
  Majesty the King in great Britain, and that he is not the representative
  or agent of His Majesty's Government in Great Britain or of any
  Department of that Government."¹³⁰
[14] LeBlanc's strong ties to the Liberal Party led other party leaders to
  protest his appointment by boycotting his installation ceremony.¹⁵⁵
[15] In 1952, the Earl Alexander of Tunis resigned as Governor General of
  Canada to accept an appointment as Minister of Defence in the Cabinet of
  Winston Churchill. The Marquess of Lansdowne and the Duke of Devonshire
  both also served in the British Cabinet following their viceregal
  careers, and Lansdowne went on to serve as leader of the Conservative
  Party in the House of Lords for over a decade.

References

[1] The Royal Household. "The Queen and the Commonwealth > Queen and Canada
  > The Queen's role in Canada". Queen's Printer. Retrieved 2 June 2009.
[2] The Royal Household. "Queen and Canada: The role of the
  Governor-General". Queen's Printer. Retrieved 28 May 2009.
[3] MacLeod, Kevin S. (2008). A Crown of Maples (PDF) (1 ed.). Ottawa:
  Queen's Printer for Canada. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-662-46012-1. Archived from
  the original (PDF) on 13 May 2014.
[4] Victoria (1867), Constitution Act, 1867, III.10, Westminster: Queen's
  Printer (published 29 March 1867), retrieved 15 January 2009
[5] MacLeod 2008, pp. 34–35
[6] Public Works and Government Services Canada. "Parliament Hill > The
  History of Parliament Hill > East Block > Office of the Governor
  General". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 3 June 2009.
[7] MacLeod 2008, p. 35
[8] Department of Canadian Heritage (2008). Canada: Symbols of Canada.
  Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada. p. 3. Archived from the original on
  17 February 2015.
[9] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Commander in Chief". Queen's
  Printer for Canada. Retrieved 5 November 2007.
[10] Victoria 1867, III.15
[11] Hubbard, R.H. (1977). Rideau Hall. Montreal and London: McGill-Queen's
  University Press. p. 166. ISBN 978-0-7735-0310-6.
[12] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Governor General > Former
  Governors General > The Marquess of Willingdon". Queen's Printer for
  Canada. Retrieved 28 May 2009.
[13] Walters, Mark D. (2011). "The Law behind the Conventions of the
  Constitution: Reassessing the Prorogation Debate" (PDF). Journal of
  Parliamentary and Political Law. 5: 131–154.
[14] Brennan, Richard J. (8 July 2010), "Academic David Johnston Canada's
  next Gov. Gen.", Toronto Star, retrieved 11 July 2010
[15] "David Johnston: Lawyer, academic, Canada's next GG". CBC. 8 July
  2010. Archived from the original on 11 July 2010. Retrieved 8 July 2010.
[16] George VI (1947), Letters Patent Constituting the Office of Governor
  General of Canada, I, Ottawa: King's Printer for Canada (published 1
  October 1947), retrieved 29 May 2009
[17] Elizabeth II (28 September 1999), Royal Commission, Queen's Printer
  for Canada, archived from the original on 13 August 2011, retrieved 13
  July 2010
[18] Elizabeth II (10 September 2005), Royal Commission, Queen's Printer
  for Canada, archived from the original on 13 August 2011, retrieved 13
  July 2010
[19] Department of Canadian Heritage. "Monarchy in Canada > Governor
  General Designate". Queen's Printer for Canada. Archived from the
  original on 14 July 2010. Retrieved 13 July 2010.
[20] "Gov. Gen. designate denies separatist link". CTV. 18 August 2005.
  Retrieved 29 May 2009.
[21] "Haitian community holds special church service for the governor
  general-designate". CBC. 27 August 2005. Archived from the original on 3
  December 2010. Retrieved 29 May 2009.
[22] Fidelis (2005). "The Installation of the Governor General in 2005:
  Innovation and Evolution?" (PDF). Canadian Monarchist News. Toronto:
  Monarchist League of Canada. Fall-Winter 2005 (24): 4. Archived from the
  original (PDF) on 26 March 2009. Retrieved 29 May 2009.
[23] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Media > Fact Sheets > The
  Great Seal of Canada". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 30 May 2009.
[24] "Adrienne Clarkson Installed as Governor General". Canadian Monarchist
  News. Toronto: Monarchist League of Canada. Autumn 1999 (3). 1999.
  Archived from the original on 8 July 2009. Retrieved 29 May 2009.
[25] "Part I > Proclamation" (PDF). Canada Gazette. Extra 139 (8). 27
  September 2005. p. 1. Retrieved 2 June 2009.
[26] Copeland, Lewis; Lamm, Lawrence W.; McKenna, Stephen J. (1999). The
  World's Great Speeches. Mineola: Courier Dover Publications. p. 381. ISBN
  978-0-486-40903-0.
[27] Hubbard 1977, p. 145
[28] Hubbard 1977, p. 147
[29] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Governor General > Former
  Governors General > Major General The Earl of Athlone". Queen's Printer
  for Canada. Retrieved 29 May 2009.
[30] Trepanier, Peter (2006), "A Not Unwilling Subject: Canada and Her
  Queen", in Coates, Colin M., Majesty in Canada, Hamilton: Dundurn Press,
  p. 143, ISBN 978-1-55002-586-6, retrieved 16 October 2012
[31] LeBlanc, Daniel (13 August 2005). "Martin defends viceregal couple's
  loyalty". The Globe and Mail. Toronto. Archived from the original on 15
  August 2005. Retrieved 22 February 2009.
[32] "New governor general must clarify sovereignty position, premiers
  say". CBC. 12 August 2005. Archived from the original on 4 February 2007.
  Retrieved 12 August 2005.
[33] Russell, Peter H. (2009), Joyal, Serge, ed., "Diminishing the Crown",
  The Globe and Mail, Toronto (published 10 June 2010), retrieved 13 August
  2010
[34] "Our Goals > A Solution". Citizens for a Canadian Republic. Retrieved
  7 June 2009.
[35] Valpy, Michael (17 April 2009). "Let MPs vet G-G candidates, and show
  hearings, Clarkson says". The Globe and Mail. Toronto. Archived from the
  original on 20 April 2009. Retrieved 23 April 2009.
[36] Ferguson, Rob (17 April 2009). "Crisis showed Parliamentary system not
  understood: Clarkson". Toronto Star. Retrieved 7 June 2009.
[37] Canwest News Service (18 April 2009). "Clarkson backs test". Windsor
  Star. Retrieved 23 April 2009.
[38] "One thing in Ottawa that doesn't need fixing". The Gazette. 23 April
  2009. Retrieved 23 April 2009.
[39] McCreery, Christopher (22 July 2005), "Christopher McCreery", The
  Globe and Mail, Toronto, retrieved 10 May 2012
[40] Canada News Centre. "Governor General Consultation Committee". Queen's
  Printer for Canada. Retrieved 6 August 2010.
[41] Curry, Bill (11 July 2010), "Selection panel ordered to find
  non-partisan governor-general: PMO", The Globe and Mail, archived from
  the original on 16 July 2010, retrieved 11 July 2010
[42] Ditchburn, Jennifer (28 June 2010), "Tight circle of monarchists
  helping Harper pick next Governor General", Winnipeg Free Press, archived
  from the original on 8 July 2010, retrieved 10 July 2010
[43] "David Johnston: a worthy viceroy", The Globe and Mail, Toronto, 9
  July 2010, retrieved 9 July 2010
[44] Office of the Prime Minister of Canada (8 July 2010). "PM welcomes
  appointment of David Johnston as Governor General Designate". Queen's
  Printer for Canada. Retrieved 8 July 2010.
[45] Cheadle, Bruce (4 November 2012), Harper creates new panel to ensure
  'non-partisan' vice regal appointments, The Canadian Press, archived from
  the original on 7 February 2013, retrieved 4 November 2012
[46] Hamilton-Gordon, John (1960). Hamilton-Gordon, Ishbel, ed. "We Twa".
  The Canadian journal of Lady Aberdeen, 1893–1898. 2. Montreal: Champlain
  Society (published 17 September 1893). pp. 13–15.
[47] Government of Canada (2 October 2014). "The Governor General". Her
  Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 28 November 2015.
[48] Government of Canada (24 September 2014). "The Crown". Queen's Printer
  for Canada. Retrieved 28 November 2015.
[49] Elizabeth II (1985). "Interpretations Act, 1985". Ottawwa: Her Majesty
  the Queen in Right of Canada. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
[50] Roberts, Edward (2009). "Ensuring Constitutional Wisdom During
  Unconventional Times". Canadian Parliamentary Review. Ottawa:
  Commonwealth Parliamentary Association. 23 (1): 15. Archived from the
  original (PDF) on 12 February 2010. Retrieved 21 May 2009.
[51] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Governor General > Role and
  Responsibilities > A Modern Governor General – Active and Engaged".
  Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 30 May 2009.
[52] MacLeod 2008, pp. 16, 20
[53] Galbraith, William (1989). "Fiftieth Anniversary of the 1939 Royal
  Visit". Canadian Parliamentary Review. Ottawa: Commonwealth Parliamentary
  Association. 12 (3): 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 November
  2009. Retrieved 22 February 2009.
[54] Department of National Defence (1 April 1999). The Honours, Flags and
  Heritage Structure of the Canadian Forces (PDF). Ottawa: Queen's Printer
  for Canada. p. 1A-3. A-AD-200-000/AG-000. Retrieved 23 May 2009.
[55] Heard, Andrew (1990), Canadian Independence, Vancouver: Simon Fraser
  University, retrieved 25 August 2010
[56] Campbell, John (c. 1880). Written at Ottawa. MacNutt, W. Stewart, ed.
  Days of Lorne: Impressions of a Governor-General. Fredericton: Brunswick
  Press (published 1955). p. 201.
[57] Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, Frederick (12 January 1877). "Speech". In
  Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, Frederick. Visit of his Excellency the
  Governor-General to the National Club. Toronto: Hunter Rose & Co.
  (published 1877). p. 10.
[58] Victoria 1867, III.9, IV.17
[59] MacLeod 2008, p. 17
[60] Library and Archives Canada. "Politics and Government > By Executive
  Decree > The Governor General". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 4
  June 2009.
[61] George VI 1947, II
[62] Strong, Samuel Henry; Taschereau, Henri-Elzéar; Henry, William
  Alexander; Gwynne, John Wellington; Fournier, Télesphore (16 February
  1885). "Windsor & Annapolis Railway Co. v. The Queen and the Western
  Counties Railway Co.". Supreme Court of Canada. p. 389. Retrieved 25
  September 2016.
[63] George VI 1947, VII
[64] George VI 1947, VIII
[65] Victoria 1867, III.11
[66] MacLeod 2008, pp. 24, 27
[67] Victoria 1867, V.58
[68] Victoria 1867, IV.24
[69] Victoria 1867, IV.34
[70] Elizabeth II (1985). Supreme Court Act. 4.2. Ottawa: Queen's Printer
  for Canada. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 31 May
  2009.
[71] Victoria 1867, VII.96
[72] House of Commons. "The Governor General of Canada: Role, Duties and
  Funding for Activities". Queen's Printer for Canada. Archived from the
  original on 14 June 2012. Retrieved 9 October 2009.
[73] Victoria 1867, IV.55
[74] MacLeod 2008, p. 25
[75] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Governor General > Role and
  Responsibilities". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 2 June 2009.
[76] George VI 1947, XIV
[77] Boyce, Peter (2008). Written at Sydney. Jackson, Michael D., ed. "The
  Senior Realms of the Queen > The Queen's Other Realms: The Crown and its
  Legacy in Australia, Canada and New Zealand". Canadian Monarchist News.
  Autumn 2009 (30). Toronto: Monarchist League of Canada (published October
  2009). p. 10. ISBN 978-1-86287-700-9. Archived from the original (PDF) on
  2009-11-17. Retrieved 22 October 2009.
[78] McCreery, Christopher (2008), On Her Majesty's Service: Royal Honours
  and Recognition in Canada, Toronto: Dundurn, p. 54, ISBN
  978-1-4597-1224-9, retrieved 11 November 2015
[79] Hubbard 1977, p. 16
[80] "About > Management Team > Board of Governors". Scouts Canada.
  Retrieved 2 March 2011.
[81]
  - MacLeod 2008, p. 34
  - Galbraith 1989, p. 9
  - Aimers, John (April 1996). "The Palace on the Rideau". Monarchy Canada.
    Toronto: Monarchist League of Canada (Spring 1996). Archived from the
    original on 31 January 2009. Retrieved 20 February 2009.
  - Lanctot, Gustave (1964). Royal Tour of King George VI and Queen
    Elizabeth in Canada and the United States of America 1939. Toronto:
    E.P. Taylor Foundation. ASIN B0006EB752.
  - Toffoli, Gary (April 1995). "The Hnatyshyn Years". Monarchy Canada.
    Toronto: Monarchist League of Canada (Spring 1995). Archived from the
    original on 12 October 2006. Retrieved 20 February 2009.
[82] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "La Citadelle > An Official
  Residence at the Heart of the Old Capital". Queen's Printer for Canada.
  Retrieved 3 June 2009.
[83] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "The Office > The Office of
  the Secretary to the Governor General". Queen's Printer for Canada.
  Retrieved 3 June 2009.
[84] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Heraldry > The Canadian
  Heraldic Authority". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 3 June 2009.
[85] "Part I > Government House" (PDF). Canada Gazette. 143 (17). 25 April
  2009. p. 1200. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 July 2011. Retrieved
  3 June 2009.
[86] Office of the Secretary to the Governor General (2007). Annual Report
  2006–07 (PDF). Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada. p. 6. Appendix B.2.a.
  Retrieved 3 June 2009.
[87] Parliament of Canada. "Salaries of the Governors General of Canada –
  1869 To Date". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
[88] Department of Finance Canada. "Budget 2012 – Annex 4". Queen's Printer
  for Canada. Retrieved 4 April 2012.
[89] The Canadian Press (29 March 2012). "Governor General's salary to be
  taxed, but it won't cost him a dime". Winnipeg Free Press. Archived from
  the original on 1 April 2012. Retrieved 4 April 2012.
[90] Office of the Secretary to the Governor General 2007, p. 3
[91] Department of Canadian Heritage. "Ceremonial and Canadian Symbols
  Promotion > Across Canada > Standards". Queen's Printer for Canada.
  Retrieved 19 June 2009.
[92] Department of National Defence 1999, pp. 11–2
[93] MacLeod 2008, p. 37
[94] Department of Canadian Heritage. "Table of titles to be used in Canada
  (as revised on June 18, 1993)". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 21
  August 2009.
[95] Reynolds, Louise (2005). Mackenzie King: Friends & Lovers. Victoria:
  Trafford Publishing. p. 124. ISBN 978-1-4120-5985-5.
[96] Elizabeth II (28 October 2004). The Constitution of the Order of
  Canada. 3. Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 2 June 2009.
[97] Elizabeth II (1997). "Constitution of the Order of Canada". In
  Department of National Defence. The Honours, Flags and Heritage Structure
  of the Canadian Forces (PDF). Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada
  (published 1 April 1999). pp. 2C1–1. A-AD-200-000/AG-000. Retrieved 2
  June 2009.
[98] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Honours > National Orders >
  Order of Merit of the Police Forces". Queen's Printer for Canada.
  Retrieved 2 June 2009.
[99] "Canada Wide > About Us > The Order of St. John > The Order of St.
  John in Canada". St. John Ambulance Canada. Retrieved 2 June 2009.
[100] "Library > Miscellaneous > Biographies > Vincent Massey". Answers
  Corporation. Retrieved 16 March 2009.
[101] Department of Canadian Heritage. "Ceremonial and Canadian Symbols
  Promotion > Honours and salutes > Musical salute". Queen's Printer for
  Canada. Retrieved 3 June 2009.
[102] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Heraldry > Emblems of
  Canada and of Government House > Symbols of the Governor General > The
  Governor General's Flag". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 3 June
  2009.
[103] Department of National Defence 1999, p. 14-2-2
[104] Department of National Defence 1999, p. 4-2-6
[105] Nelson, Phil. "Governor General of Canada (Canada)". Flags of the
  World. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
[106] Hoxie, Frederick E. (September 1999). Encyclopedia of North American
  Indians. Darby: Diane Publishing Company. p. 284. ISBN 978-0-7881-6690-7.
[107] Tidridge, Nathan (2011). Canada's Constitutional Monarchy: An
  Introduction to Our Form of Government. Toronto: Dundurn Press. p. 26.
  ISBN 978-1-4597-0084-0.
[108] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Governor General > Role
  and Responsibilities > Role and Responsibilities of the Governor
  General". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 29 May 2009.
[109] Eccles, W. J. (2000). "Saffray de Mézy (or Mésy), Augustin de". In
  English, John. The Canadian Encyclopedia. 1000–1700. 1. Ottawa: Queen's
  Printer for Canada. Retrieved 28 May 2009.
[110] Emerich, John Edward; Acton, Dalberg; Benians, Ernest Alfred; Ward,
  Adolphus William; Prothero George Walter (29 October 1976). The Cambridge
  Modern History. 8. London: Cambridge University Press. pp. 346–347. ISBN
  978-0-521-29108-8.
[111] George III (7 October 1763). The Royal Proclamation. Westminster:
  King's Printer. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
[112] MacLeod 2008, p. 7
[113] Library and Archives Canada. "Politics and Government > By Executive
  Decree > The Executive Branch in Canadian History". Queen's Printer for
  Canada. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
[114] Mills, David. "The Canadian Encyclopedia". In Marsh, James Harley.
  Law > Acts & Statutes > Rebellion Losses Bill. Toronto: Historica
  Foundation of Canada. Archived from the original on 5 July 2007.
  Retrieved 4 June 2009.
[115] Hilliker, John (1990). Canada's Department of External Affairs: The
  early years, 1909–1946. Montreal: McGill-Queen's Press. p. 71. ISBN
  978-0-7735-0751-7.
[116] Library and Archives Canada. "Politics and Government > By Executive
  Decree > The Governor General". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 4
  June 2009.
[117] Skelton, Oscar D. (2009), "The Day of Sir Wilfrid Laurier: A
  Chronicle of the 20th Century", in Wrong, George M.; Langton, H. H., The
  Chronicles of Canada, III, Tucson: Fireship Press, p. 228, ISBN
  978-1-934757-51-2, retrieved 1 July 2010
[118] MacNutt 1955, p. 47
[119] Hubbard 1977, pp. 55–56
[120] Hubbard 1977, p. 125
[121] Borden, Robert (1938). Borden, Henry, ed. Memoirs. 1. New York:
  Macmillan Publishers. pp. 601–602.
[122] Hubbard 1977, pp. 141–142
[123] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Governor General > Former
  Governors General > The Duke of Devonshire". Queen's Printer for Canada.
  Retrieved 18 April 2009.
[124] Hubbard 1977, p. 42
[125] Cowan, John (1965). Canada's Governors General, Lord Monck to General
  Vanier (2 ed.). York: York Publishing Co. p. 156.
[126] Williams, Jeffery (1983). Byng of Vimy: General and Governor General.
  Barnsley, S. Yorkshire: Leo Cooper in association with Secker & Warburg.
  pp. 314–317.
[127] Marshall, Peter (September 2001). "The Balfour Formula and the
  Evolution of the Commonwealth". The Round Table. 90 (361): 541–53.
  doi:10.1080/00358530120082823.
[128] Baker, Philip Noel (1929). The Present Juridical Status of the
  British Dominions in International Law. London: Longmans. p. 231.
[129] Lloyd, Lorna. ""What's in a name?" – The curious tale of the office
  of High Commissioner". Archived from the original on 18 May 2008.
[130] Balfour, Arthur (November 1926). "Imperial Conference 1926" (PDF).
  Balfour Declaration. London: King's Printer. p. 4. E (I.R./26) Series.
  Retrieved 6 May 2009.
[131] Judd, Denis (9 July 1998). Empire: The British Imperial Experience
  from 1765 to the Present. New York: Basic Books. p. 287. ISBN
  978-0-465-01954-0.
[132] Hillmer, Norman. "History > Constitution > Constitutional History >
  The Federal System". In Marsh, James H. The Canadian Encyclopedia.
  Toronto: Historica Foundation of Canada. Archived from the original on 8
  June 2011. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
[133] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Governor General > Former
  Governors General > Lord Tweedsmuir of Elsfield". Queen's Printer for
  Canada. Retrieved 26 March 2009.
[134] Hillmer, Norman. "Biography > Governors General of Canada > Buchan,
  John, 1st Baron Tweedsmuir". In Marsh, James H. The Canadian
  Encyclopedia. Toronto: Historica Foundation of Canada. Archived from the
  original on 3 July 2007. Retrieved 31 March 2009.
[135] Smith, Janet Adam (1965). John Buchanan: a Biography. Boston: Little
  Brown and Company. p. 423.
[136] "Royal Visit". Time. New York: Time Inc. IXX (17). 21 October 1957.
  ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved 29 March 2009.
[137] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Governor General > Former
  Governors General > Major General The Earl of Athlone". Queen's Printer
  for Canada. Retrieved 24 March 2009.
[138] Galbraith, William (February 2002). "The Canadian and the Crown".
  Ottawa Citizen. Retrieved 19 March 2009.
[139] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Governor General > Former
  Governors General > General The Right Honourable Georges Philias Vanier".
  Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 5 June 2009.
[140] Hubbard 1977, p. 233
[141] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Governor General > Former
  Governors General > The Right Honourable Daniel Roland Michener". Queen's
  Printer for Canada. Retrieved 5 June 2009.
[142] Berton, Pierre (1997). 1967: The Last Good Year. Toronto: Doubleday
  Canada Limited. pp. 300–312. ISBN 0-385-25662-0.
[143] Speaker of the Senate. "Canada: a Constitutional Monarchy". Queen's
  Printer for Canada. Archived from the original on 17 June 2008. Retrieved
  5 June 2009.
[144] Department of Canadian Heritage (2005). "The Crown in Canada".
  Queen's Printer for Canada.
[145] Heinricks, Geoff (2001). "Opinion: Trudeau and the Monarchy".
  Canadian Monarchist News. Toronto: Monarchist League of Canada (reprinted
  courtesy National Post) (published July 2001). Archived from the original
  on 22 June 2008. Retrieved 10 February 2009.
[146] Smith, David (1999). Watson, William, ed. "Republican Tendencies"
  (PDF). Policy Options (May 1999). Montreal: Institute for Research on
  Public Policy. p. 8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 February
  2012. Retrieved 10 February 2009.
[147] Pepall, John (1 March 1990). "Who is the Governor General?". The
  Idler. Toronto. Retrieved 13 November 2010.
[148] Valpy, Michael. Watson, William, ed. "Don't Mess With Success – and
  Good Luck Trying" (PDF). Policy Options (May 1999). Montreal: Institute
  for Research on Public Policy. p. 26. Archived from the original (PDF) on
  17 February 2012. Retrieved 17 February 2009.
[149] Smith 1999, p. 11
[150] Phillips, Stephen. "Republicanism in Canada in the reign of Elizabeth
  II: the dog that didn't bark". Canadian Monarchist News. Toronto:
  Monarchist League of Canada. Summer 2004 (22): 19–20. Archived from the
  original (PDF) on 2009-12-17. Retrieved 10 February 2009.
[151] Elizabeth II (17 April 1982). Constitution Act, 1982. V.41.a. Ottawa:
  Queen's Printer for Canada. Archived from the original on 20 March 2007.
  Retrieved 5 June 2009.
[152] Jackson, Michael (2002). "Political Paradox: The Lieutenant Governor
  in Saskatchewan". In Leeson, Howard A. Saskatchewan Politics Into the
  21st Century. Regina: Canadian Plains Research Center.
[153] Gardner, Dan (17 February 2009). "A stealth campaign against the
  Queen". Calgary Herald. Archived from the original on 17 June 2009.
  Retrieved 26 February 2009.
[154] Miranda, Charles (2 March 2009). "Duchess of York Sarah Ferguson on
  love in royal palace". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 6 June 2009.
[155] Fidelis (1999). "The LeBlanc Years: A Frank Assessment". Canadian
  Monarchist News. Toronto: Monarchist League of Canada. Autumn 1999.
  Archived from the original on 8 July 2009. Retrieved 2 March 2009.
[156] Toffoli, Gary. "The Hnatyshyn Years". Monarchy Canada. Toronto:
  Fealty Enterprises (Spring 1995). Archived from the original on 12
  October 2006. Retrieved 19 March 2009.
[157] Martin, Don (28 May 2009). "Jean is now least boring G-Gever".
  National Post. Retrieved 25 February 2016.
[158] Jackson, CVO, CD, D. Michael (1999). Written at
  Toronto-Buffalo-London. "The Crown in Today's Federal State" (PDF).
  Canadian Monarchist News. Autumn-Winter 2007 (27). Toronto: Monarchist
  League of Canada (published 2007). p. 12. Archived from the original
  (PDF) on 8 July 2009. Retrieved 26 July 2009.
[159] Janigan, Mary; Nicol, John (20 September 1999). "Clarkson Appointed
  Governor General". Maclean's. Toronto: Kenneth Whyte. ISSN 0024-9262.
  Archived from the original on 8 June 2011. Retrieved 2 March 2009.
[160] Walker, William (9 September 1999). "PM names Clarkson". Toronto
  Star. Retrieved 2 March 2009.
[161] Fraser, John (1 February 2003). "Excellency". National Post. Archived
  from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 1 March 2009.
[162] Editorial (2005). "Our Governor General" (PDF). Canadian Monarchist
  News. Toronto: Monarchist League of Canada. Spring 2005 (23): 6. Archived
  from the original (PDF) on 26 February 2009. Retrieved 28 February 2009.
[163] "Clarkson out of hospital after pacemaker surgery". CTV. 11 July
  2005. Retrieved 1 March 2009.
[164] Black, Dan (1 September 2000). "The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier".
  Legion Magazine. Kanata: Canvet Publications Ltd. September 2000.
  Retrieved 1 March 2009.
[165] Graham, Bill (9 December 2004). "Debate Extracts: Commons Cuts the
  GG's Budget" (PDF). Canadian Monarchist News. Spring 2005 (23). Toronto:
  Monarchist League of Canada. p. 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26
  February 2009. Retrieved 1 March 2009.
[166] Greenway, Norma (27 September 2005). "Jean puts imprint on
  swearing-in". CanWest News Service. Retrieved 1 March 2009.
[167] McWhinney, Edward (2005). The Governor General and the Prime
  Ministers. Vancouver: Ronsdale Press. p. 46. ISBN 1-55380-031-1.
[168] MacKay, Peter (9 December 2004). "Debate Extracts: Commons Cuts the
  GG's Budget" (PDF). Canadian Monarchist News. Spring 2005 (23). Toronto:
  Monarchist League of Canada. p. 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26
  February 2009. Retrieved 1 March 2009.
[169] Fidelis (2005). "A Very Alarming Situation: the New Threat to the
  Canadian Monarchy – What Next?" (PDF). Canadian Monarchist News. Toronto:
  Monarchist League of Canada. Spring 2005 (23): 2. Archived from the
  original (PDF) on 26 February 2009. Retrieved 28 February 2009.
[170] Editorial (2005). "Hope for the Monarchy in Canada: The Provincial
  Crown" (PDF). Canadian Monarchist News. Toronto: Monarchist League of
  Canada. Spring 2005 (23): 12. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26
  February 2009. Retrieved 1 March 2009.
[171] Fraser, John (28 April 2012), "John Fraser: When Quebecers loved the
  Crown (and why they stopped)", National Post, retrieved 29 April 2012
[172] Galloway, Gloria (7 June 2010), "Jean to squeeze in trip to China
  between royal tour hello and goodbye", The Globe and Mail, Toronto,
  retrieved 7 June 2010
[173] Boswell, Randy (7 October 2009). "Governor General calling herself
  'head of state' riles monarchists". Ottawa Citizen. Archived from the
  original on 10 October 2009. Retrieved 7 October 2009.
[174] Ibbitson, John (28 September 2005). "The remarkable new
  Governor-General". The Globe and Mail. Toronto. Archived from the
  original on 16 January 2009. Retrieved 7 June 2009.
[175] "Governor General proposes two new options to recognize Constable
  Garrett" (Press release). Office of the Governor General of Canada. 27
  November 2007. Retrieved 12 December 2007.
[176] Hébert, Chantal (27 September 2006). "Will Jean thwart election
  call?;". Toronto Star. Retrieved 28 September 2006.
[177] Valpy, Michael (24 April 2007). "'Your biggest problem is Rideau
  Hall,' top bureaucrat warned Harper". Globe and Mail. Toronto. Retrieved
  1 May 2007.
[178] Gardner, Dan (13 February 2009). "Governor General to Dan Gardner:
  you're right". Ottawa Citizen. Retrieved 26 July 2009.
[179] Taylor, Nathan (6 December 2008). "Stanton defends Harper". Packet &
  Times. Retrieved 8 December 2008.
[180] Dreschel, Andrew (5 December 2008). "Jean was right to stave off Bloc
  coalition". Hamilton Spectator. Retrieved 8 December 2008.
[181] Wente, Margaret (5 December 2008). "That was the weird week that
  was". The Globe and Mail. Toronto. Archived from the original on 7
  December 2008. Retrieved 8 December 2008.
[182] "GG David Johnston sworn in". CBC. 1 October 2010. Archived from the
  original on 4 October 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2010.
[183] "Johnston named Canada's next governor general". CBC. 8 July 2010.
  Archived from the original on 11 July 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2010.
[184] "Michaëlle Jean begins UN job for Haiti". CBC. 8 November 2010.
  Retrieved 9 November 2010.
[185] Unless noted otherwise, the source for information in this section is
  found in: Hubbard 1977
[186] Office of the Governor General of Canada, Role and Responsibilities >
  Former Governors General > The Right Honourable Ramon John Hnatyshyn,
  Queen's Printer for Canada, retrieved February 4, 2010
[187] "Who We Are > Our Founder". The Hnatyshyn Foundation. Retrieved 3
  February 2010.

Further reading

Coucill, Irma (2005). Canada's Prime Ministers, Governors General and
Fathers of Confederation. Pembroke Publishers. ISBN 1-55138-185-0.

External links

- Official website of the Governor General of Canada
- YouTube Channel of the Governor General of Canada
- Proclamation Constituting the Office of Governor General and
  Commander-in-Chief of Canada
- Governor General's Installation Ceremony, 1 of 7 approx. 15 min. parts
  (YouTube)

Queen's Privy Council for Canada

This article is about the Canadian Privy Council. For the Imperial Privy
Council, see Privy Council of the United Kingdom.

The Queen's Privy Council for Canada (QPC) (French: Conseil privé de la
Reine pour le Canada (CPR)), sometimes called Her Majesty's Privy Council
for Canada or simply the Privy Council,¹ is the full group of personal
consultants to the monarch of Canada on state and constitutional affairs.
Responsible government, though, requires the sovereign or her viceroy—the
Governor General of Canada—to almost always follow only that advice
tendered by the Cabinet—a committee within the Privy Council composed
usually of elected Members of Parliament. Those summoned ² to the QPC are
appointed for life by the governor general as directed by the Prime
Minister of Canada, meaning that the group is composed predominantly of
former cabinet ministers, with some others having been inducted as an
honorary gesture. Those in the council are accorded the use of an honorific
style and post-nominal letters, as well as various signifiers of
precedence.³

Queen-in-Council

Further information: Monarchy of Canada § Executive (Queen-in-Council)

The government of Canada, which is formally referred to as Her Majesty's
Government,⁴ ⁵ is defined by the Canadian constitution as the sovereign
acting on the advice of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada;⁶ ⁷ what is
technically known as the Queen-in-Council,⁸ or sometimes the
Governor-in-Council,⁹ referring to the Governor General of Canada as the
Queen's stand-in. The group of people is described as "a Council to aid and
advise in the Government of Canada, to be styled the Queen's Privy Council
for Canada,"¹⁰ though, by convention, the task of giving the sovereign and
governor general advice (in the construct of constitutional monarchy and
responsible government, this is typically binding[n 1]) on how to exercise
the Royal Prerogative via Orders in Council rests with by the Cabinet—a
committee of the Privy Council made up of other ministers of the Crown who
are drawn from, and responsible to, the House of Commons in the
parliament.⁷ This body is distinct but also entwined within the QPC, as the
President of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada customarily serves as one
of its members and cabinet ministers receive assistance in the performance
of their duties from the Privy Council Office, headed by the Clerk of the
Privy Council.

While the Cabinet specifically deals with the regular, day-to-day functions
of the Crown-in-Council, occasions of wider national importance—such as the
proclamation of a new Canadian sovereign following a demise of the Crown or
conferring on royal marriages—will be attended to by more senior officials
in the QPC, such as the prime minister, the chief justice of the Supreme
Court of Canada, and other senior statesmen; while all privy councillors
are invited to such meetings in theory, in practice the composition of the
gathering is determined by the prime minister of the day. The quorum for
Privy Council meetings is four.¹¹

Membership

The Constitution Act, 1867, outlines that persons are to be summoned and
appointed for life to the Queen's Privy Council by the governor general,¹⁰
though convention dictates that this be done on the advice of the sitting
prime minister. As its function is to provide the vehicle for advising the
Crown, the members of the QPC are predominantly all living current and
former ministers of the Crown. In addition, the chief justices of Canada
and former governors general are appointed. From time to time, the leader
of Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition and heads of other opposition parties
will be appointed to the QPC, either as an honour or to facilitate the
distribution of sensitive information under the Security of Information
Act, and, similarly, it is required by law that those on the Security
Intelligence Review Committee be made privy councillors, if they are not
already. To date, only Prime Minister Paul Martin advised that
Parliamentary Secretaries be admitted to the QPC.

Appointees to the Queen's Privy Council must recite the requisite oath:¹²

  I, [name], do solemnly and sincerely swear (declare) that I shall be a
  true and faithful servant to Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth the Second, as a
  member of Her Majesty's Privy Council for Canada. I will in all things to
  be treated, debated and resolved in Privy Council, faithfully, honestly
  and truly declare my mind and my opinion. I shall keep secret all matters
  committed and revealed to me in this capacity, or that shall be secretly
  treated of in Council. Generally, in all things I shall do as a faithful
  and true servant ought to do for Her Majesty.

Provincial premiers are not commonly appointed to the QPC, but have been
made members on special occasions, such as the centennial of Confederation
in 1967 and the patriation of the constitution of Canada in 1982. On Canada
Day in 1992, which also marked the 125th anniversary of Canadian
Confederation, Governor General Ramon Hnatyshyn appointed eighteen
prominent Canadians to the Privy Council, including former Premier of
Ontario David Peterson, retired hockey star Maurice Richard, and
businessman Conrad Black (who was later expelled from the QPC by the
Governor General on the advice of Prime Minister Stephen Harper¹³ ). The
use of Privy Council appointments as purely an honour was not employed
again until 6 February 2006, when Harper advised the Governor General to
appoint former Member of Parliament John Reynolds along with the new
Cabinet. Harper, on 15 October 2007, also advised Governor General
Michaëlle Jean to appoint Jim Abbott. On occasion, a non-Canadian has been
appointed to the QPC. For example, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill
was inducted during a visit to Canada on 29 December 1941.¹⁴

Privy councillors are entitled to the style The Honourable or, for the
prime minister, chief justice, or certain other eminent individuals, The
Right Honourable and the post-nominal letters PC (in French: CP). Prior to
1967, the style The Right Honourable was only employed in Canada by those
appointed to the Imperial Privy Council in London, such persons usually
being prime ministers, Supreme Court chief justices, certain senior members
of the Canadian Cabinet, and other eminent Canadians. These appointments
ended under Lester Pearson, though the traditional style remained in use,
limited to only prime ministers and chief justices. In 1992, several
eminent privy councillors, most of whom were long-retired from active
politics, were granted the style by the Governor General, and, in 2002,
Jean Chrétien recommended that Herb Gray, a privy counsellor of long
standing, be given the style The Right Honourable upon his retirement from
parliament.¹⁵

History

Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King had the Privy Council convene in
1947 to consent to the marriage of Princess Elizabeth (later Queen
Elizabeth II) to Philip Mountbatten, as per the Royal Marriages Act 1772.
The Princess' father, King George VI, had offered an invitation for
Mackenzie King to attend when the Privy Council of the United Kingdom met
for the same purpose, but the Prime Minister declined and held the meeting
of the Canadian Privy Council so as to illustrate the separation between
Canada's Crown and that of the UK.¹⁶

The council has assembled in the presence of the sovereign on two
occasions: First, at 10:00 am on Thanksgiving Monday of 1957, at the
monarch's residence in Ottawa, Rideau Hall. There, Queen Elizabeth II
chaired a meeting of 22 of her privy councilors—including her consort, by
then Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, whom Elizabeth appointed to the QPC
at that conference—and therein approved an Order in Council.¹⁷ ¹⁸ Two years
later, the QPC again met before the Queen in Halifax, Nova Scotia, to
confirm the appointment of Georges Vanier as governor general.¹ ¹⁹ There
was originally some speculation that the coming together of the sovereign
and her council was not constitutionally sound; however, the prime minister
at the time, John Diefenbaker, found no legal impropriety in the idea, and
desired to create a physical illustration of Elizabeth's position of Queen
of Canada being separate to that of Queen of the United Kingdom.¹⁷ ¹⁸

The last formal meeting of the Privy Council was held in 1981 to give
formal consent to the marriage of the Prince of Wales to Lady Diana
Spencer.¹⁶ According to a contemporary newspaper account, the conference,
on 27 March at Rideau Hall, consisted of 12 individuals, including Chief
Justice Bora Laskin, who presided over the meeting, Prime Minister Pierre
Trudeau, several cabinet ministers, Stanley Knowles of the New Democratic
Party, and Alvin Hamilton of the Progressive Conservative Party.¹¹ There,
all gathered were informed of the Prince's engagement, nodded their
approval, and then toasted their decision with champagne. David Brown, an
official in the machinery of government section of the Privy Council
Office, told The Globe and Mail that, had the Privy Council rejected the
Prince of Wales' engagement, none of his children would have been
considered legitimate heirs to the Canadian throne, thus setting up a
potential break in the unified link to the crown of each of the
Commonwealth realms, in contradiction to the conventional "treaty" laid out
in the preamble to the 1931 Statute of Westminster.¹¹ Following the
announcement of the Prince of Wales' engagement to Camilla Parker-Bowles,
however, the Department of Justice announced its decision that the Privy
Council was not required to meet to give its consent to the marriage, as
the union would not result in offspring that would impact the succession to
the throne.²⁰ Prince Charles was himself appointed to the council on 18 May
2014.²¹

See also

- List of current members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
- List of longest-serving current Privy Counsellors of Canada
- List of members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada (1867–1911)
- List of members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada (1911–1948)
- List of members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada (1948–1968)
- List of members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada (1968–2005)
- List of members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada (2006–present)
- Executive Council (Canada)
- Executive Council (Commonwealth countries)

Notes

[1] See 'Responsibilities' and Note 1 at Cabinet of Canada.

References

[1] Privy Council Office. "Council Office > Information Resources > Queen's
  Privy Council for Canada - Facts". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved
  15 October 2009.
[2] http://www.pco-bcp.gc.ca/index.asp?lang=eng
[3] Privy Council Office. "Council Office > Information Resources > Members
  of the Queen's Privy Council". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 15
  October 2009.
[4] MacLeod, Kevin S. (2015). A Crown of Maples (PDF) (2015 ed.). Ottawa:
  Queen's Printer for Canada. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-662-46012-1. Retrieved 25
  October 2015.
[5] Wrong, Humphrey Hume (10 November 1952). "Telegram 219". In Department
  of Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada. Relations With the
  United States. Documents on Canadian External Relations. 18-867. Ottawa.
  Retrieved 18 May 2009.
[6] Victoria (1867). "Constitution Act, 1867". III.9. Westminster: Queen's
  Printer (published 29 March 1867). Retrieved 15 January 2009.
[7] Marleau, Robert; Montpetit, Camille (2000). House of Commons Procedure
  and Practice. Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada. ISBN 2-89461-378-4. 1.
  Parliamentary Institutions > Institutional Framework > Executive.
[8] MacLeod 2008, p. 17
[9] Elizabeth II (1 April 2005). "Interpretation Act". 35.1. Ottawa:
  Queen's Printer for Canada. Archived from the original on July 5, 2009.
  Retrieved 7 August 2009.
[10] Victoria 1867, III.11
[11] Palango, Paul (8 May 1981). "Privy Council nod on royal betrothal
  'medieval'". Globe and Mail.
[12] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Governor General > Role and
  Responsibilities > Oaths of Office". Queen's Printer for Canada.
  Retrieved 4 March 2007.
[13] "Conrad Black stripped of the Order of Canada". Globe and Mail. 31
  January 2014. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
[14] "Becomes Canadian Privy Councillor". Ottawa Citizen. 30 December 1941.
  Retrieved 3 May 2012.
[15] Privy Council Office. "Prime Minister Announces New Ministry". Queen's
  Printer for Canada. Retrieved 4 May 2008.
[16] Boyce, Peter John (2008). The Queen's Other Realms: The Crown and Its
  Legacy in Australia, Canada and New Zealand. Sydney: Federation Press. p.
  81. ISBN 9781862877009.
[17] Bousfield, Arthur; Toffoli, Gary (2002). Fifty Years the Queen.
  Toronto: Dundurn Press. pp. 11–12. ISBN 1-55002-360-8.
[18] Buckner, Phillip (2005). "The Last Great Royal Tour: Queen Elizabeth's
  1959 Tour to Canada". In Buckner, Phillip. Canada and the End of Empire.
  Vancouver: UBC Press. p. 69. ISBN 0-7748-0915-9. Retrieved 24 October
  2009.
[19] Buckner 2005, p. 70
[20] Valpy, Michael (2 November 2005). "Scholars scurry to find
  implications of royal wedding". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 4 March
  2009.
[21] Office of the Prime Minister (18 May 2014). "PM Announces the
  Appointment of His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales to the Queen's
  Privy Council for Canada". Queen's Printer for Canada. Archived from the
  original on May 19, 2014. Retrieved 18 May 2014.

External links

- Privy Council Office

Cabinet of Canada

The Cabinet of Canada (French: Cabinet du Canada) is a body of ministers of
the Crown that, along with the Canadian monarch, and within the tenets of
the Westminster system, forms the government of Canada. Chaired by the
prime minister, the Cabinet is a committee of the Queen's Privy Council for
Canada and the senior echelon of the Ministry, the membership of the
Cabinet and ministry often being co-terminal; as of November 2015 there are
no members of the latter who are not also members of the former.

For practical reasons, the Cabinet is informally referred to either in
relation to the prime minister in charge of it or the number of ministries
since Confederation. The current cabinet is the Trudeau Cabinet, which is
part of the 29th Ministry. The interchangeable use of the terms cabinet and
ministry is a subtle inaccuracy that can cause confusion.

Composition

Queen-in-Council

The government of Canada, formally referred to as Her Majesty's
Government,¹ ² is defined by the constitution as the Queen acting on the
advice of her Privy Council;³ ⁴ what is technically known as the
Queen-in-Council,⁵ or sometimes the Governor-in-Council,⁶ referring to the
governor general as the Queen's stand-in. However, the Privy
Council—composed mostly of former members of parliament, current and former
chief justices of Canada, and other elder statesmen—rarely meets in full;
as the stipulations of responsible government require that those who
directly advise the monarch and governor general on how to exercise the
Royal Prerogative be accountable to the elected House of Commons, the
day-to-day operation of government is guided only by a sub-group of the
Privy Council made up of individuals who hold seats in parliament.⁴ This
body of ministers of the Crown is the Cabinet, which has come to be the
council in the phrase Queen-in-Council.

One of the main duties of the Crown is to appoint as prime minister the
individual most likely to maintain the confidence of the House of Commons;
this is usually the leader of the political party with a majority in that
house, but when no party or coalition holds a majority (referred to as a
hung parliament), or similar scenario, the governor general's judgement
about the most suitable candidate for prime minister must be brought into
play.⁷ The prime minister thereafter heads the Cabinet. The Queen is
informed by her viceroy of the acceptance of the resignation of a prime
minister and the swearing-in of a new ministry,⁷ and she remains fully
briefed through regular communications from her Canadian ministers and
holds audience with them whenever possible.⁸

Selection and structure

The governor general appoints to the Cabinet persons chosen by the prime
minister—John A. Macdonald once half-jokingly listed his occupation as
cabinet maker—through a complex selection process; in addition to necessary
personal qualifications of the potential ministers, there are also a number
of conventions that are expected be followed. For instance, there is
typically a minister from each province in Canada, ministers from visible
minority groups, female ministers and, while the majority of those chosen
to serve as ministers of the Crown are Members of Parliament, a Cabinet may
also include a senator, especially as a representative of a province or
region where the governing party won few or no ridings. Efforts are further
made to indulge interest groups that support the incumbent government and
the party's internal politics must be appeased, with Cabinet positions
sometimes being a reward for loyal party members.

It is not legally necessary for Cabinet members to have a position in
parliament; however, if such a person is appointed, he or she will rapidly
seek election as a Member of Parliament or will be summoned to the Senate.⁹

As with other Westminster derived governments, but unlike the United States
Cabinet, the size and structure of the Canadian Cabinet is relatively
malleable, the slate of Cabinet positions tending to be substantially
restructured periodically, the last major period of realignment occurring
between 1993 and 1996. Throughout the 20th century, Cabinets had been
expanding in size until the Cabinet chaired by Brian Mulroney, with a
population of 40 ministers. Mulroney's successor, Kim Campbell, reduced
this number, and Jean Chrétien eliminated approximately 10 members of the
ministry from the Cabinet, so that by 1994 there were a total of 23 persons
in Cabinet. Under the chairmanship of Paul Martin, the number increased
again to 39, in the vicinity of which it has remained; the Cabinet proper
currently comprises 31 ministers, with another 7 members of the ministry
who are not of the cabinet.¹⁰

Cabinet itself—or full Cabinet—is further divided into committees. The
Treasury Board, overseeing the expenditure of the sovereign's state funds
within every department, is one of the most important of these, as is the
Priorities and Planning Committee, often referred to as the inner Cabinet,
which is the body that sets the strategic directions for the government,
approves key appointments, and ratifies committee memberships. Other
Cabinet committees include: Operations, Social Affairs, Economic Growth and
Long-Term Prosperity, Foreign Affairs and Security, Environment and Energy
Security.¹¹ Each committee is chaired by a senior minister whose own
portfolio normally intersects with the mandate of the committee he or she
is chairing.

Ministers, secretaries, and deputies

Each minister of the Crown is responsible for the general administration of
at least one government portfolio and heads a corresponding ministry or
ministries, known in Canada as departments or agencies. The most important
minister, following the premier, is the Minister of Finance, while other
high-profile ministries include foreign affairs, industry, justice, and
health. The official order of precedence does not follow the same pattern,
however, with ministers being listed in the order of their appointment to
the Privy Council or, if appointed to the Privy Council on the same day, in
order of election or appointment to parliament.¹²

Unique positions in Cabinet are those such as Leader of the Government in
the House of Commons and President of the Queen's Privy Council, who have
no corresponding department, and some ministers (such as the Minister for
International Cooperation) head agencies under the umbrella of a department
run by another minister. Further, the prime minister may recommend the
governor general appoint to Cabinet some ministers without portfolio,
though this has not been done since 1978, and, unlike in many other
Westminster model governments, ministers of state in Canada are considered
full members of Cabinet, rather than of the ministry outside it, which has
the effect of making the Canadian Cabinet much larger than its foreign
counterparts. These individuals are assigned specific, but temporary,
responsibilities on a more ad hoc basis, fulfilling tasks created and
dissolved to suit short-term government priorities from within a department
under a full minister of the Crown. Ministers of state may also be named
but not specified any particular responsibilities, thus giving them the
effective appearance of ministers without portfolio, or be delegated
problems or initiatives that cut across departmental boundaries, a
situation usually described as having the [situation] file.

Members of the Cabinet receive assistance from both parliamentary
secretaries—who will usually answer, on behalf of a minister, questions in
the House of Commons—and deputy ministers—senior civil servants assigned to
each ministry in order to tender non-partisan advice.

Responsibilities

See also: Prime Minister of Canada § Role and authority

In the context of constitutional monarchy and responsible government, the
ministerial advice tendered is typically binding, though it is important to
note that, despite appearances to the contrary, the Royal Prerogative
belongs to the Crown, not to any of the ministers,¹³ ¹⁴ and the royal and
viceroyal figures may unilaterally use these powers in exceptional
constitutional crisis situations.[n 1]¹³ ¹⁹ ²⁰ ²¹ ²² ²³ ²⁴ ²⁵ ²⁶ ²⁷ There
are also a few duties which must be specifically performed by, or bills
that require assent by, the Queen.

As advisors to the sovereign, the Cabinet has significant power in the
Canadian system and, as the governing party usually holds a majority of
seats in the legislature, almost all bills proposed by the Cabinet are
enacted. Combined with a comparatively small proportion of bills
originating with individual Members of Parliament, this leads to Cabinet
having almost total control over the legislative agenda of the House of
Commons. Further, members of various executive agencies, heads of Crown
corporations, and other officials are appointed by the Crown-in-Council,
though some of these may be made only by the Governor General-in-Council
specifically. Public inquiries and Royal Commissions are also called
through a Royal Warrant issued by the Queen or Governor-in-Council. All
Cabinet meetings are held behind closed doors and the minutes are kept
confidential for thirty years, Cabinet members being forbidden from
discussing what transpires. Decisions made must be unanimous, though this
often occurs at the prime minister's direction, and once a decision has
been reached, all Cabinet members must publicly support it. If any of these
rules are violated, the offending minister is usually removed by the prime
minister and, if the disagreement within the Cabinet is strong, a minister
may resign, as did John Turner in 1975, over the subject of wage and price
controls, and Michael Chong in 2006, over a parliamentary motion
recognising "the Québécois" as a nation within Canada.

However, the Cabinet's collective influence has been seen to be eclipsed by
that of the prime minister alone. Former prime minister Pierre Trudeau is
credited with consolidating power in the Office of the Prime Minister
(PMO)²⁸ and, at the end of the 20th century and into the 21st,
analysts—such as Jeffrey Simpson, Donald Savoie, and John Gomery—argued
that both parliament and the Cabinet had become eclipsed by prime
ministerial power.²⁹ Savoie quoted an anonymous minister from the Liberal
Party as saying Cabinet had become "a kind of focus group for the Prime
Minister,"³⁰ ³¹ while Simpson called cabinet a "mini-sounding board".[n
2]³³ Coyne wrote in 2015: "Cabinet does not matter... It does not govern:
that is the job of the prime minister, and of the group of political staff
he has around him, and of the bureaucracy beyond them."³⁴ John Robson
criticised the use of the prime minister's name to identify the Cabinet,
calling it a "bad habit" that "endorses while concealing the swollen
pretension of the executive branch."³⁵

Shadow cabinets

Each party in Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition creates a shadow cabinet, with
each member thereof observing and critiquing one or more actual Cabinet
portfolios and offering alternative policies. The Official Opposition's
shadow cabinet comprises members of the party not in government holding the
largest number of seats and is appointed by the Leader of the Opposition;
it is generally regarded as a "government in waiting". Its members are
often, but not always, appointed to a Cabinet post should the leader of
their party be called to form a government.

Current Cabinet

The Liberal Party of Canada won the federal election of October 19, 2015
with a majority of seats in the House of Commons. The Cabinet was sworn-in
on November 4, with Justin Trudeau appointed as prime minister.

Initially, five members of Cabinet were appointed by orders-in-council on
November 4 as ministers of state, but styled without the traditional of
state in their titles. These were the Ministers of Science,³⁶ Small
Business and Tourism,³⁷ Sport and Persons with Disabilities,³⁸ Status of
Women,³⁹ and La Francophonie.⁴⁰ (However, the new Minister of La
Francophonie was, at the same time, appointed Minister of International
Development.) Ministers of state had previously represented a second order
within the Cabinet (determined by a lower salary as defined by the Salaries
Act⁴¹ ), despite the Ministries and Ministers of State Act giving them full
authority for any government function delegated to them.⁴² However, after
details of the aforementioned orders-in-council were published, the new
cabinet stated its intent for there to "be no levels of cabinet members"
and it would table in parliament amendments to the salary statutes, but
also that the new ministers would continue to work with the existing
departments rather than forming new ones.⁴³

Ministers are listed according to the Canadian order of precedence:⁴⁴

Notes
[1] Ministers position in the order of precedence is determined as follows:
  those entitled to use The Right Honourable (generally only the prime
  minister), ministers, associate ministers, then ministers of state, with
  ties broken by date sworn-in to the Queen's Privy Council for Canada,
  date became a member of the Parliament of Canada (in either the Canadian
  Senate or Canadian House of Commons, and finally alphabetically by last
  name.
[2] The Prime Minister has precedence over all other ministers.

Former portfolios

- Secretary of State for the Provinces (1867–1873)
- Minister of Public Works (1867–1996)
- Postmaster General (1867–1981)
- Minister of Customs (1867–1918)
- Minister of Inland Revenue (1867–1918)
- Secretary of State for Canada (1867–1996)
- Minister of Marine and Fisheries (1867–1930)
- Superintendent-General Indian Affairs (1868–1936)
- Minister of the Interior (1873–1936)
- Solicitor General (1892–2003)
- Minister of Mines (1907–1936)
- Secretary of State for External Affairs (1909–1993)
- Minister of Immigration and Colonization (1917–1936)
- Minister of Soldiers' Civil Re-establishment (1918–1928)
- Minister of Customs and Inland Revenue (1918–1921)
- Minister of Customs and Excise (1921–1927)
- Minister of Pensions and National Health (1928–1944)
- Minister of Fisheries (1930–1971)
- Minister of Mines and Resources (1936–1950)
- Minister of Mines and Technical Surveys (1950–1966)
- Minister of Resources and Development (1950–1953)
- Minister of Citizenship and Immigration (1950–1966)
- Minister of Northern Affairs and National Resources (1953–1966)
- Minister of Manpower and Immigration (1966–1977)
- Minister of Energy, Mines and Resources (1966–1995)
- Minister of Consumer and Corporate Affairs (1968–1995)
- Leader of the Government in the Senate (list) (1969–2013)
- Minister of Regional Economic Expansion (1969–1982)
- Minister of Economic Communications (1969–1996)
- Minister of Supply and Services (1969–1996)
- Minister of Industry, Trade and Commerce (1969–1983)
- Minister of Employment and Immigration (1977–1996)
- Minister of Regional Industrial Expansion (1984–1990)
- Minister of Forestry (1990–1995)
- Minister of Industry, Science and Technology (1990–1995)
- Minister responsible for Constitutional Affairs (1991–1993)
- Minister of Multiculturalism and Citizenship (1991–1996)
- Minister of Human Resources Development (1996–2003)
- Deputy Prime Minister (1977–2006)

See also

Notes

[1] Eugene Forsey said of this: "in Canada, the head of state can, in
  exceptional circumstances, protect Parliament and the people against a
  Prime Minister and Ministers who may forget that 'minister' means
  'servant', and may try to make themselves masters. For example, the head
  of state could refuse to let a Cabinet dissolve a newly elected House of
  Commons before it could even meet, or could refuse to let Ministers
  bludgeon the people into submission by a continuous series of general
  elections,"¹⁵ and Larry Zolf commented: "The Governor General must take
  all steps necessary to thwart the will of a ruthless prime minister
  prematurely calling for the death of a Parliament."¹⁶
Examples of such actions took place during the viceregal service of the
  Viscount Byng of Vimy, John C. Bowen,¹⁷ and Frank Lindsay Bastedo.¹⁸
[2] Savoie offered the critique: "Cabinet has now joined Parliament as an
  institution being bypassed. Real political debate and decision-making are
  increasingly elsewhere—in federal-provincial meetings of first ministers,
  on Team Canada flights, where first ministers can hold informal meetings,
  in the Prime Minister's Office, in the Privy Council Office, in the
  Department of Finance, and in international organizations and
  international summits. There is no indication that the one person who
  holds all the cards, the prime minister, and the central agencies which
  enable him to bring effective political authority to the centre, are
  about to change things."³²

References

[1] MacLeod, Kevin S. (2008), A Crown of Maples (PDF) (1 ed.), Ottawa:
  Queen's Printer for Canada, p. 18, ISBN 978-0-662-46012-1, retrieved 21
  June 2009
[2] Wrong, Humphrey Hume (10 November 1952), Department of Foreign Affairs
  and International Trade Canada, ed., "Relations With the United States",
  Documents on Canadian External Relations, Ottawa, 18-867, retrieved 18
  May 2009 |contribution= ignored (help)
[3] Victoria (29 March 1867), Constitution Act, 1867, III.9 & 11,
  Westminster: Queen's Printer, retrieved 15 January 2009
[4] Marleau, Robert; Montpetit, Camille (2000). House of Commons Procedure
  and Practice. Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada. ISBN 2-89461-378-4. 1.
  Parliamentary Institutions > Institutional Framework > The Executive.
[5] MacLeod 2008, p. 17
[6] Elizabeth II (1 April 2005), Interpretation Act, 35.1, Ottawa: Queen's
  Printer for Canada, archived from the original on July 5, 2009, retrieved
  7 August 2009
[7] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Media > Fact Sheets > The
  Swearing-In of a New Ministry". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 18
  May 2009.
[8] The Royal Household. "The Queen and the Commonwealth > Queen and
  Canada". Queen's Printer. Retrieved 14 May 2009.
[9] Privy Council Office. "Information Resources > About Cabinet". Queen's
  Printer for Canada. Retrieved 18 October 2009.
[10] Privy Council Office (25 August 2009), The Canadian Ministry (PDF),
  Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada, retrieved 17 October 2009
[11] Office of the Prime Minister of Canada (30 October 2008), Cabinet
  Committee Mandates and Membership (PDF), Ottawa: Queen's Printer for
  Canada, retrieved 18 October 2009
[12] Library of Parliament. "Federal government > The ministry". Queen's
  Printer for Canada. Retrieved 18 October 2009.
[13] Cox, Noel (September 2002). "Black v Chrétien: Suing a Minister of the
  Crown for Abuse of Power, Misfeasance in Public Office and Negligence".
  Murdoch University Electronic Journal of Law. Perth: Murdoch University.
  9 (3): 12. Retrieved 17 May 2009.
[14] Neitsch, Alfred Thomas (2008). "A Tradition of Vigilance: The Role of
  Lieutenant Governor in Alberta" (PDF). Canadian Parliamentary Review.
  Ottawa: Commonwealth Parliamentary Association. 30 (4): 23. Archived from
  the original (PDF) on 12 February 2010. Retrieved 22 May 2009.
[15] Forsey 2005, p. 26
[16] Zolf, Larry (June 28, 2002). "Boxing in a Prime Minister". CBC.
  Archived from the original on January 20, 2011. Retrieved May 11, 2013.
[17] Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta. "The Citizen's Guide
  to the Alberta Legislature". Queen's Printer for Alberta. Archived from
  the original on March 16, 2007. Retrieved July 29, 2007.
[18] Jackson, Michael (2006). "Bastedo, Frank Lindsay (1886–1973)". The
  Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan. University of Regina. Retrieved May 18,
  2009.
[19] Russell, Peter H., "Discretion and the Reserve Powers of the Crown"
  (PDF), Canadian Parliamentary Review, Commonwealth Parliamentary
  Association (Summer 2011): 19, retrieved January 17, 2013
[20] McWhinney, Edward (2005). The Governor General and the Prime
  Ministers. Vancouver: Ronsdale Press. pp. 16–17. ISBN 1-55380-031-1.
[21] Library and Archives Canada. "Politics and Government > By Executive
  Decree > The Governor General". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved May
  18, 2009.
[22] Dawson, R. MacGregor; Dawson, W.F. (1989). Democratic Government in
  Canada (5 ed.). Toronto, Buffalo, London: University of Toronto Press.
  pp. 68–69. ISBN 0-8020-6703-4.
[23] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Governor General of Canada:
  Role and Responsibilities of the Governor General". Queen's Printer for
  Canada. Retrieved May 18, 2009.
[24] Tidridge, Nathan (2011). Canada's Constitutional Monarchy: An
  Introduction to Our Form of Government. Toronto: Dundurn Press. p. 57.
  ISBN 9781459700840.
[25] Dawson, R. MacGregor; Dawson, W.F. (1989). Democratic Government in
  Canada (5 ed.). Toronto, Buffalo, London: University of Toronto Press.
  pp. 68–69. ISBN 9780802067036.
[26] Forsey, Eugene (2005). How Canadians Govern Themselves (PDF) (6 ed.).
  Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada. pp. 4, 34. ISBN 0-662-39689-8.
  Archived from the original (PDF) on March 31, 2012. Retrieved May 14,
  2009.
[27] Forsey, Helen (October 1, 2010). "As David Johnson Enters Rideau
  Hall...". The Monitor. Ottawa: Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives.
  Retrieved January 23, 2011.
[28] Geddes, John (January 25, 2009). "Will the prorogation of Parliament
  set off a populist revolt?". Maclean's. Toronto: Kenneth Whyte. ISSN
  0024-9262. Retrieved January 27, 2010.
[29] Brooks 2007, p. 258
[30] Savoie, Donald (1999). Governing from the Centre: The Concentration of
  Power in Canadian Politics. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 260.
  ISBN 978-0-8020-8252-7.
[31] Savoie, Donald (May 12, 2010), "Who has the power?", The Globe and
  Mail, retrieved May 12, 2010
[32] Savoie 1999, p. 362
[33] Simpson, Jeffrey (2001). The Friendly Dictatorship. Toronto:
  McClelland & Stewart. p. 248. ISBN 978-0-7710-8079-1.
[34] Coyne, Andrew (June 30, 2015). "Liberals' idea for gender quota in
  Cabinet leaves out the principle of merit". National Post. Post Media.
  Retrieved June 30, 2015.
[35] Robson, John (2 November 2015). "Trudeau's menacing promise of
  electoral reform". National Post. Retrieved 5 November 2015.
[36] Privy Council Office (4 November 2015). "Order in Council 2015-1225".
  Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 7 November 2015.
[37] Privy Council Office (4 November 2015). "Order in Council 2015-1226".
  Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 7 November 2015.
[38] Privy Council Office (4 November 2015). "Order in Council 2015-1227".
  Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 7 November 2015.
[39] Privy Council Office (4 November 2015). "Order in Council 2015-1228".
  Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 7 November 2015.
[40] Privy Council Office (4 November 2015). "Order in Council 2015-1229".
  Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 7 November 2015.
[41] http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/S-3/page-3.html
[42] http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/M-8/FullText.html
[43] Smith, Joanna (6 November 2015). "Five Canadian female ministers of
  state to be full ministers, get raise". Toronto Star. Retrieved 7
  November 2015.
[44] Parliament of Canada. "Current Ministry (Cabinet)". Queen's Printer
  for Canada. Retrieved 7 November 2015.

External links

- Reference to current cabinet ministers
- Cabinet Minister responsibilities

Prime Minister of Canada

This article is about the position of Prime Minister of Canada. For
individual Canadian prime ministers, see List of Prime Ministers of Canada.

The Prime Minister of Canada (French: Premier ministre du Canada) is the
primary minister of the Crown, chairman of the Cabinet, and thus head of
government for Canada, charged with advising the Canadian monarch or
federal viceroy on the exercise of the executive powers vested in them by
the constitution.¹ Not outlined in any constitutional document, the office
exists only as per long-established convention (originating in Canada's
former colonial power, the United Kingdom) that stipulates the monarch's
representative, the governor general, must select as prime minister the
person most likely to command the confidence of the elected House of
Commons; this individual is typically the leader of the political party
that holds the largest number of seats in that chamber.[n 1]² Canadian
prime ministers are styled as The Right Honourable (French: Le Très
Honorable), a privilege maintained for life.

The current, and 23rd, Prime Minister of Canada is the Liberal Party's
Justin Trudeau, who was appointed on November 4, 2015, by Governor General
David Johnston, following the general election that took place that year.

Origin of the office

The position of prime minister is not outlined in any Canadian
constitutional document and is mentioned only in passing in the
Constitution Act, 1982,³ ⁴ and the Letters Patent, 1947 issued by King
George VI.⁵ The office and its functions are instead governed by
constitutional conventions and modelled on the same office in the United
Kingdom.

Qualifications and selection

The prime minister, along with the other ministers in cabinet, is appointed
by the governor general on behalf of the monarch.⁶ However, by the
conventions of responsible government, designed to maintain administrative
stability, the viceroy will call to form a government the individual most
likely to receive the support, or confidence, of a majority of the directly
elected members of the House of Commons;⁷ as a practical matter, this is
often the leader of a party whose members form a majority, or a very large
plurality, of Members of Parliament (MPs).⁸ There are no age or citizenship
restrictions on the position of prime minister itself.

While there is no legal requirement for the prime minister to be a member
of parliament, for practical and political reasons the prime minister is
expected to win a seat very promptly.⁹ However, in rare circumstances
individuals who are not sitting members of the House of Commons have been
appointed to the position of prime minister. Two former prime ministers—Sir
John Joseph Caldwell Abbott and Sir Mackenzie Bowell—served in the 1890s
while members of the Senate.¹⁰ Both, in their roles as Government Leader in
the Senate, succeeded prime ministers who had died in office—John A.
Macdonald in 1891 and John Sparrow David Thompson in 1894. That convention
has since evolved toward the appointment of an interim leader from the
commons in such a scenario.

Prime ministers who are not Members of Parliament upon their appointment
(or who lose their seats while in office) have since been expected to seek
election to the commons as soon as possible. For example, William Lyon
Mackenzie King, after losing his seat in the 1925 federal election (that
his party won), briefly "governed from the hallway" before winning a
by-election a few weeks later. Similarly, John Turner replaced Pierre
Trudeau as leader of the Liberal Party in 1984 and subsequently was
appointed prime minister while not holding a seat in the House of Commons;
Turner won a riding in the next election but the Liberal Party was swept
from power. Turner was the last serving prime minister to not hold a
commons seat.

Should a serving prime minister today lose his or her seat in the
legislature, or should a new prime minister be appointed without holding a
seat, the typical process that follows is that a junior member in the
governing political party will resign to allow the prime minister to run in
the resulting by-election.¹⁰ A safe seat is usually chosen; while the
Liberal and Conservative parties traditionally observed a convention of not
running a candidate against another party's new leader in the by-election,
the New Democrats and smaller political parties typically do not follow the
same convention. However, if the governing party selects a new leader
shortly before an election is due, and that new leader is not a member of
the legislature, he or she will normally await the upcoming election before
running for a seat in parliament.

In a poll conducted by Ipsos-Reid following the first prorogation of the
40th parliament on December 4, 2008, it was found that 51% of the sample
group thought the prime minister was directly elected by Canadians.¹¹ ¹²

Term of office

The Canadian prime minister serves at Her Majesty's pleasure, meaning the
post does not have a fixed term. Once appointed and sworn in by the
governor general, the prime minister remains in office until he or she
resigns, is dismissed, or dies.¹³ The lifespan of parliament is limited by
the constitution to five years and, though the governor general may still,
on the advice of the prime minister, dissolve parliament and issue the
writs of election prior to the date mandated by the Canada Elections Act;
the King–Byng Affair was the only time since Confederation that the viceroy
deemed it necessary to refuse his prime minister's request for a general
vote.

Following parliamentary dissolution, the prime minister must run in the
resulting general election if he or she wishes to maintain a seat in the
House of Commons. Should the prime minister's party subsequently win a
majority of seats in the House of Commons, it is unnecessary to re-appoint
the prime minister or again swear him or her into office.¹³ If, however, an
opposition party wins a majority of seats, the prime minister may resign or
be dismissed by the governor general. Should the prime minister's party
achieve a minority while an opposition party wins a plurality (i.e., more
seats than any other party but less than a majority), the prime minister
can attempt to maintain the confidence of the House by forming a coalition
with other minority parties. This option was last entertained in 1925.

Role and authority

Further information: Queen's Privy Council for Canada

Because the prime minister is, in practice, the most politically powerful
member of the Canadian government, he or she is sometimes erroneously
referred to as Canada's head of state,[n 2] when, in fact, that post is
held by the Canadian monarch, represented by the governor general.¹⁴ The
prime minister is, instead, the head of government and is responsible for
advising the Crown on how to exercise the Royal Prerogative and its
executive powers,² which are governed by the constitution and its
conventions. However, the function of the prime minister has evolved with
increasing power. Today, as per the doctrines of constitutional monarchy,
the advice given by the prime minister is ordinarily binding, meaning the
prime minister effectively carries out those duties ascribed to the
sovereign and/or governor general, leaving the latter to act in
predominantly ceremonial fashions.¹⁵ As such, the prime minister, supported
by the Office of the Prime Minister (PMO), controls the appointments of
many key figures in Canada's system of governance, including the governor
general, the Cabinet, justices of the Supreme Court, senators, heads of
crown corporations, ambassadors to foreign countries, the provincial
lieutenant governors, and approximately 3,100 other positions. Further, the
prime minister plays a prominent role in the legislative process—with the
majority of bills put before parliament originating in the Cabinet—and the
leadership of the Canadian Armed Forces.

Pierre Trudeau is credited with, throughout his tenure as prime minister
between 1968 and 1984, consolidating power in the PMO,¹⁶ which is itself
filled by political and administrative staff selected at the prime
minister's discretion and unaccountable to parliament. At the end of the
20th century and into the 21st, analysts—such as Jeffrey Simpson,¹⁷ Donald
Savoie, Andrew Coyne,¹⁸ and John Gomery—argued that both parliament and the
Cabinet had become eclipsed by prime ministerial power;[n 3]¹⁹ Savoie
wrote: "The Canadian prime minister has little in the way of institutional
check, at least inside government, to inhibit his ability to have his
way."²⁰ Indeed, the position has been described as undergoing a
"presidentialisation",¹⁶ ²¹ to the point that its incumbents publicly
outshine the actual head of state;²² ²³ former governor general Adrienne
Clarkson alluded to what she saw as "an unspoken rivalry" that had
developed between the prime minister and the Crown.²⁴ It has been theorized
that such is the case in Canada as its parliament is less influential on
the executive than in other countries with Westminster parliamentary
systems; particularly, Canada has fewer MPs, a higher turnover rate of MPs
after each election, and an Americanised system for selecting political
party leaders, leaving them accountable to the party membership rather than
caucus, as is the case in the United Kingdom.²⁵

There do exist checks on the prime minister's power: the commons may revoke
its confidence in an incumbent prime minister and Cabinet or caucus revolts
can quickly bring down a serving premier and even mere threats of such
action can persuade and/or compel a prime minister to resign his post, as
happened with Jean Chrétien. The Reform Act, 2014,²⁶ codifies the process
by which a caucus may trigger a party leadership review and, if necessary,
chose an interim leader, thereby making a prime minister more accountable
to the MPs in his or her party. Caucuses may choose to follow these rules,
though the decision would be made by recorded vote, thereby subjecting the
party's choice to public scrutiny.²⁷

The Senate may delay or impede legislation put forward by the Cabinet, such
as when Brian Mulroney's bill creating the Goods and Services Tax (GST)
came before the upper chamber and, given Canada's federal nature, the
jurisdiction of the federal government is limited to areas prescribed by
the constitution. Further, as executive power is constitutionally vested in
the monarch, meaning the Royal Prerogative belongs to the Crown and not to
any of its ministers,²⁸ ²⁹ ³⁰ the sovereign's supremacy over the prime
minister in the constitutional order is thus seen as a "rebuff to the
pretensions of the elected: As it has been said, when the Prime Minister
bows before the Queen, he bows before us [the Canadian people]."³¹ ³²
Either the sovereign or his or her viceroy may therefore oppose the prime
minister's will in extreme, crisis situations.[n 4] Near the end of her
time as governor general, Adrienne Clarkson stated: "My constitutional role
has lain in what are called 'reserve powers': making sure that there is a
prime minister and a government in place, and exercising the right 'to
encourage, to advise, and to warn'[...] Without really revealing any
secrets, I can tell you that I have done all three."³³

Privileges

Two official residences are provided to the prime minister—24 Sussex Drive
in Ottawa and Harrington Lake, a country retreat in Gatineau Park—as well
an office in the Langevin Block, across from Parliament Hill.³⁴ For
transportation, the prime minister is granted an armoured car and shared
use of two official aircraft—a CC-150 Polaris for international flights and
a Challenger 601 for domestic trips. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police also
furnish constant personal security for the prime minister and his or her
family. All of the aforementioned is supplied by the Queen-in-Council
through budgets approved by parliament, as is the prime minister's annual
salary of CAD$170,400.³⁵ (A prime minister additionally earns the normal
salary of a Member of Parliament: $170,400.³⁶ )

Should a serving or former prime minister die, he or she is accorded a
state funeral, wherein their casket lies in state in the Centre Block of
Parliament Hill.³⁷ Only Bowell and the Viscount Bennett were given private
funerals, Bennett also being the only former Prime Minister of Canada to
die and be buried outside the country and Bowell the only whose funeral was
not attended by politicians. John Thompson also died outside Canada, at
Windsor Castle, where Queen Victoria permitted his lying-in-state before
his body was returned to Canada for a state funeral in Halifax.³⁸

In earlier years, it was traditional for the monarch to bestow a knighthood
on newly appointed Canadian prime ministers. Accordingly, several carried
the prefix Sir before their name; of the first eight premiers of Canada,
only Alexander Mackenzie refused the honour of a knighthood from Queen
Victoria. Following the 1919 Nickle Resolution, however, it was against
non-binding policy for the sovereign to grant such honorific titles to
Canadians; the last prime minister to be knighted was Sir Robert Borden,
who was premier at the time the Nickle Resolution was debated in the House
of Commons. Still, Bennett was in 1941, six years after he stepped down as
prime minister, elevated to the peerage by King George VI as Viscount
Bennett, of Mickleham in the County of Surrey and of Calgary and Hopewell
in the Dominion of Canada.³⁹ ⁴⁰

The Canadian Heraldic Authority (CHA) has granted former prime ministers an
augmentation of honour on the personal coat of arms of those who pursued
them. The heraldic badge, referred to by the CHA as the mark of the Prime
Ministership of Canada,⁴¹ consists of four red maple leaves joined at the
stem on a white field ("Argent four maple leaves conjoined in cross at the
stem Gules"); the augmentation has, so far, been granted either as a canton
sinister or centred in the chief.⁴¹ ⁴² ⁴³ ⁴⁴ ⁴⁵ To date, former prime
ministers Joe Clark,⁴¹ Pierre Trudeau,⁴² John Turner,⁴³ Brian Mulroney,⁴⁴
and Kim Campbell were granted arms with the augmentation.⁴⁵

Style of address

Canada continues the Westminster tradition of using the title Prime
Minister when one is speaking to the federal head of government directly;
this is in contrast to the United States protocol of addressing the federal
head of government as mister (as in, Mister President); the Department of
Canadian Heritage advises that it is incorrect to use the term Mr Prime
Minister.⁴⁶ The written form of address for the prime minister should use
his or her full parliamentary title: The Right Honourable [name],
[post-nominal letters], Prime Minister of Canada. However, while in the
House of Commons during Question Period, other members of parliament may
address the prime minister as The Right Honourable, Member for [prime
minister's riding] or simply The Right Honourable Prime Minister.⁴⁷ Former
prime ministers retain the prefix The Right Honourable for the remainder of
their lives; should they remain sitting MPs, they may be referred as The
Right Honourable Member for [member's riding] or by their portfolio title
(if appointed to one), as in The Right Honourable Minister of National
Defence.

In the decades following Confederation, it was common practice to refer to
the prime minister as Premier of Canada,⁴⁸ ⁴⁹ ⁵⁰ a custom that continued
until the First World War, around the time of Robert Borden's
premiership.⁵¹ ⁵² ⁵³ While contemporary sources will still speak of early
prime ministers of Canada as premier,⁵⁴ ⁵⁵ ⁵⁶ the modern practice is such
that the federal head of government is known almost exclusively as the
prime minister, while the provincial heads of government are termed
premiers (save for within Quebec and New Brunswick, where the premiers are
addressed in French as Premier ministre du [province], literally translated
as Prime Minister of [province]).

Activities post-commission

After exiting office, former prime ministers of Canada have engaged in
various pursuits. Some remained in politics: Bowell continued to serve as a
senator, Stephen Harper returned to the House of Commons as a backbench
Member of Parliament, and Bennett moved to the United Kingdom after being
elevated to the House of Lords.⁵⁷ A number led Her Majesty's Loyal
Opposition in the Canadian parliament: John A. Macdonald, Arthur Meighen,
Mackenzie King,⁵⁸ and Pierre Trudeau, all before being re-appointed as
prime minister (Mackenzie King twice); Alexander Mackenzie and John
Diefenbaker, both prior to sitting as regular Members of Parliament until
their deaths;⁵⁹ Wilfrid Laurier dying while still in the post;⁶⁰ and
Charles Tupper,⁶¹ Louis St. Laurent,⁶² and John Turner, each before they
returned to private business. Meighen was also appointed to the Senate
following his second period as prime minister, but resigned his seat to
seek re-election and moved to private enterprise after failing to win a
riding.⁶³ Following Meighen into civilian life were: Robert Borden, who
served as Chancellor of Queen's and McGill Universities, as well as working
in the financial sector; Lester B. Pearson, who acted as Chancellor of
Carleton University;⁶⁴ Joe Clark and Kim Campbell, who became university
professors, Clark also consultant and Campbell working in international
diplomacy and as the director of private companies and chairperson of
interest groups; while Pierre Trudeau and Jean Chrétien returned to legal
practice.⁶⁵ Former prime ministers also commonly penned
autobiographies—Tupper,⁶¹ for example—or published their memoirs—such as
Diefenbaker and Paul Martin.⁵⁹

See also

- List of Prime Ministers of Canada
- Historical rankings of Canadian prime ministers
- List of Prime Ministers of Canada by time in office
- Prime Ministers of Canada in popular culture
- List of books about Prime Ministers of Canada
- List of Prime Ministers of Queen Victoria
- List of Prime Ministers of King Edward VII
- List of Prime Ministers of King George V
- List of Prime Ministers of King Edward VIII
- List of Prime Ministers of King George VI
- List of Prime Ministers of Queen Elizabeth II

Notes

[1] See majority and plurality.
[2] A 2008 Ipsos-Reid poll found 42% of respondents thought the prime
  minister was head of state.¹¹
[3] See Note 2 at Cabinet of Canada.
[4] See 'Responsibilities' and Note 1 at Cabinet of Canada.

References

[1] Brooks, Stephen (2007). Canadian Democracy: An Introduction (5 ed.).
  Don Mills: Oxford University Press. pp. 233–234. ISBN 978-0-19-543103-2.
[2] Brooks 2007, p. 235
[3] Privy Council Office. "Intergovernmental Affairs > About Canada > The
  Canadian Constitution". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved June 7,
  2010.
[4] Elizabeth II (March 29, 1867), Constitution Act, 1982, SchedB.37.1,
  Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada, retrieved June 7, 2010
[5] George VI (1947). Letters Patent Constituting the Office of Governor
  General of Canada. I. Ottawa: King's Printer for Canada (published
  October 1, 1947). Retrieved May 29, 2009.
[6] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Media > Fact Sheets > The
  Swearing-In of a New Ministry". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved May
  18, 2009.
[7] Pothen, Phil (2009), Disinformation as a Back Door to 'Constitutional
  Revolution' in Canada, Toronto: Ontario Bar Association, retrieved
  September 13, 2010
[8] Forsey, Eugene (2005), How Canadians Govern Themselves (PDF) (6 ed.),
  Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada, pp. 3–4, ISBN 0-662-39689-8,
  retrieved December 9, 2009
[9] Forsey, Eugene (March 2012). "How Canadians Govern Themselves > The
  Prime Minister". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 26 November 2015.
[10] Forsey 2005, p. 38
[11] In the Wake of Constitutional Crisis: New Survey Demonstrates that
  Canadians Lack Basic Understanding of Our Country's Parliamentary System
  (PDF), Toronto: Ipsos Reid, December 15, 2008, p. 1, retrieved May 18,
  2010
[12] Smith, David E (June 10, 2010). "The Crown and the Constitution:
  Sustaining Democracy?". The Crown in Canada: Present Realities and Future
  Options. Queen's University. p. 6. Archived from the original (PDF) on
  June 17, 2010. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
[13] Forsey 2005, p. 5
[14] Library and Archives Canada. "First Among Equals: The Prime Minister
  in Canadian Life and Politics > Alone at the Top > Head of State".
  Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved January 18, 2010.
[15] Brooks 2007, pp. 233–235
[16] Geddes, John (January 25, 2009). "Will the prorogation of Parliament
  set off a populist revolt?". Maclean's. Toronto: Kenneth Whyte. ISSN
  0024-9262. Retrieved January 27, 2010.
[17] Simpson, Jeffrey (2001). The Friendly Dictatorship. Toronto:
  McClelland & Stewart. p. 248. ISBN 978-0-7710-8079-1.
[18] Coyne, Andrew (June 30, 2015). "Liberals' idea for gender quota in
  Cabinet leaves out the principle of merit". National Post. Retrieved June
  30, 2015.
[19] Brooks 2007, p. 258
[20] Savoie, Donald (1999). Governing from the Centre: The Concentration of
  Power in Canadian Politics. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 362.
  ISBN 978-0-8020-8252-7.
[21] "Time to address democratic deficit", Toronto Star, January 27, 2010,
  retrieved January 27, 2010
[22] Jackson, Michael D. (2009). "The Senior Realms of the Queen" (PDF).
  Canadian Monarchist News. Autumn 2009 (30). Toronto: Monarchist League of
  Canada. p. 10. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 29, 2009.
  Retrieved January 17, 2010.
[23] Blair, Louisa (2001). Venne, Michel, ed. Vive Quebec!: new thinking
  and new approaches to the Quebec nation. Toronto: James Lorimer &
  Company. p. 91. ISBN 978-1-55028-734-9.
[24] Franks, C.E.S. (April 9, 2010), "Keep the Queen and choose another
  head of state", The Globe and Mail, retrieved January 23, 2011
[25] Foot, Richard (January 15, 2010), "Only in Canada: Harper's
  prorogation is a Canadian thing", National Post, retrieved January 16,
  2010
[26] Parliament of Canada (June 23, 2015), Bill C-586, Queen's Printer for
  Canada, retrieved June 2, 2015
[27] Selley, Chris (May 28, 2015). "Thanks to the Senate, I've finally come
  around to liking the Reform Act". National Post. Retrieved June 2, 2015.
[28] MacLeod, Kevin S. (2008), A Crown of Maples (PDF) (1 ed.), Ottawa:
  Queen's Printer for Canada, p. 16, ISBN 978-0-662-46012-1, retrieved June
  21, 2009
[29] Cox, Noel (September 2002). "Black v Chrétien: Suing a Minister of the
  Crown for Abuse of Power, Misfeasance in Public Office and Negligence".
  Murdoch University Electronic Journal of Law. Perth: Murdoch University.
  9 (3): 12. Retrieved May 17, 2009.
[30] Neitsch, Alfred Thomas (2008). "A Tradition of Vigilance: The Role of
  Lieutenant Governor in Alberta" (PDF). Canadian Parliamentary Review.
  Vol. 30 no. 4. Ottawa: Commonwealth Parliamentary Association. p. 23.
  Retrieved May 22, 2009.
[31] Coyne, Andrew (November 13, 2009). "Defending the royals". Maclean's.
  Toronto: Rogers Communications. ISSN 0024-9262. Retrieved November 17,
  2009.
[32] Coyne, Andrew (April 10, 2002), "A lightning rod for patriotic love",
  National Post, retrieved May 22, 2006
[33] "GG reflects on mandate during farewell address". CTV. September 14,
  2005. Retrieved August 8, 2007.
[34] Privy Council Office. "Did You Know > The Langevin Block from
  Yesterday to Today". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved January 17,
  2010.
[35]
  http://www.lop.parl.gc.ca/ParlInfo/lists/Salaries.aspx?Menu=HOC-Politic&Section=03d93c58-f843-49b3-9653-84275c23f3fb
  Missing or empty |title= (help)
[36]
  http://www.lop.parl.gc.ca/ParlInfo/lists/Salaries.aspx?Menu=HOC-Politic&Section=03d93c58-f843-49b3-9653-84275c23f3fb.
  Missing or empty |title= (help)
[37] State Funerals in Canada. "Frequently Asked Questions on State
  Funerals in Canada". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved December 10,
  2009.
[38] Waite, P.B. (2000), "Thompson, Sir John Sparrow David", in English,
  John, Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online, XII, Ottawa: University of
  Toronto/Université Laval, 1891-1900, retrieved January 18, 2010
[39] Library of Parliament. "Federal Government > Prime Ministers of Canada
  > Biographical Informarion > BENNETT, The Right Hon. Richard Bedford,
  P.C., K.C., K.G.St.J., LL.B.". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved
  December 10, 2009.
[40] The London Gazette, July 22, 1941.
[41] "Clark, Rt. Hon. Charles Joseph". Royal Heraldry Society of Canada.
  Retrieved May 27, 2011.
[42] "Trudeau, Rt. Hon. Pierre Elliot". Royal Heraldry Society of Canada.
  Retrieved May 27, 2011.
[43] "Turner, Rt. Hon. John Napier". Royal Heraldry Society of Canada.
  Retrieved May 27, 2011.
[44] "Mulroney, Rt. Hon. Martin Brian". Royal Heraldry Society of Canada.
  Retrieved May 27, 2011.
[45] "Campbell, Rt. Hon. Kim, PC". Royal Heraldry Society of Canada.
  Retrieved May 27, 2011.
[46] Department of Canadian Heritage. "Styles of address". Queen's Printer
  for Canada. Retrieved 11 November 2015.
[47] Department of Canadian Heritage. "Ceremonial and Canadian Symbols
  Promotion > Styles of address — Federal dignitaries". Queen's Printer for
  Canada. Retrieved January 24, 2010.
[48] "Canada's Premier Talks; Attitude of the Dominion on the Seal
  Question", The New York Times, p. 9, March 12, 1893, retrieved January
  25, 2010
[49] Grand Lodge of Canada (1884). Proceedings of the Grand Lodge of
  Ancient, Free, & Accepted Masons of Canada. Hamilton: Spectator Printing
  Co. p. 15. Retrieved January 25, 2010.
[50] Hopkins, J. Castell (1901). "The Proposed Union of Canada with
  Newfoundland". The Canadian Annual Review of Public Affairs. Vol. 1902.
  Toronto: The Annual Review Publishing Company. pp. 449–453. Retrieved
  January 25, 2010.
[51] "Premier Pledges Canada to Fight Until War is Won", The New York
  Times, p. 1, November 21, 1916, retrieved January 25, 2010
[52] "The Santa Fe magazine, Volume 9". The Santa Fe. 9. Santa Fe: Santa Fe
  Magazine. 1914. p. 44. ISSN 0036-4541. Retrieved January 25, 2010.
[53] Freshfield, A. C. Haddon (May 1913). "The Distribution of Human and
  Animal Life in Western Arctic America". The Geographical Journal. Oxford:
  Blackwell Publishing. 41 (5): 459–460. doi:10.2307/1778163. ISSN
  0016-7398. JSTOR 1778163.
[54] "Sir John Sparrow David Thompson". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.
[55] Library and Archives Canada. "Politics and Government > Sir John A.
  Macdonald > The Opponents". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved January
  25, 2010.
[56] Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland.
  "John Alexander MacDonald". Queen's Printer. Retrieved January 25, 2010.
[57] Waite, P.B. (2000), "Bennett, Richard Bedford, 1st Viscount Bennett",
  in English, John, Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online, XVII, Ottawa:
  University of Toronto/Université Laval, 1941-1950, retrieved January 18,
  2010
[58] Neatby, H. Blair (2000), "King, William Lyon Mackenzie", in English,
  John, Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online, XVII, Ottawa: University
  of Toronto/Université Laval, 1941-1950, retrieved January 18, 2010
[59] Smith, Dennis (2000), "Diefenbaker, John George", in English, John,
  Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online, XX, Ottawa: University of
  Toronto/Université Laval, 1971-1980, retrieved January 18, 2010
[60] Bélanger, Réal (2000), "Laurier, Sir Wilfrid", in English, John,
  Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online, XIV, Ottawa: University of
  Toronto/Université Laval, 1911-1920, retrieved January 18, 2010
[61] Buckner, Phillip (2000), "Tupper, Sir Charles", in English, John,
  Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online, XIV, Ottawa: University of
  Toronto/Université Laval, 1911-1920, retrieved January 18, 2010
[62] Bothwell, Robert (2000), "St. Laurent, Louis", in English, John,
  Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online, XX, Ottawa: University of
  Toronto/Université Laval, 1971-1980, retrieved January 18, 2010
[63] Glassford, Larry A. (2000), "Meighen, Arthur", in English, John,
  Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online, XVII, Ottawa: University of
  Toronto/Université Laval, 1951-1960, retrieved January 18, 2010
[64] English, John (2000), "Pearson, Lester Bowles", in English, John,
  Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online, XX, Ottawa: University of
  Toronto/Université Laval, 1971-1980, retrieved January 18, 2010
[65] English, John (2000), "Trudeau, Pierre Elliott", in English, John,
  Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online, Volume XXII, Ottawa: University
  of Toronto/Université Laval, 1991-2000, retrieved January 18, 2010

External links

- Official government Web site of the Office of the Prime Minister
- Prime Minister of Canada on YouTube
- Library of Parliament of Canada
- Canada's Best Prime Ministers: 2011 Maclean's article

Lieutenant governor (Canada)

In Canada, a lieutenant governor (/lɛfˈtɛnənt/; French [masculine]:
lieutenant-gouverneur, or [feminine]: lieutenant-gouverneure) is the
viceregal representative in a provincial jurisdiction of the Canadian
monarch and head of state, Queen Elizabeth II, who resides predominantly in
her oldest realm, the United Kingdom. On the advice of his or her prime
minister, the Governor General of Canada appoints the lieutenant governors
to carry out most of the monarch's constitutional and ceremonial duties for
an unfixed period of time¹ —known as serving at His Excellency's
pleasure—though five years is the normal convention. Similar positions in
Canada's three territories are termed Commissioners and are representatives
of the federal government, however, not the monarch directly.

The offices have their roots in the 16th and 17th century colonial
governors of New France and British North America, though the present
incarnations of the positions emerged with Canadian Confederation and the
British North America Act in 1867, which defined the viceregal offices as
the "Lieutenant Governor of the Province acting by and with the Advice the
Executive Council thereof."² However, the posts still ultimately
represented the government of Canada (that is, the
Governor-General-in-Council) until the ruling in 1882 of the Lord Watson of
the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in the case of Maritime Bank v.
Receiver-General of New Brunswick,³ whereafter the lieutenant governors
were recognized as the direct representatives of the monarch.⁴ ⁵ ⁶ Per the
Constitution Act, 1982, any constitutional amendment that affects the
Crown, including the Offices of the lieutenant governors, requires the
unanimous consent of each provincial legislature as well as the federal
parliament.

Spelling

In the Canadian context, there are numerous, and not mutually agreeable,
notions regarding hyphenation and capitalization of the position title.
Various acts in the Canadian constitution and numerous provincial websites
typically indicate Lieutenant Governor of [Province] (upper case and no
hyphen), likely due to the primacy of those positions in their respective
jurisdictions. However, The Canadian Style indicates Lieutenant-Governor
(upper case with hyphen),⁷ though lieutenant-governors (lower case and
hyphenated) when pluralized.⁸ The Guide to Canadian English Usage
equivocates somewhat, indicating upper case only when used in and
associated with a specific provincial lieutenant governor or name (e.g.,
Lieutenant-Governor Lincoln Alexander), not generally, and varied use.⁹ In
French, the term is always hyphenated. Also, as governor is the main noun
in the title, it is the word that is pluralized; thus, it is lieutenant
governors, rather than lieutenants governor.

Selection and appointment

Unlike the federal viceroy, the Canadian lieutenant governors have been
since 1867, if not Canadian-born, at least long-time residents of Canada
and not of the peerage, though a number, up until the Nickle Resolution in
1919, were knighted. While required by the tenets of constitutional
monarchy to be nonpartisan during their time in office, lieutenant
governors have frequently been former politicians and some have returned to
politics following their viceregal service. Canadian lieutenant
governorships have also been used to promote women and minorities into a
prominent position:¹⁰ The first female viceroy in Canada was Pauline Mills
McGibbon, Lieutenant Governor of Ontario from 1974 to 1980, and many women
have since served in both that province and others. There have been two
Black (Lincoln Alexander and Mayann E. Francis) and several Aboriginal
lieutenant governors. Norman Kwong, Lieutenant Governor of Alberta from
2005 to 2010, was Chinese-Canadian and David Lam, the Lieutenant Governor
of British Columbia from 1988 to 1995, was Hong Kong-Canadian. Former
Lieutenant Governor of Quebec Lise Thibault used a wheelchair, while David
Onley, the former Lieutenant Governor of Ontario, had polio as a child and
used crutches or a scooter.

The lieutenant governors are appointed by the Governor General of Canada on
the advice of his or her prime minister, usually in consultation with the
relevant premier,¹¹ ¹² ¹³ and the governor general gives the viceroyal
sign-manual and affixes the Great Seal of Canada to the commission.¹⁴ In
2012, the Advisory Committee on Vice-Regal Appointments was established to
create a non-binding shortlist of candidates to be presented to the prime
minister when the appointment of a lieutenant governor is upcoming.

Besides the administration of the oaths of office, there is no set formula
for the swearing-in of a lieutenant governor-designate. Though there may
therefore be variations to the following, the appointee will generally
travel to the legislative assembly building in the provincial capital,
where a guard of honour awaits to give a general salute. From there, the
party is led by the speaker of the legislative assembly to the legislative
chamber, wherein all justices of the province's superior court, members of
the legislative assembly, and other guests are assembled. The governor
general's commission for the lieutenant governor-designate is then read
aloud, and the required oaths are administered to the appointee by either
the governor general or a delegate thereof; the three oaths are: the Oath
of Allegiance, the Oath of Office as lieutenant governor, and the oath as
keeper of the province's great seal.¹⁵ With the affixing of their signature
to these three solemn promises, the individual is officially the lieutenant
governor, and at that moment the Viceregal Salute is played and a 15-gun
salute is conducted outside.¹⁶ The lieutenant governor then receives the
insignia of the province's order or orders. Since the appointment in 1956
of John J. Bowlen as Lieutenant Governor of Alberta, newly installed
lieutenant governors will, at some point in the first year of their
mandate, be invited to a personal audience with the monarch.¹⁷

Though incumbents are constitutionally mandated to serve for at least five
years, unless the federal parliament agrees to remove the individual from
office,¹⁸ the lieutenant governors still technically act at the governor
general's pleasure,¹⁹ meaning the prime minister may recommend to the
governor general that the viceroy remain in the Crown's service for a
longer period of time, sometimes upwards of more than ten years.[n 1] A
lieutenant governor may also resign[n 2] and some have died in office.[n 3]
In such a circumstance, the governor general can appoint an administrator
to exercise the functions of the lieutenant governor until a suitable
replacement is found;²⁰ in some provinces, the associated chief justice has
a standing appointment as the provincial administrator.²¹ ²² ²³

Role

Further information: Monarchy in the Canadian provinces § Federal and
provincial aspects, and Canadian federalism

As the Canadian monarch is shared equally amongst the ten provinces of
Canada, as well as the federal realm, and the sovereign lives predominantly
outside Canada's borders, a lieutenant governors' primary task is to
perform the sovereign's constitutional duties on his or her behalf, acting
within the principles of parliamentary democracy and responsible government
as a guarantor of continuous and stable governance, and as a nonpartisan
safeguard against the abuse of power.²⁴ ²⁵ The office is the core of
authority in a province.²⁶

For the most part, however, the powers of the Crown are exercised on a
day-to-day basis by elected and appointed individuals, leaving the
lieutenant governors to perform the various ceremonial duties the sovereign
otherwise carries out when in the country; at such a moment, a lieutenant
governor will decrease his or her public appearances, though the presence
of the monarch does not undermine any lieutenant governor's ability to
perform governmental roles.²⁷

Constitutional role

Main article: Monarchy in the Canadian provinces § Constitutional role

Though the monarch retains all executive, legislative, and judicial power
in and over Canada,²⁸ ²⁹ the lieutenant governors are permitted to exercise
most of this, including the Royal Prerogative, in the sovereign's name, as
laid out in various acts in the constitution, though most revolve around
the original clauses in section V of the Constitution Act, 1867.³⁰ While
they continue to be appointed by the governor general, the lieutenant
governors are considered to be direct representatives of the sovereign. In
a province, it is thus the lieutenant governor who is required to appoint
persons to the executive council (or cabinet) and convention dictates that
the lieutenant governor must further draw from them an individual to act as
premier³¹ —in almost all cases the member of the legislative assembly who
commands the confidence of the legislature. This group of ministers of the
Crown is theoretically tasked with tendering to the viceroy guidance on the
exercise of the Royal Prerogative, an arrangement called the
Queen-in-Council or,²⁹ more specifically, the Governor-in-Council, in which
capacity the lieutenant governor will issue royal proclamations and sign
orders in council. The Governor-in-Council of both Nova Scotia and New
Brunswick are also specifically tasked to appoint in the Queen's name the
judges of the courts of probate.³² The advice given by the cabinet is, in
order to ensure the stability of government, typically binding; the
viceroy, however, may in exceptional circumstances invoke the reserve
powers, which remain the Crown's final check against a ministry's abuse of
power.[n 4]³³ ³⁴ ³⁵ ³⁶ ³⁷ ³⁸

The lieutenant governor alone is also constitutionally mandated to summon
the legislature.⁴⁰ Beyond that, the viceroy carries out the other
conventional parliamentary duties in the sovereign's stead, including
reading the Speech From the Throne and proroguing and dissolving
parliament. The lieutenant governor also grants Royal Assent in the Queen's
name; legally, he or she has three options: grant Royal Assent (making the
bill law), withhold Royal Assent (vetoing the bill), or reserve the bill
for the signification of the governor general's pleasure.⁴¹ If the governor
general withholds the Queen's assent, the sovereign may within two years
disallow the bill, thereby annulling the law in question.

R. MacGregor Dawson opined that, following Confederation, the lieutenant
governors diverged from the governor general in that they continued to
demonstrate a power independent of the Cabinet and parliament; lieutenant
governors had variously dismissed governments, refused the advice of
ministers, and insisted on the creation of royal commissions. Altogether,
lieutenant governors had also withheld Royal Assent to bills 28 times and
reserved bills for the consideration of the governor general 71 times. The
last example of the former was, however, in 1945 and the latter in 1961.[n
5]³⁹ ⁴⁴ Relations between lieutenant governor and Cabinet have also at
times been strained by ministers' unwillingness to openly acknowledge the
authority of a federal appointee, often recommended by a federal prime
minister who adhered to different political beliefs.³⁹

Ceremonial role

Further information: Monarchy in the Canadian provinces § Cultural role

With most constitutional functions lent to cabinet, a lieutenant governor
acts in a primarily ceremonial fashion, carrying out some of the ritual
duties normally associated with heads of state and thus symbolizing the
sovereignty of the provinces within confederation.⁴⁵ The provincial
viceroys have been said to be, outside of Quebec, "a focus of community
ideals and a reinforcement of provincial identity."⁴⁶

He or she will host members of the Canadian Royal Family, as well as
foreign royalty and heads of state, and is also tasked with fostering
national unity and pride. One way in which this is carried out is
travelling the province and meeting with residents from all regions and
ethnic groups, some of whom a lieutenant governor will induct into the
province's orders and present to others medals and decorations. This travel
takes place mostly within a lieutenant governor's province, the viceroys
rarely performing state duties anywhere else in Canada, and never
internationally, unless it is on behalf of the monarch in a federal
capacity;[n 6] it has been argued that the provincial representatives of
the Queen should start to undertake trips to represent their province
abroad.¹² In the exercise of these duties, the lieutenant governors may
sometimes receive advice from the Department of Canadian Heritage
Ceremonial and Canadian Symbols Promotion Program.⁴⁸ During a provincial
election, a lieutenant governor will curtail these public duties, so as not
to appear as though they are involving themselves in political affairs.

The viceroys themselves also offer awards, such as the Lieutenant
Governor's Award for Outstanding Service to Rural Saskatchewan, the
Lieutenant Governor's Nova Scotia Talent Trust Award, and the Lieutenant
Governor's Award for Excellence in Architecture, awarded in New Brunswick,
and the Heritage Canada Foundation also presents the Lieutenant Governor's
Award,⁴⁹ presented to an individual or group who has achieved an
outstanding result in heritage conservation in the province in which the
Heritage Canada Foundation's annual conference is held. Further, the
lieutenant governors (as well as the territorial commissioners) present the
Vice-Regal and Commissioners' Commendation to individuals who offer their
service—paid or volunteer—to the viceregal offices.⁵⁰ It was originally
intended to be a distinction in place of appointment to the Royal Victorian
Order, regularly granted to those who aided the monarch or governor general
with distinction, but nominees from the lieutenant governors were
frequently overlooked by staff at Rideau Hall.⁵¹ However, after 1984,
suggestions from the lieutenant governors' offices for membership in the
Royal Victorian Order were more readily accepted and the Vice-Regal and
Commissioners' Commendation became an award for one or more commendable
acts benefiting the viceroy.⁵²

Symbols and protocol

As the personal representative of the monarch, a lieutenant governor
follows only the sovereign in the province's order of precedence, preceding
even other members of the Royal Family. Though the federal viceroy is
considered Primus inter pares amongst his or her provincial counterparts,
the governor general also takes a lower rank to the lieutenant governors in
the provincial spheres; at federal functions, however, the governor
general, as the Queen's representative in the country, precedes the
lieutenant governors.⁵³ An incumbent lieutenant governor is also entitled
to the use of the style His or Her Honour,⁵⁴ ⁵⁵ and is granted the
additional honorific of The Honourable for their time in office and for
life afterwards.⁵⁶ ⁵⁷ ⁵⁸

Per the orders' constitutions, the lieutenant governors, except for that of
Quebec, serve as the chancellor of their province's order. They also upon
installation automatically become a Knight or Dame of Justice and a
Vice-Prior in Canada of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint
John of Jerusalem.⁵⁹ All of these honours are retained following an
incumbent's departure from office, with the individual remaining in the
highest category of the order, and they may also be further distinguished
with induction into other orders or the receipt of other awards.

The Viceregal Salute—composed of the first six bars of the Royal Anthem
("God Save the Queen") followed by the first and last four bars of the
national anthem ("O Canada")—is the salute used to greet a lieutenant
governor upon arrival at, and mark his or her departure from most official
events.⁶⁰ To mark a viceroy's presence at any building, ship, airplane, or
car in Canada, the relevant lieutenant governor's flag is employed.
Excepting those of Quebec and Nova Scotia, the present form of most
provincial viceroyal flags was adopted in 1980 and consists of a blue field
bearing the shield of the province's coat of arms surrounded by ten gold
maple leaves⁵³ —each symbolizing one province—surmounted by a St. Edward's
Crown. In a provincial jurisdiction, the lieutenant governor's flag takes
precedence over all other flags, save the Queen's personal Canadian
standard,⁶¹ and is also, along with all flags on Canadian Forces property,
flown at half-mast upon the death of an incumbent or former lieutenant
governor.⁶²

History

The position of lieutenant governor has existed in Canada since before the
country's confederation. In 1786, the post of Governor-in-Chief of British
North America was created as a central viceregal office overseeing the
British colonies of Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and
the Province of Quebec, whose governors then became lieutenant governors,
though that of Quebec was occupied simultaneously by the governor-in-chief.
This structure remained in place until the partitioning in 1791 of the
Province of Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada, which then each had an
office of lieutenant governor, though both posts were occupied by the
incumbent Governor General of the Province of Canada.

In 1867, confederation created a new entity of four provinces, each with
their respective viceregal posts; as per the British North America Act
passed that year, the stations of Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia and
Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick continued essentially as before,⁶³
while those of Lieutenant Governor of Ontario and Lieutenant Governor of
Quebec were created to replace the viceregal offices of Canada East and
Canada West.³¹ Thereafter, when other colonies joined this grouping of
provinces, their governors became lieutenant governors,[n 7] while the
creation of new provinces out of Rupert's Land and the Northwest
Territories—which each had their own lieutenant governors⁶⁷ —led to the
establishment of new viceregal posts.[n 8]

Beginning immediately after confederation, the Dominion government and the
Colonial Office in London considered the lieutenant governors as
representatives of, and subordinate to, the governor general in Ottawa,
reflecting the view of John A. Macdonald and the Earl of Derby, who set up
the Constitution Act, 1867, so as to have the lieutenant governors
appointed by the governor general, and who expected that Royal Assent would
be given in the name of the governor general, rather than the Queen.⁷¹ A
ruling by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in 1882, however,
altered this view,³ establishing that the lieutenant governors represented
the Queen in the provinces as much as the governor general did in the
federal jurisdiction.⁴ ⁶ ⁷²

Current lieutenant governors

See also

- Commissioner § Canadian territories
- Governors of the Australian states
- Lieutenant governor (United States)

Notes

[1] Robert Brett acted as Lieutenant Governor of Alberta between 1915 and
  1925 and Lise Thibault served as Lieutenant Governor of Quebec from 1997
  to 2007.
[2] Lieutenant Governor of Quebec Jean-Louis Roux resigned the viceregal
  post in 1997 due to controversy.
[3] For example, Lieutenant Governor of Alberta Lois Hole died of cancer on
  6 January 2005, and Lieutenant Governors of Nova Scotia Frank Stanfield
  and David MacKeen died on 25 September 1931 and 13 November 1916,
  respectively. Further, Lieutenant Governor of Quebec Paul Comtois died in
  the fire that destroyed the province's viceregal residence on 21 February
  1966.
[4] See Note 1 at Queen's Privy Council for Canada.
[5] Lieutenant Governor of Alberta John C. Bowen in 1937 refused to grant
  Royal Assent to three bills passed by William Aberhart's Social Credit
  government on the grounds that they were unconstitutional,⁴² and
  Lieutenant Governor of Saskatchewan Frank Lindsay Bastedo in 1961
  reserved Royal Assent to the Mineral Contracts Alteration Act, passing it
  on, instead, to the Governor General for consideration.⁴³
[6] For example, Lieutenant Governor of Ontario David Onley represented the
  Queen and Canada at the 2008 Summer Paralympics opening ceremony in
  Beijing, China.⁴⁷
[7] The Governor of the United Colonies of Vancouver Island and British
  Columbia became in 1871, through an Order in Council by Queen Victoria,
  the Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia;⁶⁴ the Governors of Prince
  Edward Island became in 1873, by Order in Council of the Queen, the
  Lieutenant Governor of Prince Edward Island;⁶⁵ and the Commission
  Governor of Newfoundland became in 1949, through the Newfoundland Act,
  the Lieutenant Governor of Newfoundland.⁶⁶
[8] The office of the Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba was created in 1870
  by the Manitoba Act,⁶⁸ the office of the Lieutenant Governor of Alberta
  was created in 1905 by the Alberta Act,⁶⁹ and the office of the
  Lieutenant Governor of Saskatchewan was created in 1905 by the
  Saskatchewan Act.⁷⁰

References

[1] Victoria (29 March 1867). "Constitution Act, 1867". V.58. Westminster:
  Queen's Printer. Retrieved 15 January 2009.
[2] Victoria 1867, V.66
[3] Saywell, John T. (1957). The Office of Lieutenant Governor: A Study in
  Canadian Government and Politics. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
  pp. 13–14.
[4] Kenney, Jason (23 April 2007). "Talking Points for The Honourable Jason
  Kenney". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 14 May 2009.
[5] Smith, David E. (1995). The Invisible Crown. Toronto: University of
  Toronto Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-8020-7793-5.
[6] Watson, William (1892). "Maritime Bank v. Receiver-General of New
  Brunswick". Written at London. In Jackson, Michael. Golden Jubilee and
  Provincial Crown (PDF). Canadian Monarchist News. 7. Toronto: Monarchist
  League of Canada (published 2003). p. 6. Retrieved 11 June 2009.
[7] Public Works and Government Services Canada (1997). The Canadian Style.
  Hamilton: Dundern Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-1-55002-276-6.
[8] Public Works and Government Services Canada 1997, p. 70
[9] Fee, Margery; McAlpine, Janice (3 April 2007). Guide to Canadian
  English Usage. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 244. ISBN
  978-0-19-542602-1.
[10] MacLeod, Kevin S. (2008), A Crown of Maples (PDF) (1 ed.), Ottawa:
  Queen's Printer for Canada, p. 16, ISBN 978-0-662-46012-1
[11] McCullough, John (23 April 2004). "Interview with Lieutenant Governor
  Iona Campagnolo". J.J. McCullough. Retrieved 12 June 2009.
[12] Jackson, Michael D. (2009). "The Senior Realms of the Queen" (PDF).
  Canadian Monarchist News. Toronto: Monarchist League of Canada. Autumn
  2009 (30): 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 29, 2009.
  Retrieved 17 January 2010.
[13] Aird, John (1985), Loyalty in a changing world (PDF), Toronto: Queen's
  Printer for Ontario, p. 2, ISBN 0-7729-0213-5
[14] Victoria 1867, V.58
[15] Victoria 1867, V.61
[16] Munro, Kenneth (2005). The Maple Crown in Alberta: The Office of
  Lieutenant Governor. Victoria: Trafford Publishing. p. iii. ISBN
  1-4120-5317-X.
[17] Munro, Kenneth (2005). The Maple Crown in Alberta: The Office of
  Lieutenant Governor. Victoria: Trafford. ISBN 978-1-4120-5317-4.
[18] Victoria 1867, V.59
[19] Canada Gazette. Extra 139 (8). 27 September 2005. p. 1. Retrieved 2
  June 2009. Missing or empty |title= (help); |contribution= ignored (help)
[20] Victoria 1867, V.67
[21] Office of the Lieutenant Governor of Ontario. "Protocol and Ceremony >
  Administrator". Queen's Printer for Ontario. Retrieved 17 June 2009.
[22] Office of the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec. "Roles and Functions >
  Administrator of the Government". Éditeur officiel du Québec. Retrieved
  19 June 2009.
[23] Legislative Assembly of Alberta. "Public Information > Lieutenant
  Governors > The Office of Lieutenant Governor". Queen's Printer for
  Alberta. Retrieved 23 June 2009.
[24] Roberts, Edward (2009). "Ensuring Constitutional Wisdom During
  Unconventional Times" (PDF). Canadian Parliamentary Review. Ottawa:
  Commonwealth Parliamentary Association. 23 (1): 15. Retrieved 21 May
  2009.
[25] MacLeod, Kevin S. (2008). A Crown of Maples (PDF) (1 ed.). Ottawa:
  Queen's Printer for Canada. pp. 16, 20. ISBN 978-0-662-46012-1.
[26] Webber, Jeremy (1997). "The Legality of a Unilateral Declaration of
  Independence under Canadian Law" (PDF). The McGill Law Journal. Montreal:
  McGill University. 42 (2): 288. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
[27] Department of National Defence (1 April 1999). "The Honours, Flags and
  Heritage Structure of the Canadian Forces" (PDF). Ottawa: Queen's Printer
  for Canada: 1A–3. A-AD-200-000/AG-000. Retrieved 23 May 2009.
[28] Victoria 1867, III.9, IV.17
[29] MacLeod 2008, p. 17
[30] Victoria 1867, V
[31] Victoria 1867, V.63
[32] Victoria 1867, VII.96
[33] McWhinney, Edward (2005). The Governor General and the Prime
  Ministers. Vancouver: Ronsdale Press. pp. 16–17. ISBN 1-55380-031-1.
[34] Cox, Noel (September 2002). "Black v Chrétien: Suing a Minister of the
  Crown for Abuse of Power, Misfeasance in Public Office and Negligence".
  Murdoch University Electronic Journal of Law. Perth: Murdoch University.
  9 (3): 12. Retrieved 17 May 2009.
[35] Dawson, R. MacGregor; Dawson, W.F. (1989). Democratic Government in
  Canada (5 ed.). Toronto, Buffalo, London: University of Toronto Press.
  pp. 68–69. ISBN 0-8020-6703-4.
[36] Forsey, Eugene (2005). How Canadians Govern Themselves (PDF) (6 ed.).
  Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada. pp. 4, 34. ISBN 0-662-39689-8.
  Retrieved 14 May 2009.
[37] Library and Archives Canada. "Politics and Government > By Executive
  Decree > The Governor General". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 18
  May 2009.
[38] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Governor General of Canada:
  Role and Responsibilities of the Governor General". Queen's Printer for
  Canada. Retrieved 18 May 2009.
[39] Boyce, Peter John (2008). The Queen's Other Realms: The Crown and Its
  Legacy in Australia, Canada and New Zealand. Sydney: Federation Press. p.
  102. ISBN 9781862877009.
[40] Victoria 1867, V.1.82
[41] Victoria 1867, IV.55
[42] Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta, The Citizen's Guide to
  the Alberta Legislature (PDF), Queen's Printer for Alberta, p. 7,
  retrieved 29 July 2007
[43] Jackson, Michael (2006). "Bastedo, Frank Lindsay (1886–1973)". The
  Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan. University of Regina. Retrieved 18 May
  2009.
[44] Diefenbaker, John G. (1976). One Canada: The Years of Achievement,
  1957–1962. II. Toronto: Macmillan of Canada. p. 56. ISBN
  978-0-333-23516-4.
[45] Department of Canadian Heritage (2008), Canada: Symbols of Canada,
  Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada, p. 4, archived from the original on
  January 11, 2014
[46] Boyce, Peter (2008). The Queen's Other Realms: The Crown and its
  Legacy in Australia, Canada and New Zealand. Sydney: Federation Press. p.
  100. ISBN 978-1-86287-700-9.
[47] "Statement by the Prime Minister of Canada" (Press release). Queen's
  Printer for Canada. 26 August 2008. Retrieved 8 March 2010.
[48] Department of Canadian Heritage (31 March 1998). "Performance Report"
  (PDF). Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 14 August 2006.
[49] "Heritage Services > Awards > Lieutenant Governor's Award for
  Outstanding Achievement in Heritage Conservation at the
  Provincial/Territorial Level". Heritage Canada Foundation. Retrieved 15
  June 2009.
[50] Office of the Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia. "Government House >
  Vice-Regal and Commissioners' Commendation". Queen's Printer for Nova
  Scotia. Retrieved 1 November 2012.
[51] McCreery, Christopher (2008), On Her Majesty's Service: Royal Honours
  and Recognition in Canada, Toronto: Dundurn, p. 46, ISBN 9781459712249,
  retrieved 11 November 2015
[52] McCreery 2008, p. 47
[53] Department of Canadian Heritage. "Ceremonial and Canadian Symbols
  Promotion > Across Canada > Standards". Queen's Printer for Canada.
  Retrieved 19 June 2009.
[54] Department of National Defence 1999, pp. 11–2
[55] MacLeod 2008, p. 37
[56] "Titles". Canadian Heritage. Government of Canada. Retrieved 28
  February 2016.
[57] "lieutenant-governor, Lt.-Gov., His/Her Honour, Honourable". Public
  Works and Government Services Canada. Government of Canada. Retrieved 28
  February 2016.
[58] "Table of Titles to be used in Canada". Government of Canada.
  Government of Canada. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
[59] "Canada Wide > About Us > The Order of St. John > The Order of St.
  John in Canada". St. John Ambulance Canada. Retrieved 2 June 2009.
[60] Department of Canadian Heritage. "Ceremonial and Canadian Symbols
  Promotion > Honours and salutes > Musical salute". Queen's Printer for
  Canada. Retrieved 3 June 2009.
[61] Department of National Defence 1999, p. 14-2-2
[62] Department of National Defence 1999, p. 4-2-6
[63] Victoria 1867, V.64
[64] Victoria (16 May 1871). "British Columbia Terms of Union". 10.
  Westminster: Queen's Printer. Retrieved 16 June 2009.
[65] Victoria (26 June 1873). "Prince Edward Island Terms of Union".
  Schedule. Westminster: Queen's Printer. Retrieved 16 June 2009.
[66] George VI (23 March 1949). "Newfoundland Act". 8.1. Ottawa: King's
  Printer for Canada. Retrieved 16 June 2009.
[67] Legislative Assembly of Alberta. "Public Information > Lieutenant
  Governors > The Lieutenant Governor of the Northwest Territories".
  Queen's Printer for Alberta. Retrieved 23 June 2009.
[68] Victoria (12 May 1870). "Manitoba Act, 1870". 6. Westminster: Queen's
  Printer. Retrieved 16 June 2009.
[69] Edward VII (20 July 1905). "Alberta Act". 10. Westminster: King's
  Printer. Retrieved 16 June 2009.
[70] Edward VII (20 July 1905). "Saskatchewan Act". 10. Westminster: King's
  Printer. Retrieved 16 June 2009.
[71] Jackson, Michael D. (2003). "Golden Jubilee and Provincial Crown"
  (PDF). Canadian Monarchist News. Toronto: Monarchist League of Canada. 7
  (3): 6. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 8, 2009. Retrieved 11
  June 2009.
[72] Donovan, David (2009), The Governor General and Lieutenant Governors:
  Canada's Misunderstood Viceroys (PDF), Canadian Political Science
  Association, p. 3, retrieved 29 January 2013

Executive Council (Canada)

This article is about the constitutional organ in Canada. For other uses,
see Executive Council (disambiguation).

Executive councils in the provinces and territories of Canada are
constitutional organs headed by the lieutenant governor and composed of the
ministers in office.

A Council's informal but functioning form is the Cabinet, headed by a
provincial premier, who holds de facto power over the body. The Executive
Council in Canadian provinces is composed only of ministers in office, and
is the official body by which the Cabinet's constitutional advice is given
to the lieutenant governor. That is, it serves the same function
provincially as the Queen's Privy Council for Canada does federally except
that the Executive Council does not have the ceremonial role of directly
advising the Queen, proclaiming her successors, or assenting to some royal
marriages.

These are the:

- : Executive Council of Alberta
- : Executive Council of British Columbia
- : Executive Council of Manitoba
- : Executive Council of Newfoundland and Labrador
- : Executive Council of New Brunswick
- : Executive Council of Quebec
- : Executive Council of Nova Scotia
- : Executive Council of Ontario
- : Executive Council of Prince Edward Island
- : Executive Council of Saskatchewan

Canadian territories also have councils. These are the:

- : Executive Council of Yukon
- : Executive Council of the Northwest Territories
- : Executive Council of Nunavut

The executive branch of the Canadian federal government is not called an
executive council. Executive power is exercised by the Canadian Cabinet who
are always members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada.

Premier (Canada)

In Canada, a premier is the head of government of a province or territory.
Though the word is merely a synonym for prime minister, it is employed for
provincial prime ministers to differentiate them from the Prime Minister of
Canada. There are currently 10 provincial premiers and three territorial
premiers. These persons are styled The Honourable only while in office,¹
unless they are admitted to the Queen's Privy Council for Canada, in which
case they retain the title even after leaving the premiership.

The prime minister - premier distinction does not exist in French, with
both federal and provincial first ministers being styled premier ministre.

Name

In a number of provinces, premiers were previously known by the title prime
minister, with premier being an informal term used to apply to all prime
ministers, even the Prime Minister of Canada. This practice was eventually
phased out to avoid confusing the provincial leaders with the federal prime
minister, as well as to indicate the distinct nature of the provincial
offices. Officially, the last such case outside Quebec was that of W. A. C.
Bennett, who served as Premier of British Columbia and styled himself as
prime minister until leaving office in 1972. The title premier is not
granted by any written law. The formal name of the government position held
by the premier is President of the Executive Council or some similar term,
but that formal term is rarely used.

In Canadian French, the head of government of a province or territory is
called premier ministre: the French language does not have a synonym for
prime minister. In Quebec, this designation is often translated to prime
minister in English. The designation, however, is not exclusive. When they
visit Quebec or are described by the Quebec government or many Quebec
media, all the other heads of government of the other provinces are also
called prime minister in the English version of the official French texts.
The name of the province is always added to avoid confusion.

The terms prime minister and premier come from the United Kingdom, where
there is only one prime minister/premier. The British prime minister is
frequently called premier to this day; prime ministers of constituent
countries in the UK are titled first minister. Collectively, Canada's
federal prime minister and the premiers are collectively referred to as
first ministers, another synonym of British origin.

Role

Under Canada's system of responsible government, the premier is both a
member of the provincial legislative assembly and the head of the
executive. The premier normally holds a seat in the legislative assembly,
being elected in one of the electoral constituencies of the province. The
leader of the party which commands a majority in the assembly is then
legally appointed the premier by the lieutenant governor, representing the
Canadian monarch in right of the province. There are historical exceptions,
the most recent occurring after the 1985 general election in Ontario.

Premiers advise the lieutenant governor on whom to appoint to the cabinet
and they guide legislation through the legislature. Premiers thus exercise
a significant amount of power within the Canadian federation, especially in
regard to the federal government. In many ways they remain the most
effective representatives of provincial interests to the federal
government, as parliament's strong party discipline and other factors have
impaired provincial representation there. This reality is acknowledged in
annual "first ministers conferences" in which the federal prime minister
and the 10 premiers meet to discuss provincial-federal relations. The Meech
Lake Accord proposed that these meetings be constitutionally mandated, and
some premiers have even proposed that these meetings become a formal branch
of government, active in the legislative process (see Council of the
Federation). However, only one Canadian provincial premier has ever gone on
to serve as prime minister: Sir John Thompson. Canada's first and sixth
prime ministers (Sir John A. Macdonald and Sir Charles Tupper) had also
been co-premier and premier of British provinces that became part of
Canada, but no one who has led a victorious general election campaign in a
Canadian province has ever been prime minister.

Canada's three territories have premiers as well, though they are
technically known as "government leaders". The Premier of Yukon is chosen
in the usual fashion, but the premiers of Nunavut and Northwest Territories
are selected from within the small and non-partisan elected territorial
councils.

Current premiers

Main article: List of current Canadian first ministers

Timeline

See also

- Premiers of the Australian states
- Governor (United States) (the head of government in the states of the
  United States)

References

[1] Styles of address
[2] "Office of the Premier". Government of Ontario. Retrieved February 11,
  2013.
[3] "Biography of the Premier". Government of Quebec. Retrieved April 23,
  2014.
[4] "Honourable Stephen McNeil". Government of Nova Scotia. Retrieved
  October 22, 2013.
[5] "Premier Gallant". Government of New Brunswick. October 7, 2014.
  Retrieved October 7, 2014.
[6] "Office of the Premier". Government of Manitoba. Retrieved May 12,
  2016.
[7] "Office of the Premier". Government of British Columbia. Retrieved
  February 11, 2013.
[8] "Office of the Premier of Prince Edward Island". Government of Prince
  Edward Island. Retrieved February 23, 2015.
[9] "Premier Brad Wall". Government of Saskatchewan. Retrieved February 11,
  2013.
[10] "Premier". Government of Alberta. Retrieved May 24, 2015.
[11] "Office of the Premier". Government of Newfoundland and Labrador.
  Retrieved January 25, 2014.
[12] "Premier Bob McLeod – Biography". Government of the Northwest
  Territories. Retrieved February 11, 2013.
[13] "Office of the Premier". Government of Yukon. Retrieved February 11,
  2013.
[14] "Government of Nunavut". Government of Nunavut. Retrieved February 25,
  2015.

Legislative branch

Parliament of Canada

The Parliament of Canada (French: Parlement du Canada) is the federal
legislative branch of Canada, seated at Parliament Hill in the national
capital, Ottawa, Ontario. The body consists of the Canadian monarch,
represented by a viceroy, the governor general; an upper house: the Senate;
and a lower house: the House of Commons. Each element has its own officers
and organization. The governor general summons and appoints each of the 105
senators on the advice of the Prime Minister of Canada, while the 338
members of the House of Commons—called members of parliament (MPs)—are
directly elected by eligible Canadian voters, with each MP representing a
single electoral district, commonly referred to as a riding.

By constitutional convention, the House of Commons is the dominant branch
of parliament, the Senate and Crown rarely opposing its will. The Senate
reviews legislation from a less partisan standpoint and the monarch or
viceroy provides the necessary Royal Assent to make bills into law. The
governor general also summons parliament, while either the viceroy or
monarch can prorogue or dissolve parliament, the latter in order to call a
general election. Either will read the Throne Speech. The most recent
parliament, summoned by Governor General David Johnston in 2015, is the
42nd since Confederation in 1867.

Composition

The Parliament of Canada is composed of three parts: the monarch, the
Senate, and the House of Commons.¹ Each has a distinct role, but work in
conjunction within the legislative process. This format was inherited from
the United Kingdom and thus is a near identical copy of the parliament at
Westminster, the greatest differences stemming from situations unique to
Canada, such as the impermanent nature of the monarch's residency in the
country and the lack of a peerage to form the upper chamber.

Only those who sit in the House of Commons are called members of parliament
(MPs); the term is never applied to senators, even though the Senate is a
part of parliament. Though legislatively less powerful, senators take
higher positions in the national order of precedence. No individual may
serve in more than one chamber of parliament at the same time.

Monarch

Main article: Monarchy of Canada

The sovereign's place in the legislature, formally called the
Queen-in-Parliament,² is defined by the Constitution Act, 1867, and various
conventions.¹ Neither she nor her viceroy, however, participates in the
legislative process, save for signifying the Queen's approval to a bill
passed by both houses of parliament, known as the granting of Royal Assent,
which is necessary for a bill to be enacted as law. All federal bills thus
begin with the phrase "Now, therefore, Her Majesty, by and with the advice
and consent of the Senate and House of Commons of Canada, enacts as follows
..."³ and, as such, the Crown is immune from acts of parliament unless
expressed otherwise in the act itself.⁴ The governor general will normally
perform the task of granting Royal Assent, though the monarch may also do
so, at the request of either the Cabinet or the viceroy, who may defer
assent to the sovereign as per the constitution.⁵

As both the monarch and his or her representatives are traditionally barred
from the House of Commons, any parliamentary ceremonies in which they are
involved take place in the Senate chamber. The upper and lower houses do,
however, each contain a mace, which indicate the authority of the
Queen-in-Parliament and the privilege granted to that body by her,⁶ ⁷ both
bearing a crown at their apex. The original mace for the Senate was that
used in the Legislative Council of the Province of Canada after 1849, while
that of the House of Commons was inherited from the Legislative Assembly of
the Province of Canada, first used in 1845. Following the burning of the
Centre Block on 3 February 1916, the City of London, England, donated a
replacement, which is still used today. The temporary mace, made of wood,
and used until the new one arrived from the United Kingdom in 1917, is
still carried into the Senate each 3 February.⁸ The Senate's 1.6-metre-long
mace comprises brass and gold. The Senate may not sit if its mace is not in
the chamber; it typically sits on the table with the crown facing the
throne,⁹ though it may, during certain ceremonies, be held by the Mace
Bearer, standing adjacent to the governor general or monarch in the
Senate.¹⁰

Members of the two houses of parliament must also express their loyalty to
the sovereign and defer to her authority, as the Oath of Allegiance must be
sworn by all new parliamentarians before they may take their seats.
Further, the official opposition is formally called as Her Majesty's Loyal
Opposition, to signify that, though they may be opposed to the incumbent
Cabinet's policies, these MPs remain dedicated to the apolitical Crown.¹¹
¹²

Senate

Main article: Senate of Canada

The upper house of the Parliament of Canada, the Senate (French: Sénat), is
a group of 105 individuals appointed by the governor general on the advice
of the prime minister;¹³ all those summoned to the Senate by the viceroy
must, per the constitution, be a minimum of 30 years old, be a subject of
the monarch, and own property with a net worth of at least $4,000, in
addition to owning land worth no less than $4,000 within the province he or
she is to represent.¹⁴ Senators served for life until 1965, when a
constitutional amendment imposed a mandatory retirement age of 75. Senators
may, however, resign their seats prior to that mark, and can lose their
position should they fail to attend two consecutive sessions of parliament.

The Senate is divided equally amongst four geographic regions: 24 for
Ontario, 24 for Quebec, 24 for the Maritimes (10 for Nova Scotia, 10 for
New Brunswick, and four for Prince Edward Island), and 24 for the Western
provinces (six each for Manitoba, British Columbia, Saskatchewan, and
Alberta).¹⁵ Newfoundland and Labrador, which became a Canadian province in
1949, is represented by six senators, though the province is not part of a
senatorial division. Further, Canada's three territories—the Northwest
Territories, Yukon, and Nunavut—are allocated one senator each. An
additional four or eight senators may be temporarily appointed by the
governor general, provided the approval of the Queen is secured, and the
four divisions are equally represented, thus putting the maximum possible
number of senators at 113. This power has been employed only once since
1867: to ensure the passage of the bill establishing the Goods and Services
Tax, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney in 1990 advised Queen Elizabeth II to
appoint extra senators.

House of Commons

Main article: House of Commons of Canada

The elected component of the Canadian parliament is the House of Commons
(French: Chambre des communes), with each member chosen by a plurality of
eligible voters in each of the country's federal electoral districts, or
ridings. To run for one of the 338 seats in the lower house, an individual
must be at least 18 years old, and each winner holds office until
parliament is dissolved, after which they may seek re-election. The ridings
are regularly reorganised according to the results of each decennial
national census;¹⁶ however, the "senatorial clause" of the Constitution
Act, 1867, guarantees each province at least as many MPs as it has
senators,¹⁷ and the "grandfather clause" permits each province as many MPs
as it had in either 1976 or 1985.¹⁶ The existence of this legislation has
pushed the size of the House of Commons above the required minimum of 282
seats.

Jurisdiction

The powers of the Parliament of Canada are limited by the constitution,
which divides legislative abilities between the federal and provincial
legislatures; in general, provincial legislatures may only pass laws
relating to topics explicitly reserved for them by the constitution (such
as education, provincial officers, municipal government, charitable
institutions, and "matters of a merely local or private nature"¹⁸ ), while
any matter not under the exclusive authority of the provincial legislatures
is within the scope of the federal parliament's power. Thus, parliament
alone can pass laws relating to, among other things, the postal service,
census, military, navigation and shipping, fishing, currency, banking,
weights and measures, bankruptcy, copyrights, patents, First Nations, and
naturalization.¹⁹ In some cases, however, the jurisdictions of the federal
and provincial parliaments may be more vague. For instance, the parliament
in Ottawa regulates marriage and divorce in general, but the solemnization
of marriage is regulated only by the provincial legislatures. Other
examples include the powers of both the federal and provincial parliaments
to impose taxes, borrow money, punish crimes, and regulate agriculture.

The powers of the Canadian parliament are also limited by the Canadian
Charter of Rights and Freedoms, though most provisions in that document can
be overridden use of the notwithstanding clause.²⁰ Such a claim, however,
has never been used by the federal parliament, though it has been employed
by some provincial legislatures. Laws violating any part of the
constitution are invalid and may be ruled unconstitutional by the courts.

Officers

Each of the parliament's two chambers is presided over by a speaker; that
for the Senate is a member of that house appointed by the governor general,
as advised by the prime minister, while the equivalent for the House of
Commons is a member of parliament elected by the other members of that
body. In general, the powers of the latter are greater than those of the
former; following the British model, the upper chamber is essentially
self-regulating, whereas the lower chamber is controlled from the chair. In
1991, however, the powers of the Speaker of the Senate were expanded,
moving the position closer to that in the Commons.

The Usher of the Black Rod of the Senate of Canada is the most senior
protocol position in parliament, being the personal messenger to the
legislature of the sovereign and governor general. He or she is also a
floor officer of the Senate responsible for security in that chamber, as
well as for protocol, administrative, and logistical details of important
events taking place on Parliament Hill,²¹ such as the Speech from the
Throne, Royal Assent ceremonies, state funerals, or the investiture of a
new governor general.²²

Other officers of parliament include the Auditor General, Chief Electoral
Officer, Official Languages Commissioner, Privacy Commissioner, Access to
Information Commissioner, Conflict of Interest and Ethics Commissioner,
Public Sector Integrity Commissioner, and Commissioner of Lobbying. These
individuals are appointed by either one or both houses, to which they
report through the speaker of that house. They are sometimes referred to as
Agents of Parliament.²³ Another key official is the Parliamentary Librarian
of Canada, a position established in 1871 under the Library of Parliament
Act, charged with the running of the Library of Parliament.

Term

The Constitution Act, 1867, outlines that the governor general alone is
responsible for summoning parliament, though it remains the monarch's
prerogative to prorogue and dissolve the legislature, after which the writs
for a general federal election are usually dropped by the governor general
at Rideau Hall. Upon completion of the election, the viceroy, on the advice
of his or her prime minister, then issues a royal proclamation summoning
parliament to assemble. On the date given, new MPs are sworn-in and then
are, along with returning MPs, called to the Senate, where they are
instructed to elect their speaker and return to the House of Commons to do
so before adjourning.²⁴

The new parliamentary session is marked by the opening of parliament,
during which either the monarch, the governor general, or a royal
delegate,[n 1] reads the Speech From the Throne. MPs receive the Royal
Summons to these events from the Usher of the Black Rod²⁵ after he knocks
on the doors of the lower house that have been slammed shut,²⁶ to
illustrate the Commons' right to deny entry to anyone, including the
monarch, but excepting royal messengers.²⁷ Once MPs are gathered behind the
Bar of the Senate—save for the prime minister, the only MP permitted into
the Senate proper to sit near the throne dais—the speaker of the lower
house presents him or herself to the monarch or governor general and
formally claims the rights and privileges of the House of Commons, to which
the Speaker of the Senate, on behalf of the Crown, replies in
acknowledgement after the sovereign or viceroy takes their seat on the
throne.²⁴ The speech is then read, outlining the programme of the Cabinet
for the upcoming legislative session.

A parliamentary session lasts until a prorogation, after which, without
ceremony, both chambers of the legislature cease all legislative business
until the governor general issues another proclamation calling for a new
session to begin; except for the election of a speaker for the House of
Commons and his or her claiming of that house's privileges, the same
procedures for the opening of parliament are again followed. After a number
of such sessions—these have ranged from one to seven²⁸ —each parliament
comes to an end via dissolution, which is effected by the governor general.
As a general election typically follows. The timing of a dissolution is
usually politically motivated, with the prime minister selecting a moment
most advantageous to his or her political party. The end of a parliament
may also be necessary, however, if the majority of MPs revoke their
confidence in the prime minister's ability to govern, or the legally
mandated four-year maximum is reached;²⁹ no parliament has yet been allowed
to expire in such a fashion.

Procedure

Both houses determine motions by voice vote; the presiding officer puts the
question and, after listening to shouts of "yea" and "nay" from the
members, announces which side is victorious. This decision by the Speaker
is final, unless a recorded vote is demanded by members—at least two in the
Senate and five in the House of Commons. Members of both houses vote by
rising in their places to be counted; the Speaker of the Senate is
permitted to vote on a motion or bill—though does so irregularly, in the
interest of impartiality—and, if there is no majority, the motion is
defeated. In the Commons, however, the Speaker cannot vote, unless to break
a tie, at which time he or she will customarily vote in favour of the
status quo. The constitution establishes the quorums to be 15 senators in
the upper house and 20 members in the lower house, the Speaker of each body
being counted within the tally.

Voting can thus take three possible forms: whenever possible, leaving the
matter open for future consideration and allowing for further discussion by
the house; when no further discussion is possible, taking into account that
the matter could somehow be brought back in future and be decided by a
majority in the house; or, leaving a bill in its existing form rather than
having it amended. For example, during the vote on the 2005 budget, which
was considered a vote of confidence, the Speaker of the House of Commons
cast the tie-breaking vote during the second reading, moving in favour of
the budget and allowing its passage. If the vote on the third reading had
again been tied, the speaker would have been expected to vote against the
bill, bringing down the government.

Simultaneous interpretation for both official languages, English and
French, is provided at all times during sessions of both houses.

Legislative functions

Laws, known in their draft form as bills, may be introduced by any member
of either house. However, most bills originate in the House of Commons, of
which most are put forward by ministers of the Crown, making them
government bills, as opposed to private members' bills or private senators'
bills, which are launched by MPs and senators, respectively, who are not in
cabinet. Draft legislation may also be categorised as public bills, if they
apply to the general public, or private bills, if they concern a particular
person or limited group of people. Each bill then goes through a series of
stages in each chamber, beginning with the first reading. It is not,
however, until the bill's second reading that the general principles of the
proposed law are debated; though rejection is a possibility, such is not
common for government bills.

Next, the bill is sent by the house where it is being debated to one of
several different committees. The Standing Orders outline the general
mandate for all committees, allowing them to review: bills as they pertain
to relevant departments; the program and policy plans, as well as the
projected expenditures, and the effectiveness of the implementation
thereof, for the same departments; and the analysis of the performance of
those departments.³⁰ Most often, bills end up before a standing committee,
which is a body of members or senators who specialise in a particular
subject (such as foreign affairs), and who may hear testimony from
ministers and experts, debate the bill, and recommend amendments. The bill
may also be committed to the Committee of the Whole, a body consists of, as
the name suggests, all the members of the chamber in question. Finally, the
bill could be referred to an ad hoc committee established solely to review
the piece of legislation in question. Each chamber has their own procedure
for dealing with this, with the Senate establishing special committees that
function like most other committees, and the House of Commons establishing
legislative committees, the chair of the latter being appointed by the
speaker of the House of Commons, and is normally one of his deputies.
Whichever committee is used, any amendments proposed by the committee are
considered by the whole house in the report stage. Furthermore, additional
amendments not proposed by the committee may also be made.

After the report stage (or, if the committee made no amendments to the
bill, immediately after the committee stage), the final phase of the
bill—the third reading—occurs, at which time further amendments are not
permitted in the House of Commons, but are allowed in the Senate. If one
house passes amendments that the other will not agree to, and the two
houses cannot resolve their disagreements, the bill fails. If, however, it
passes the third reading, the bill is sent to the other house of
parliament, where it passes through the same stages; amendments made by the
second chamber require the assent of the original house in order to stand
part of the final bill. Once the bill is passed in identical form by both
houses, it is presented for Royal Assent; in theory, the governor general
has three options: he or she may grant Royal Assent, thereby making the
bill into law; withhold Royal Assent, thereby vetoing the bill; or reserve
the bill for the signification of the Queen's pleasure, which allows the
sovereign to personally grant or withhold assent. If the governor general
does grant Royal Assent, the monarch may, within two years, disallow the
bill, thus annulling the law in question. In the federal sphere, no bill
has ever been denied royal approval.

In conformity with the British model, only the House of Commons may
originate bills for the imposition of taxes or for the appropriation of
Crown funds. Otherwise, the theoretical power of both houses over bills is
equal, with the assent of each being required for passage. In practice,
however, the House of Commons is the dominant chamber of parliament, with
the Senate rarely exercising its powers in a way that opposes the will of
the democratically elected house.

Relationship with the executive

The Canadian government consists of the monarch, predominantly represented
by his or her governor general, in council, which is a collection of
ministers of the Crown appointed by the governor general to direct the use
of the executive powers. Per the tenets of responsible government, these
individuals are almost always drawn from the parliament, and then are
predominantly from the House of Commons, the only body to which the
ministers are held accountable, typically during Question Period, wherein
the ministers are obliged to answer questions posed by members of the loyal
opposition. Hence, the person who can command the confidence of the lower
chamber—usually the leader of the party with the most seats therein—is the
one who is typically appointed as prime minister. Should that person not
actually hold a seat in the House of Commons, he or she will, by
convention, seek election to one at the earliest possible opportunity;
frequently, in such situations, a junior Member of Parliament who holds a
safe seat will resign to allow the prime minister to run for that riding in
a by-election. If no party holds a majority, it is customary for the
governor general to summon a minority government or coalition government,
depending on which the commons will support.

The lower house may attempt to bring down the government by either
rejecting a motion of confidence—generally initiated by a minister to
reinforce the Cabinet's support in the commons—or by passing a motion of no
confidence—introduced by the opposition to display its distrust of the
Cabinet. Important bills that form part of the government's agenda will
usually be considered matters of confidence; the budget is always a matter
of confidence. Where a government has lost the confidence of the House of
Commons, the prime minister is obliged to either resign (allowing the
governor general to appoint the Leader of the Opposition to the office) or
seek the dissolution of parliament and the call of a general election. A
precedent, however, was set in 1968, when the government of Lester B.
Pearson unexpectedly lost a confidence vote but was allowed to remain in
power with the mutual consent of the leaders of the other parties.

In practice, the House of Commons' scrutiny of the government is quite weak
in comparison to the equivalent chamber in other countries using the
Westminster system. With the plurality voting system used in parliamentary
elections tending to provide the governing party with a large majority and
a party system that gives leaders strict control over their caucus (to the
point that MPs may be expelled from their parties for voting against the
instructions of party leaders), there is often limited need to compromise
with other parties. Additionally, Canada has fewer MPs, a higher turnover
rate of MPs after each election, and an Americanised system for selecting
political party leaders, leaving them accountable to the party membership
rather than caucus, as is the case in the United Kingdom;³¹ John Robson of
the National Post opined that Canada's parliament had become a body akin to
the American Electoral College, "its sole and ceremonial role to confirm
the executive in power."³² At the end of the 20th century and into the
21st, analysts—such as Jeffrey Simpson, Donald Savoie, and John
Gomery—argued that both parliament and the Cabinet had become eclipsed by
prime ministerial power.³³ Thus, defeats of majority governments on issues
of confidence are very rare. In contrast, a minority government is more
volatile, and is more likely to fall due to loss of confidence. The last
prime minister to lose a confidence vote was Stephen Harper in 2011, prior
to which was Paul Martin in 2005 and Joe Clark in 1979. All these
occurrences involved minority governments.

Privileges

The institution of parliament possesses a number of privileges,
collectively and accordingly known as parliamentary privilege, each house
being the guardian and administrator of its own set of rights. Parliament
itself determines the extent of parliamentary privilege, each house
overseeing its own affairs, but the constitution bars it from conferring
any "exceeding those at the passing of such an Act held, enjoyed, and
exercised by the [British House of] Commons... and by the Members
thereof."³⁴

The foremost dispensation held by both houses of the legislature is that of
freedom of speech in debate; nothing said within the chambers may be
questioned by any court or other institution outside of Parliament. In
particular, a member of either house cannot be sued for slander based on
words uttered in the course of parliamentary proceedings, the only
restraint on debate being set by the standing orders of each house.
Further, MPs and senators are immune to arrest in civil cases (but not for
allegedly criminal actions), and from jury service and attendance in courts
as witnesses. They may, however, be disciplined by their own colleagues for
breach of the rules, including contempt of parliament—disobedience of its
authority; for example, giving false testimony before a parliamentary
committee—and breaches of its own privileges.

The Canadian Heraldic Authority, on 15 April 2008, granted the Parliament
of Canada, as an institution, a heraldic achievement composed of symbols of
the three elements of parliament: the escutcheon of the Royal Arms of
Canada (representing the Queen) with the maces of the House of Commons and
Senate crossed behind (representing each of those chambers).³⁵

The budget for the Parliament of Canada for the 2010 fiscal year was
$583,567,000.³⁶

History

Following the cession of New France to the United Kingdom in the 1763
Treaty of Paris, Canada was governed according to the Royal Proclamation
issued by King George III in that same year. To this was added the Quebec
Act, by which the power to make ordinances was granted to a
governor-in-council, both the governor and council being appointed by the
British monarch in Westminster, on the advice of his or her ministers
there. In 1791, the Province of Quebec was divided into Upper and Lower
Canada, each with an elected legislative assembly, an appointed legislative
council, and a governor, mirroring the parliamentary structure in Britain.

During the War of 1812, American troops set fire to the buildings of the
Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada in York (now Toronto). In 1841, the
British government united the two Canadas into the Province of Canada, with
a single legislature composed of, again, an assembly, council, and governor
general; the 84 members of the lower chamber were equally divided among the
two former provinces, though Lower Canada had a higher population. The
governor still held significant personal influence over Canadian affairs
until 1848, when responsible government was implemented in Canada.

The actual site of the parliament shifted on a regular basis: From 1841 to
1844, it sat in Kingston, where the present Kingston General Hospital now
stands; from 1844 until the 1849 fire that destroyed the building, the
legislature was in Montreal; and, after a few years of alternating between
Toronto and Quebec City, the legislature was finally moved to Ottawa in
1856, Queen Victoria having chosen that city as Canada's capital in 1857.

The modern-day Parliament of Canada came into existence in 1867, in which
year the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
passed the British North America Act, 1867, uniting the provinces of New
Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Canada—with the Province of Canada split into
Quebec and Ontario—into a single federation called the Dominion of Canada.
Though the form of the new federal legislature was again nearly identical
to the parliament of the United Kingdom, the decision to retain this model
was made with heavy influence from the just-concluded American Civil War,
which indicated to many Canadians the faults of the American federal
system, with its relatively powerful states and a less powerful federal
government. The British North America Act limited the powers of the
provinces, providing that all subjects not explicitly delegated to them by
that document remain within the authority of the federal parliament, while
simultaneously giving the provinces unique powers in certain agreed-upon
areas of funding.

Full legislative autonomy was granted by the Statute of Westminster, 1931,
passed by the United Kingdom and ratified by the Canadian parliament.
Though the statute allowed the Parliament of Canada to repeal or amend
previously British laws as they applied to Canada, it did not permit the
abrogation of Canada's constitution, including the British North America
Acts. Hence, whenever a constitutional amendment was sought by the Canadian
parliament, the enactment of a British law became necessary, though
Canada's consent was required. The Parliament of Canada was granted limited
power to amend the constitution by a British Act of Parliament in 1949, but
it was not permitted to affect the powers of provincial governments, the
official positions of the English and French languages, or the maximum
five-year term of the legislature.

The Canadian Cabinet last requested the Parliament of the United Kingdom to
enact a constitutional amendment in 1982, in the form of the Canada Act.
This legislation terminated the power of the British parliament's ability
to legislate for Canada and the authority to amend the constitution was
transferred to Canadian legislative authorities. Most amendments require
the consent of the Senate, the House of Commons, and the legislative
assemblies of two-thirds of the provinces representing a majority of the
population; the unanimous consent of provincial legislative assemblies is
required for certain amendments, including those affecting the sovereign,
the governor general, the provincial lieutenant governors, the official
status of the English and French languages, the Supreme Court of Canada,
and the amending formulas themselves.

See also

- Hansard
- Joint address
- List of Canadian Parliaments
- Procedural officers and senior officials of the parliament of Canada
- Records of members of parliament of Canada
- House of Commons of Canada
- Senate of Canada
- Politics of Canada
- List of legislatures by country
- Parliament Hill

Notes

[1] On 1 September 1919, Edward, Prince of Wales (later King Edward VIII)
  read the Speech From the Throne at the opening of the third session of
  the 13th Canadian Parliament.
[1] Liberal MPs and Senators sit in separate caucuses.

References

[1] Victoria (1867), Constitution Act, 1867, IV.17, Westminster: Queen's
  Printer (published 29 March 1867), retrieved 15 January 2009
[2] MacLeod, Kevin S. (2008), A Crown of Maples (PDF) (1 ed.), Ottawa:
  Queen's Printer for Canada, p. 17, ISBN 978-0-662-46012-1, retrieved 21
  June 2009
[3] Public Works and Government Services Canada (13 December 2006), Bill
  C-43, Preamble, Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada, retrieved 19 May 2009
[4] Elizabeth II (1985), Interpretation Act, §17, Ottawa: Queen's Printer
  for Canada, archived from the original on July 5, 2009, retrieved 1 June
  2009
[5] Victoria 1867, IV.55
[6] Library of Parliament. "About Parliament > Education > Classroom
  Resources > Canadian Symbols at Parliament > Parliament Hill Symbols >
  Mace (Senate)". Queen's Printer for Parliament. Retrieved 19 October
  2009.
[7] McDonough, John (1979). "The Maces of the Canadian Provincial and
  Territorial Legislatures (I)" (PDF). Canadian Regional Review. Ottawa:
  Commonwealth Parliamentary Association. 2 (4): 36. ISSN 0707-0837.
  Retrieved 19 October 2009.
[8] Library of Parliament. "About Parliament > Education > Classroom
  Resources > Canadian Symbols at Parliament > Parliament Hill Symbols >
  Mace (House of Commons)". Queen's Printer for Parliament. Retrieved 19
  October 2009.
[9] Senate of Canada (June 2015), Senate Procedure and Practice (PDF),
  Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada, p. 55, retrieved 17 November 2015
[10] Senate of Canada, p. 51
[11] Marleau, Robert; Montpetit, Camille (2000). House of Commons Procedure
  and Practice. Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada. ISBN 2-89461-378-4. 1.
  Parliamentary Institutions > Institutional Framework > The Opposition.
[12] Schmitz, Gerald (December 1988), The Opposition in a Parliamentary
  System, Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada, archived from the original on
  April 25, 2009, retrieved 21 May 2009
[13] Victoria 1867, IV.24
[14] Victoria 1867, IV.23
[15] Victoria 1867, IV.22
[16] Elizabeth II (4 March 1986), Constitution Act, 1985 (Representation),
  I.2, Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada, retrieved 19 October 2009
[17] Victoria 1867, IV.21A
[18] Victoria 1867, VI.92
[19] Victoria 1867, VI.91
[20] Elizabeth II (29 March 1982), Constitution Act, 1982, 33, Ottawa:
  Queen's Printer for Canada, retrieved 20 October 2009
[21] Library of Parliament. "Usher of the Black Rod in the Senate". Queen's
  Printer for Canada. Retrieved 19 October 2009.
[22] Elizabeth II (12 January 2008). "Notice of Vacancy, Usher of the Black
  Rod" (PDF). Canada Gazette. Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada. 142 (2):
  74. Retrieved 26 January 2009.
[23] "Officers and Officials of Parliament". Queen's Printer for Canada.
  Retrieved 27 May 2011.
[24] Senate of Canada (June 2015), Senate Procedure and Practice (PDF),
  Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada, p. 42, retrieved 15 November 2015
[25] Government of Canada. "Speech From the Throne > Frequently Asked
  Questions". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 4 June 2010.
[26] Library of Parliament. "Parliament > Officers and Officials of
  Parliament > Procedural Officers and Senior Officials > Senate". Queen's
  Printer for Canada. Archived from the original on December 1, 2008.
  Retrieved 19 May 2009.
[27] Royal Household. "Royal events and ceremonies > State Opening of
  Parliament". Queen's Printer. Retrieved 13 October 2012.
[28] Senate of Canada 2015, p. 45
[29] Elizabeth II (12 July 2008), Canada Elections Act, 56.1.(2): Queen's
  Printer for Canada, retrieved 3 May 2011
[30] Parliament of Canada. "House of Commons Procedure and Practice > 20.
  Committees > Types of Committees and Mandates". Queen's Printer for
  Canada. Retrieved 6 February 2011.
[31] Foot, Richard (January 15, 2010), "Only in Canada: Harper's
  prorogation is a Canadian thing", National Post, retrieved January 16,
  2010
[32] Robson, John (2 November 2015). "Trudeau's menacing promise of
  electoral reform". National Post. Retrieved 5 November 2015.
[33] Brooks, Stephen (2007). Canadian Democracy: An Introduction (5 ed.).
  Don Mills: Oxford University Press. p. 258. ISBN 978-0-19-543103-2.
[34] Victoria 1867, IV.18
[35] Canadian Heraldic Authority. "Public Register of Arms, Flags and
  Badges of Canada > Parliament of Canada". Queen's Printer for Canada.
  Retrieved 8 August 2010.
[36] Vongdougngchanh, Bea (8 March 2010). "Parliament's budget boosted to
  $583,567,000 this year". The Hill Times. Ottawa. Retrieved 6 January
  2011.
- House of Commons Table Research Branch. (2005). Précis of Procedure.
- Thomas, Paul G. (2004). "Parliament, Canadian."

External links

- The official Canadian Parliament page (English)
- Canadian Governments Compared
- Open Parliament: MP vote and speech tracker - keep tabs on Parliament

Coordinates: 45°25′31″N 75°42′00″W / 45.42521°N 75.70011°W

Senate of Canada

The Senate of Canada (French: Sénat du Canada) is a component of the
Parliament of Canada, along with the House of Commons and the Monarch
(represented by the Governor General). The Senate is modelled after the
British House of Lords and consists of 105 members appointed by the
Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister.¹ Seats are assigned
on a regional basis: four regions—defined as Ontario, Quebec, the Maritime
provinces, and the Western provinces—each receive 24 seats, with the
remaining portions of the country—Newfoundland and Labrador and the three
northern territories—assigned the remaining 9 seats apart from these
regional divisions. Senators may serve until they reach the age of 75.

The Senate is the upper house of Parliament and the House of Commons is the
lower house. This does not, however, imply that the Senate is more powerful
than the House of Commons, merely that its members and officers outrank the
members and officers of the Commons in the order of precedence for the
purposes of protocol. As a matter of practice and custom, the Commons is
the dominant chamber. The approval of both chambers is necessary for
legislation and, thus, the Senate can reject bills passed by the Commons.
Between 1867 and 1987, the Senate rejected fewer than two bills per year,
but this has increased in more recent years.² Moreover, members of the
Cabinet are responsible solely to the House of Commons. While the prime
minister and the rest of Cabinet remain in office only while they retain
the confidence of the Commons, Senators are not beholden to such control.
Although legislation can normally be introduced in either chamber, the
majority of government bills originate in the House of Commons with the
Senate acting as the chamber of "sober second thought" as it was called by
Sir John A. Macdonald, Canada's first prime minister.³

Chamber and symbols

The Senate of Canada and the House of Commons of Canada sit in separate
chambers in the Centre Block on Parliament Hill, located in Ottawa,
Ontario.

The chamber in which the Senate sits is sometimes called the red chamber,
due to the red cloth that adorns the chamber, as well as the Throne. The
red Senate chamber is lavishly decorated, in contrast with the more modest,
green Commons chamber. This decorative scheme, consistent with the Canadian
conception of the Westminster system, is modelled on the British Houses of
Parliament, where the Lords chamber is a lavish room with red benches,
whereas the Commons chamber is more sparsely decorated and is furnished in
green.

There are chairs and desks on both sides of the chamber, divided by a
centre aisle. The Speaker's chair is at one end of the chamber; in front of
it is the Clerk's table. Various clerks sit at the table, ready to advise
the Speaker and the senators on procedure when necessary. Members of the
governing party sit on the benches to the Speaker's right, while members of
the Opposition occupy the benches on the Speaker's left.

There are three seats in the front of the chambers:

- The Queen of Canada or the Governor General uses the seat with the Royal
  coat of arms of the United Kingdom
- The second chair to the left is for the consort of the monarch or the
  viceregal consort. The seat has the coat of arms of the Princess Louise
  (at the time Marchioness of Lorne) (no helm or motto, as borne by a lady;
  the escutcheon is the arms of Queen Victoria with a label of three
  points, signifying a child of the Sovereign, with an inescutcheon of the
  shield of Saxony (for Prince Albert, the Princess' father) and, instead
  of a crown, the coronet of a child of the Sovereign)
- The first two seats are vacant but present during the regular sitting of
  the Senate.
- The Speaker of the Senate uses the third seat with the Arms of Canada.
  This seat is removed during the throne speech.

At either end of the chamber, on the second floor, are the visitors
galleries, with total seating in stadium arrangement for 350.⁴ The north
gallery's lower seating area, or tribune, is reserved for journalists.

The Canadian Heraldic Authority on April 15, 2008, granted the Senate, as
an institution, a heraldic achievement composed of a depiction of the
chamber's mace (representing the monarch's authority in the upper chamber)
behind the escutcheon of the Royal Arms of Canada (representing the Queen,
in whose name the Senate deliberates).⁵

Senators

The Governor General holds the power to make normal senatorial
appointments, although, in modern practice, they make appointments only on
the advice of the prime minister. Senators used to hold their seats for
life; however, under the British North America Act, 1965 (now known as the
Constitution Act, 1965), Members, save for those appointed prior to the
change, may not sit in the Senate after reaching the age of 75. A prime
minister normally chooses members of his or her own party to be Senators,
though they sometimes nominate independents or members of opposing parties.
In practice, a large number of the members of the Senate are ex-Cabinet
ministers, ex-provincial premiers, and other eminent people. The first
Aboriginal senator was James Gladstone, who sat as an Independent
Conservative.²

Under the constitution, each province or territory is entitled to a
specific number of Senate seats. The constitution divides Canada into four
areas, each with an equal number of senators: 24 for Ontario, 24 for
Quebec, 24 for the Maritime provinces (10 each for Nova Scotia and New
Brunswick, and four for Prince Edward Island), and 24 for the western
provinces (six each for Manitoba, British Columbia, Saskatchewan, and
Alberta). Newfoundland and Labrador, which became a province in 1949, is
not assigned to any division and is represented by six senators, while the
three territories (the Northwest Territories, the Yukon, and Nunavut) are
allocated one senator each. Quebec senators are the only ones to be
assigned to specific districts within their province. This rule was adopted
to ensure that both French- and English-speakers from Quebec were
represented appropriately in the Senate.

Like most other upper houses worldwide, the Canadian formula does not use
representation by population as a primary criterion for member selection,
since this is already done for the House of Commons. Rather, the intent
when the formula was struck was to achieve a balance of regional interests
and to provide a house of "sober second thought" to check the power of the
lower house when necessary. Therefore, the most populous province (Ontario)
and two western provinces that were not populous at their accession to the
federation and that are within a region are under-represented, while the
Maritimes are the opposite. For example, British Columbia, with a
population of about four million, sends six senators to Ottawa, whereas,
Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, with populations of fewer than one million,
are each entitled to 10 senators. Only Quebec has a share of senators
approximate to its share of the total population. For comparison, Canada
has roughly one senator for about 300,000 citizens, while the United States
Senate has one elected senator for about three million citizens.

There exists a constitutional provision—Section 26 of the Constitution Act,
1867—under which the sovereign may approve the appointment of four or eight
extra senators, equally divided among the four regions. The approval is
given by the monarch on the advice of the prime minister, and the governor
general is instructed to issue the necessary letters patent. This provision
has been used only once: in 1990, when Prime Minister Brian Mulroney sought
to ensure the passage of a bill creating the Goods and Services Tax (GST).
The appointment of eight additional senators allowed a slight majority for
the Progressive Conservative Party. There was one unsuccessful attempt to
use Section 26, by Prime Minister Alexander Mackenzie in 1874. It was
denied by Queen Victoria, on the advice of the British Cabinet.⁶ This
clause does not result in a permanent increase in the number of Senate
seats, however. Instead, an attrition process is applied by which senators
leaving office through normal means are not replaced until after their
province has returned to its normal number of seats.

Since 1989, the voters of Alberta have elected "senators-in-waiting", or
nominees for the province's Senate seats. These elections, however, are not
held pursuant to any federal constitutional or legal provision; thus, the
prime minister is not required to recommend the nominees for appointment.
Only three senators-in-waiting have been appointed to the Senate: the first
was Stan Waters, who was appointed in 1990 on the recommendation of Brian
Mulroney; the second was Bert Brown, elected a Senator-in-waiting in 1998
and 2004, and appointed to the Senate in 2007 on the recommendation of
Prime Minister Stephen Harper; and the third was Betty Unger, elected in
2004 and appointed in 2012.⁷

The base annual salary of a senator was $142,400 CAD in 2015.⁸ and members
may receive additional salaries in right of other offices they hold (for
instance, the title of Speaker). Most Senators rank immediately above
Members of Parliament in the order of precedence, although the Speaker is
ranked just above the Speaker of the House of Commons and both are a few
ranks higher than the remaining senators.

Qualifications

The Constitution Act, 1867 outlines the qualifications of senators.
Individuals must be both citizens of Canada and at least 30 years of age to
be eligible for appointment to the Senate. Senators must also maintain
residency in the provinces or territories for which they are appointed.¹ In
the past, this criterion has often been interpreted quite liberally, with
virtually any holding that met the property qualification, including
primary residences, second residences, summer homes, investment properties
or even lots of undeveloped land, having been deemed to meet the residency
requirement;⁹ as long as the senator listed a qualifying property as a
residence, no further efforts have typically been undertaken to verify
whether they actually resided there in any meaningful way.⁹ Residency has
come under increased scrutiny, particularly in 2013 as several senators
have faced allegations of irregularities in their housing expense claims.¹⁰

The constitution also sets property qualifications for senators. A senator
must possess land worth at least $4,000 in the province for which he or she
is appointed. Moreover, a senator must own real and personal property worth
at least $4,000 (which, even in 1916, would have been equivalent to $75,700
in 2016) above his or her debts and liabilities.¹ These property
qualifications were originally introduced to ensure that senators were not
beholden to economic vagaries and turmoil. Now, however, the sum in
question is far less valuable due to the effects of inflation.
Nevertheless, the property qualification has never been abolished or
amended and initially caused problems with the 1997 Senate appointment of
Sister Peggy Butts, a Catholic nun who had taken a vow of poverty.¹¹ (The
situation was resolved when her order formally transferred a small parcel
of land to her name.¹¹ )

Under s. 31 of the Constitution Act, 1867, a senator will be disqualified
where he or she:

- fails to attend two consecutive sessions of the Senate;
- becomes a subject or citizen of a foreign power;
- is declared to be bankrupt or insolvent, applies for protection in such
  cases, or becomes a public defaulter;
- is convicted of treason or a felony; or
- ceases to be qualified in respect of property or of residence (except
  where required to stay in Ottawa because they hold a government office).

S. 33 of the Act provides for the Senate to determine any questions of
qualification or vacancy.

The first constitution of Canada did not explicitly bar women from sitting
as senators. However, until the end of the 1920s, only men had been
appointed to the body. In 1927, five Canadian women—known as The Famous
Five—requested that the Supreme Court determine whether women were eligible
to become senators. Specifically, they asked whether women were considered
"persons" under the British North America Act, 1867, which provided: "The
Governor General shall ... summon qualified Persons to the Senate; and ...
every Person so summoned shall become and be a Member of the Senate and a
Senator." In Edwards v. Canada (Attorney General) (commonly known as the
Persons Case), the Supreme Court unanimously held that women could not
become senators. The court based its decision on the grounds that the
framers of the constitution did not foresee female senators, as women did
not participate in politics at the time; moreover, they pointed to the
constitution's use of the pronoun he when referring to senators. On appeal,
however, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (Canada's highest
court of appeal at the time) ruled that women were indeed persons in the
meaning of the constitution. Four months later, the government of Prime
Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King recommended the appointment of
Canada's first female senator, Cairine Wilson of Ontario. There was, in
2001, a greater proportion of women in the Senate (35.6%) than in the House
of Commons (20.6%).²

Current composition

Main article: List of current senators of Canada

Notes:

  ¹On January 29, 2014, Liberal Party leader Justin Trudeau announced all
  Liberal senators had been removed from the Liberal caucus and would
  henceforth sit as independents. The senators refer to themselves as the
  Senate Liberal Caucus, even they are no longer members of the
  parliamentary Liberal caucus; the Senate website continues to refer to
  the senators as Liberals.¹² ¹³
  ²The ISG was recognized as a parliamentary group on December 2, 2016. The
  official Senate standings on the Parliament of Canada website accordingly
  list non-affiilated Senators who belong to the Independent Senators Group
  separately from non-affiliated Senators who are do not.¹⁴

Vacancies

There is some debate as to whether there is any requirement for the Prime
Minister to advise the governor general to appoint new senators to fill
vacancies as they arise. Then-Opposition leader Tom Mulcair argued that
there is no constitutional requirement to fill vacancies. Constitutional
scholar Peter Hogg has commented that the courts "might be tempted to grant
a remedy" if the refusal to recommend appointments caused the Senate to be
diminished to such a degree that it could not do its work or serve its
constitutional function.¹⁵

Vancouver lawyer Aniz Alani filed an application for judicial review of
then-Prime Minister Stephen Harper's apparent refusal to advise the
appointment of senators to fill existing vacancies, arguing that the
failure to do so violates the Constitution Act, 1867.¹⁶

On July 24, 2015, Harper announced that he would not be directing the
governor general to fill the 22 vacancies in the Senate, preferring that
the provinces "come up with a plan of comprehensive reform or to conclude
that the only way to deal with the status quo is abolition." He declined to
say how long he would allow vacancies to accumulate.¹⁷ Under Canada's
constitution, senators are appointed by the governor general on the advice
of the Prime Minister. If no such advice is forthcoming, according to
constitutional scholar Adam Dodek, in "extreme cases, there is no question
that the Governor General would be forced to exercise such power [of
appointment] without advice".¹⁸

On December 5, 2015, the new Liberal government announced a new merit-based
appointment process, using specific new criteria as to eligibility for the
Senate. Independent applicants, not affiliated with any political party,
will be approved by a new five member advisory board (to be in place by
year end), a reform that was intended to begin eliminating the partisan
nature of the Senate.¹⁹ At the time, there were 22 vacancies in the Senate.
On April 12, 2016, seven new senators were sworn in, including Prime
Minister Justin Trudeau's hand picked Representative of the Government in
the Senate, Hon. Peter Harder.

A series of future appointments were announced in October and November 2016
that would fill all vacancies; once these senators are summoned, the
independent non-aligned Senators will be more numerous than either of the
party caucuses for the first time in the Upper House's history.

Officers

The presiding officer of the Senate is the Speaker, who is appointed by the
governor general on the advice of the prime minister. The Speaker is
assisted by a Speaker Pro Tempore ("Current Speaker"), who is elected by
the Senate at the beginning of each parliamentary session. If the Speaker
is unable to attend, the Speaker Pro Tempore presides instead. Furthermore,
the Parliament of Canada Act authorizes the Speaker to appoint another
senator to take his or her place temporarily. Muriel McQueen Fergusson was
the Parliament of Canada's first female Speaker, holding the office from
1972 to 1974.²

The Speaker presides over sittings of the Senate and controls debates by
calling on members to speak. If a senator believes that a rule (or standing
order) has been breached, he or she may raise a point of order, on which
the Speaker makes a ruling. However, the Speaker's decisions are subject to
appeal to the whole Senate. When presiding, the Speaker remains impartial,
though he or she still maintains membership in a political party. Unlike
the Speaker of the House of Commons, the Speaker of the Senate does not
hold a casting vote, but, instead, retains the right to vote in the same
manner as any other. Following the 42nd parliament began on December 2015,
Senator George Furey is the current Speaker of the Senate.

The senator responsible for steering legislation through the Senate is the
Representative of the Government in the Senate, who is a senator selected
by the prime minister and whose role is to introduce legislation on behalf
of the government. The position was created in 2016 to replace the former
position of Leader of the Government in the Senate. The opposition
equivalent is the Leader of the Opposition in the Senate, who is selected
by his or her counterpart in the House of Commons, the Leader of the
Opposition. However, if the Official Opposition in the Commons is a
different party than the Official Opposition in the Senate (as was the case
from 2011 to 2015), then the Senate party chooses its own leader.

Officers of the Senate who are not members include the Clerk, the Deputy
Clerk, the Law Clerk, and several other clerks. These officers advise the
Speaker and members on the rules and procedure of the Senate. Another
officer is the Usher of the Black Rod, whose duties include the maintenance
of order and security within the Senate chamber. The Usher of the Black Rod
bears a ceremonial black ebony staff, from which the title "black rod"
arises. This position is roughly analogous to that of Sergeant-at-Arms in
the House of Commons, but the Usher's duties are more ceremonial in nature.
The responsibility for security and the infrastructure lie with the
Director General of Parliamentary Precinct Services.

Procedure

The Senate chamber is the site of the opening of parliament, a formal
ceremony held at the beginning of each new parliamentary session. During
the event, the Sovereign or the governor general, seated on the throne in
the Senate chamber and in the presence of both Houses of Parliament,
delivers the Speech from the Throne (or, more colloquially, the throne
speech), outlining the government's agenda for the upcoming parliamentary
session.

Under the rules of the Senate, the Senate sits Mondays to Fridays. Sittings
of the Senate are open to the public and are transcribed verbatim in the
Debates of the Senate, although, at times, matters of particular interest
have been broadcast. The Constitution Act, 1867, establishes a quorum of 15
Members (including the Member presiding) for the Senate. Any senator may
request the Speaker to ascertain the presence of a quorum; if it does not
appear that one is present, the Speaker orders bells to be rung, so that
other senators on the parliamentary precincts may come to the chamber. If a
quorum still does not appear, the Speaker must adjourn the Senate until the
next sitting day.

During debates, the first senator to rise is entitled to make the next
speech. The Speaker may settle disputes over which senator rose first, but
his or her decision may be altered by the Senate. Motions must be moved by
one senator and seconded by another before debate may begin; some motions,
however, are non-debatable.

Speeches may be made in either of Canada's official languages (English or
French). Members must address their speeches to the other senators as a
whole, using the phrase "Honourable Senators" (Honorables Sénateurs),
without directly addressing an individual senator. This is similar to the
process in the House of Lords, where all speeches and comments are
addressed to "my lords". It differs slightly from the practice in the
Canadian House of Commons and similar bodies in other countries, where all
comments are addressed to the Speaker of the House. The Speaker enforces
the rules of the Senate during debate. Disregarding the Speaker's
instructions is considered a severe breach of the rules of the Senate.

No senator may speak more than once on the same question; however, a
senator who has moved a substantive motion, proposed an inquiry, or
sponsored a bill holds a right of reply that enables them to speak again at
the close of debate. In the case of a bill, this right of reply can only be
exercised at the second reading debate. The rules of the Senate prescribe
time limits for speeches. The limits depend on the nature of the motion,
but are generally about fifteen minutes. However, the leaders of the
government and opposition in the Senate are not subject to such time
constraints. Debate may be further restricted by the passage of time
allocation motions. Alternatively, the Senate may end debate more quickly
by passing a motion for the previous question. If such a motion carries,
debate ends immediately and the Senate proceeds to vote. Debate may also
end if no senator wishes to make any further remarks.

When the debate concludes, the motion in question is put to a vote. The
Senate first votes by voice vote; the presiding officer puts the question
and members respond either "yea" (in favour of the motion) or "nay"
(against the motion). The presiding officer then announces the result of
the voice vote, but, two or more Senators may challenge his or her
assessment, thereby forcing a recorded vote (known as a division). First,
members in favour of the motion rise, so that the clerks may record their
names and votes. The same procedure is then repeated for members who oppose
the motion and thereafter repeated again for those who wish to abstain. In
all cases, the Speaker holds a vote (which is not usually exercised) and
votes first when a recorded division is called; a tied vote results in the
motion's failure. If the number of members voting, including the presiding
officer, does not at least total 15, then a quorum is not present, and the
vote is invalid.

Committees

The Parliament of Canada uses committees for a variety of purposes.
Committees consider bills in detail, and can make amendments. Other
committees scrutinize various government agencies and ministries.

The largest of the Senate committees is the Committee of the Whole, which,
as the name suggests, consists of all Senators. The Committee of the Whole
meets in the chamber of the Senate, but proceeds under slightly modified
rules of debate. (For example, there is no limit on the number of speeches
a Member may make on a particular motion.) The presiding officer is known
as the chairman. The Senate may resolve itself into a Committee of the
Whole for a number of purposes, including to consider legislation or to
hear testimony from individuals. Nominees to be officers of parliament
often appear before Committee of the Whole to answer questions with respect
to their qualifications prior to their appointment.

The Senate also has several standing committees, each of which has
responsibility for a particular area of government (for example, finance or
transport). These committees consider legislation and conduct special
studies on issues referred to them by the Senate and may hold hearings,
collect evidence, and report their findings to the Senate. Standing
committees consist of between nine and fifteen members each and elect their
own chairmen.

Special committees are appointed by the Senate on an ad hoc basis to
consider a particular issue. The number of members for a special committee
varies, but, the partisan composition would roughly reflect the strength of
the parties in the whole Senate. These committees have been struck to study
bills (e.g., the Special Senate Committee on Bill C-36 (the Anti-terrorism
Act), 2001) or particular issues of concern (e.g., the Special Senate
Committee on Illegal Drugs).

Other committees include joint committees, which include both members of
the House of Commons and senators. There are presently two joint
committees: the Standing Joint Committee on the Scrutiny of Regulations,
which considers delegated legislation, and the Standing Joint Committee on
the Library of Parliament, which advises the two Speakers on the management
of the library. Parliament may also establish special joint committees on
an ad hoc basis to consider issues of particular interest or importance.

Legislative functions

Although legislation may be introduced in either chamber, most bills
originate in the House of Commons. Because the Senate's schedule for debate
is more flexible than that of the House of Commons, the government will
sometimes introduce particularly complex legislation in the Senate first.

In conformity with the British model, the Senate is not permitted to
originate bills imposing taxes or appropriating public funds. Unlike in
Britain but similar to the United States, this restriction on the power of
the Senate is not merely a matter of convention, but is explicitly stated
in the Constitution Act, 1867. In addition, the House of Commons may, in
effect, override the Senate's refusal to approve an amendment to the
Canadian constitution; however, they must wait at least 180 days before
exercising this override. Other than these two exceptions, the power of the
two Houses of Parliament is theoretically equal; the approval of each is
necessary for a bill's passage. In practice, however, the House of Commons
is the dominant chamber of parliament, with the Senate very rarely
exercising its powers in a manner that opposes the will of the
democratically elected chamber.

The Senate tends to be less partisan and confrontational than the Commons
and is more likely to come to a consensus on issues. It also often has more
opportunity to study proposed bills in detail either as a whole or in
committees. This careful review process is why the Senate is still today
called the chamber of "sober second thought", though the term has a
slightly different meaning than it did when used by John A. Macdonald. The
format of the Senate allows it to make many small improvements to
legislation before its final reading. Although the Senate rarely vetoes
bills from the House of Commons, minor changes proposed by the Senate to a
bill are usually accepted.

The Senate, at times, is more active at reviewing, amending, and even
rejecting legislation. In the first 60 years after Confederation,
approximately 180 bills were passed by the House of Commons and sent to the
Senate that subsequently did not receive Royal Assent, either because they
were rejected by the Senate or were passed by the Senate with amendments
that were not accepted by the Commons. In contrast, fewer than one-quarter
of that number of bills were lost for similar reasons in the sixty-year
period from 1928 to 1987.² The late 1980s and early 1990s was a period of
contention. During this period, the Senate opposed legislation on issues
such as the 1988 free trade bill with the US (forcing the Canadian federal
election of 1988) and the Goods and Services Tax (GST).² ²⁴ In the 1990s,
the Senate rejected four pieces of legislation: a bill passed by the
Commons restricting abortion (C-43),²⁵ a proposal to streamline federal
agencies (C-93), a bill to redevelop the Lester B. Pearson airport (C-28),
and a bill on profiting from authorship as it relates to crime (C-220). The
Senate also performs investigative functions. In the 1960s, the Senate
authored the first Canadian reports on media concentration with the Special
Senate Subcommittee on Mass Media, or the Davey Commission,²⁶ since
"appointed senators would be better insulated from editorial pressure
brought by publishers"; this triggered the formation of press councils.²⁷
More recent investigations include the Kirby Commissions on health care (as
opposed to the Romanow Commission) and mental health care by Senator
Michael Kirby and the Final Report on the Canadian News Media in 2006.²⁸
From 2000-2013, the Senate rejected 75 bills in total.²⁹

In December 2010, the Senate rejected Bill C-311, involving greenhouse gas
regulation that would have committed Canada to a 25% reduction in emissions
by 2020 and an 80% reduction by 2050.³⁰ The bill was passed by all the
parties except the Conservatives in the House of Commons and was rejected
by the majority Conservatives in the Senate on a vote of 43 to 32.³¹ The
only session where actual debate on the bill took place was notable for
unparliamentary language and partisan political rhetoric.³²

Historically, before the passage of the Divorce Act in 1968, there was no
divorce legislation in either Quebec or Newfoundland. The only way for
couples to get divorced in these provinces was to apply to the federal
parliament for a private bill of divorce. These bills were primarily
handled by the Senate, where a special committee would undertake an
investigation of a request for a divorce. If the committee found that the
request had merit, the marriage would be dissolved by an Act of Parliament.
A similar situation existed in Ontario before 1930. This function of the
Senate has not been exercised since 1968.

Relationship with the executive

Unlike the House of Commons, the Senate has no effect in the decision to
end the term of the prime minister or of the government. Only the Commons
may force the prime minister to tender his resignation or to recommend the
dissolution of Parliament and issue of election writs, by passing a motion
of no-confidence or by withdrawing supply. Thus, the Senate's oversight of
the government is limited.

Most Cabinet ministers are from the House of Commons. In particular, every
prime minister has been a member of the House of Commons since 1896, with
the exception of John Turner. Typically, the Cabinet includes only one
Senator: the Leader of the Government in the Senate. Occasionally, when the
governing party does not include any members from a particular region,
senators are appointed to ministerial positions in order to maintain
regional balance in the Cabinet. The most recent example of this was on
February 6, 2006, when Stephen Harper advised that Michael Fortier be
appointed to serve as both a senator representing the Montreal region,
where the minority government had no elected representation, and the
Cabinet position of Minister of Public Works and Government Services.
Fortier resigned his Senate seat to run (unsuccessfully) for a House of
Commons seat in the 2008 general election.

History

The Senate came into existence in 1867, when the Parliament of the United
Kingdom passed the British North America Act 1867 (BNA Act), uniting the
Province of Canada (which was separated into Quebec and Ontario) with Nova
Scotia and New Brunswick into a single federation, a dominion called
Canada. The Canadian parliament was based on the Westminster model (that
is, the model of the Parliament of the United Kingdom). Canada's first
prime minister, Sir John A. Macdonald, described it as a body of "sober
second thought" that would curb the "democratic excesses" of the elected
House of Commons and provide regional representation.³³ He believed that if
the House of Commons properly represented the population, the upper chamber
should represent the regions.³⁴ It was not meant to be more than a revising
body or a brake on the House of Commons. Therefore, it was deliberately
made an appointed house, since an elected Senate might prove too popular
and too powerful and be able to block the will of the House of Commons.

The original Senate chamber was lost to the fire that consumed the
Parliament Buildings in 1916. Subsequently, the Senate sat in the mineral
room of what is today the Canadian Museum of Nature until 1922, when it
relocated back to Parliament Hill.

While most senators hold their seat until the mandatory age of retirement,
Andy Thompson stepped down 20 months ahead of his scheduled retirement
after critics drew attention to his poor attendance record while he
continued to draw his salary. It was also the first time that the Senate
had voted to suspend one of its members,³⁵ which prompted his resignation
shortly afterwards.

Senate reform

Background

Reform of the Senate has been an issue since its creation, and mirrors
pre-Confederation debates regarding appointed Legislative Councils in the
former colonies. The federal Parliament first considered reform measures in
1874 and the Senate debated reforming itself in 1909.³⁶

There were minor changes in 1965, when the mandatory retirement age for new
Senators was set at 75 years and, in 1982, when the Senate was given a
qualified veto over certain constitutional amendments.³⁷ The last member of
the Senate who served past the age of 75 was John Michael Macdonald, who
had been appointed on the advice of John Diefenbaker in 1960 and served
until his death, at the age of 91 in 1997.³⁸ Orville Howard Phillips was
the last senator appointed for life to leave the body: he was appointed on
the advice of Diefenbaker in 1963 and served in the Senate until 1999, when
he voluntarily resigned a month before turning 75.³⁹

Recent debate

In the 1960s and 1970s, discussion of reforming the appointment mechanism
resurfaced alongside the Quiet Revolution and the rise of Western
alienation, usually with the chief goal of making the Senate better
represent the provinces in parliament. It was often suggested that
provincial governments should appoint senators, as was done in the United
States before the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution.
Others suggested that senators should be members of provincial
legislatures, similar to the Bundesrat of Germany. The discussions also
suggested redistributing Senate seats to the growing western provinces, but
formal suggestions for equality of seats between provinces did not occur
until 1981. Likewise, schemes to create an elected Senate did not gain
widespread support until after 1980, when Parliament enacted the National
Energy Program in the wake of the energy crises of the 1970s. Many Western
Canadians then called for a "Triple-E Senate", standing for elected, equal,
and effective. They believed that allowing equal representation of the
provinces, regardless of population, would protect the interests of the
smaller provinces and outlying regions.

One of the systems most often proposed is the Triple-E Senate (Triple-E
stands for equal, elected, and effective), which would re-align the seats,
make senators elected, and give them more powers.⁴⁰ Alberta is the only
province that holds Senate nominee elections, although Saskatchewan plans
to hold their own as well.⁴¹ Prime Minister Stephen Harper was an advocate
of an elected Senate, and had said that he would not appoint any new
senators until there is reform.⁴¹ In his first two years as prime minister,
he appointed two. One of his appointments was Bert Brown, who was one of
Alberta's elected nominees and is the second unofficially elected senator
in Canadian history after Stan Waters in 1990.⁴²

Proposals

There have been at least 28 major proposals for constitutional Senate
reform since the early 1970s and all have failed.³⁷ The Meech Lake Accord—a
series of constitutional amendments proposed by Prime Minister Brian
Mulroney—would have required the federal government to choose a senator
from a list of persons nominated by the provincial government; the accord,
however, failed to obtain the requisite unanimous consent of the provincial
legislatures. A successor proposal, the Charlottetown Accord, involved a
provision under which the Senate would include an equal number of senators
from each province, each elected either by the majority in the relevant
provincial legislature or by the majority of voters in the province. This
accord was defeated in the referendum held in 1992.

The Cabinet while headed by Prime Minister Stephen Harper moved to
institute reforms to the process by which senators would be selected and
the amount of time they could hold a seat in parliament.⁴³ On May 30, 2006,
Bill S-4 was introduced in the Senate, proposing an amendment to the
Constitution Act, 1867, so as to limit the term of a newly appointed
senator to eight years, though sitting senators would serve out their term
to age 75. Further, on December 13, 2006,⁴⁴ Bill C-43, for "the
consultation of the electors... in relation to the appointment of
senators",⁴⁴ was tabled in the House of Commons. It was intended to,
pending a constitutional amendment, institute in each province direct
elections, held concurrently with either provincial or federal general
elections, for senatorial candidates who would then be recommended by the
prime minister for appointment by the governor general.⁴⁵ Both bills died
at the end of the first session of the 39th parliament, but were
reintroduced in the second session as C-19 (with modifications) and Bill
C-20,⁴⁶ ⁴⁷ respectively. C-19 was reintroduced in 2009 as Bill S-7, with
one change: senators appointed between October 14, 2008 and the date the
bill was granted Royal Assent would remain senators for eight years after
the law came into force.⁴⁸

On June 22, 2006, Progressive Conservative Senator Lowell Murray and
Liberal Senator Jack Austin introduced an amendment to the constitution to
alter the makeup of the Senate⁴⁹ by enlarging the chamber to 117 members
and giving a greater number to the western provinces of British Columbia
(12), Alberta (10), Saskatchewan (7), and Manitoba (7). The amendment would
also have increased both the number of divisions to five — by separating
British Columbia into its own division—and the number of additional
senators the monarch could appoint to five or ten. The amendment was
debated on June 27 and 28, 2006, and then sent to a special committee on
Senate reform. That committee considered the amendment and, on October 26,
2006, endorsed it.

Conservative Senator David Tkachuk, seconded by Liberal Senator Larry
Campbell, proposed on December 11, 2006, an addition to the proposed
constitutional changes that would provide for 24 senators for British
Columbia. The proposal died on the Order Paper when the writ dropped for
the 2008 federal election.

Simon Threlkeld, a former Toronto lawyer who writes about democracy,
proposes in the National Post that the Senate be chosen by randomly sampled
juries of Canadians who meet together face-to-face to make an informed
choice after deliberation. He says: "Such a Senate will be independent from
political parties, and chosen in a highly democratic, non-partisan and well
informed way."⁵⁰ ⁵¹ ⁵²

Party positions

The Conservative Party was committed to the idea of elected senatorial
candidates being appointed by the governor general on the advice of the
prime minister. Accordingly, Prime Minister Stephen Harper in 2007
recommended the appointment of Bert Brown, who was elected in Alberta's
Senator in waiting election,⁵³ but otherwise followed the standing rules in
the absence of other elected nominees.⁵⁴ ⁵⁵ ⁵⁶ Harper later stated that the
Senate "must either change or—like the old upper houses of our
provinces—vanish".⁵⁷

The New Democratic Party (NDP) has consistently called for the Senate's
abolition.⁵⁸ In 2013, the NDP appeared ambiguous over whether it would
appoint Senators if elected to government,⁵⁹ although it emphasized its
pro-abolition platform.

On January 29, 2014, Liberal leader Justin Trudeau announced that all 32
Liberal senators would no longer be members of the party's caucus. Trudeau
announced that, as Prime Minister, he would only appoint future Senators as
independents chosen by a non-partisan committee.⁶⁰ In response, the Senate
caucus chose to designate themselves as "Senate Liberals" and continue
their own internal caucus.

The Bloc Québécois has alternated between advocating the elimination of the
Senate and accepting the status quo, while the Green Party of Canada passed
a resolution during its 2010 convention supporting a Senate elected using
proportional representation.⁶¹

The provincial branches of the NDP follow the same stance as their federal
counterpart⁶² and the Saskatchewan Party caucus has also voted to support
Senate abolition.⁶³ A private member's bill introduced to by Liberal Member
of the Legislative Assembly John Les to the Legislative Assembly of British
Columbia on June 2, 2011, with the support of the premier, sought to have
elections conducted for BC Senate nominees.⁶⁴ The bill was never enacted as
law.

2013 reference to the Supreme Court

The Supreme Court of Canada was given several reference questions in 2013
to make clear how Senate reform can be undertaken within the current
framework of the Constitution of Canada. In their 2014 response, Reference
re Senate Reform, the court declared that the applicable amending procedure
depended upon the type of reform sought:⁶⁵

- The Parliament of Canada can amend or repeal the s. 23(4) minimum
  property value requirement on its own;
- The s. 23(3) property possession requirement can be fully repealed only
  when accompanied by a resolution passed by the National Assembly of
  Quebec, because of its relationship to the special requirements for
  Quebec senators under s. 23(6);
- Under s. 42(1)(b) of the Constitution Act, 1982, any change to "the
  powers of the Senate and the method of selecting Senators" (which would
  include consultative elections and senatorial term limits) can only be
  done under the general amending procedure; and
- Under s. 41(e), the abolition of the Senate would require the unanimous
  consent of the Senate, the House of Commons, and the legislative
  assemblies of all Canadian provinces, as it would require the removal of
  the Senate from all aspects of the constitutional amending procedure.

Following the ruling, Prime Minister Stephen Harper stated that
"Significant reform and abolition are off the table,"⁶⁶ and many
constitutional experts consider abolition to be virtually impossible.⁶⁶ In
the 2015 general election, the Liberal Party proposed a reform of the
process of appointing senators.⁶⁶

2015 appointment reform

Within a month of the Liberals under Prime Minister Justin Trudeau being
sworn in, on December 5, 2015, the Democratic Institutions Minister Maryam
Monsef, with the new House leader Dominic LeBlanc, announced a major
overhaul of the appointment process as had been promised during the
election campaign. The new system consists of five board members - three
federal appointees and two from the provinces - who will pick independent
candidates, not officially affiliated with any political party, based on
merit.⁶⁷ This reform is in line with Trudeau's January 2014 announcement
that began reducing Senate partisanship by making Liberal senators
independent and no longer part of the Liberal caucus.⁶⁸

The stated goal of the December 2015 reform was to improve the
effectiveness of the Senate which had been "... hampered by its reputation
as a partisan institution," according to Monsef. She indicated that this
reform would not require an amendment to the constitution. Only hours
later, the Liberal Premier of British Columbia (BC), Christy Clark, stated
that her province would not support the changes because they did "not
address what's been wrong with the Senate since the beginning".⁶⁸ BC is
under represented in the Senate, based on population size; BC with 4.7
million people has only six senators, while the Atlantic provinces have 24,
although their population is below 2 million. Correcting this imbalance
would require a constitutional amendment that is agreed to by seven or more
provinces with 50 per cent of the population, and that is unlikely to
happen. Christy's other objection was that the senators are appointed, not
elected, so they are not accountable to the Canadian public;⁶⁹ hence this
house should not be legitimized in her estimation.⁷⁰ ⁷⁰

The advisory board was appointed by the end of December 2015. The criteria
for appointment to the Senate will be "... outstanding personal qualities
that include integrity and ethics and experience in public life, community
service or leadership in their field of expertise". As of December 14,
there were 22 Senate vacancies.⁷¹ ⁷² On March 18, 2016, seven new senators,
selected under this procedure, were appointed to fill some of the
vacancies.⁷³

First advisory board

On January 19, 2016, the names of the members of the independent advisory
board on Senate appointments was announced. The chair will be former deputy
minister Huguette Labelle. There will be two other permanent members:
McGill University dean of law Daniel Jutras and former University of
Alberta president Indira Samarasekera. Two ad hoc members from Manitoba,
Quebec and Ontario were also named. This board is to make up a short list
of candidates to be considered for the 22 Senate vacancies, based on merit
instead of partisan politics.⁷⁴ However, the slate of recommended
candidates is not binding on the Prime Minister who will make the final
decision as to who is appointed.⁷⁵

Offices

Outside of Parliament Hill, most Senators have offices in the Victoria
Building across Wellington Street.

See also

- Lists of Canadian senators
- List of current Canadian senators
- Leader of the Government in the Senate (Canada)
- Leader of the Opposition in the Senate (Canada)
- Canadian Senate seating plan
- Canadian Senate divisions
- Procedural officers and senior officials of the parliament of Canada
- Monarchy of Canada
- List of Canadian Senate appointments by Prime Minister
- Canadian Senate Page Program
- Triple-E Senate
- Canadian Senate expenses scandal
- Joint address

References

[1] Franco, 2006, pg. 3–42.
[2] "THE CANADIAN SENATE IN FOCUS 1867–2001". The Senate of Canada. May
  2001. Retrieved August 4, 2007.
[3] "no by-line.-->". FAQs about the Senate of Canada. Government of
  Canada. 2015. Retrieved December 7, 2015.
[4]
  http://sen.parl.gc.ca/portal/publications/factsheets/fs-redchamber-e.htm
[5] Canadian Heraldic Authority. "Public Register of Arms, Flags and Badges
  of Canada > Senate of Canada". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved
  August 8, 2010.
[6] W.H. McConnell, Commentary on the British North America Act (Toronto:
  McMillan & Co., 1977), pp. 72–73.
[7] "Harper appoints 7 new senators". CBC News. January 6, 2012.
[8] "Indemnities, Salaries and Allowances". Parliament of Canada. Library
  of Parliament. Retrieved July 27, 2015.
[9] "Senator says she won't talk more about Sask. residency". CBC News.
  February 17, 2009.
[10] "Senators ordered to provide concrete proof of primary residence".
  Ottawa Citizen. January 31, 2013.
[11] staff reporter (April 1998). "Canada's Upper House: Do We Need the
  Senate? – Constitutional Origins". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation.
  Archived from the original on October 16, 2007. Retrieved February 12,
  2008. But having taken a vow of poverty 40 years ago, she lacked the
  necessary $4000 in 'real and personal property' that is stipulated in
  Section 23 of the Constitution Act of 1867. Upon this realization, the
  scramble was on to ensure her appointment, and a small parcel of land was
  transferred by her Montreal-based order into her name.
[12] "Trudeau's expulsion catches Liberal senators by surprise". Globe and
  Mail. January 29, 2014. Retrieved January 29, 2014.
[13] http://www.parl.gc.ca/SenatorsMembers/Senate/PartyStandings/ps-E.htm
[14] http://www.parl.gc.ca/SenatorsBio/standings_senate.aspx?Language=E
[15] –"Stephen Harper obliged to fill empty Senate seats?". CBC News. July
  10, 2014. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
[16] –"Stephen Harper's unappointed Senate seats unconstitutional,
  Vancouver lawyer says". CBC News. December 15, 2014. Retrieved December
  18, 2014.
[17] Steven Chase, "Harper will not appoint more senators", The Globe and
  Mail. July 25, 2015.
[18] Adam Dodek, "PM's constitutional disobedience a dangerous game to
  play", The Globe and Mail, July 28, 2015.
[19] Harris, Kathleen (December 3, 2015). "Liberal plan to pick
  'non-partisan' senators draws quick criticism B.C. Premier Christy Clark
  slams reforms". CBC News. CBC/Radio Canada. Retrieved December 4, 2015.
[20] "Senate – Committee List". Parl.gc.ca. Retrieved July 1, 2010.
[21] "Senate – Committee Home Page". Parl.gc.ca. Retrieved July 1, 2010.
[22] "Senate – Committee Home Page". Parl.gc.ca. Retrieved July 1, 2010.
[23] "Senate – Committee Home Page". Parl.gc.ca. Retrieved July 1, 2010.
[24] Gibson, Gordon (September 2004). "Challenges in Senate Reform:
  Conflicts of Interest, Unintended Consequences, New Possibilities".
  Public Policy Sources. Fraser Institute. Retrieved August 4, 2007.
[25] 17 Nov 2013 Toronto Star: "Mulroney-era cabinet documents reveal
  struggle to replace abortion law thrown out by court"
[26] "Concentration of Newspaper Ownership". Canadian Heritage. Retrieved
  November 17, 2007.
[27] Edge, Marc (November 13, 2007). "Aspers and Harper, A Toried Love".
  The Tyee. Retrieved November 17, 2007.
[28] "Concentration of Newspaper Ownership". Standing Senate Committee on
  Transport and Communications. June 2006. Retrieved November 17, 2007.
[29] . parl.gc.ca. November 16, 2010
  http://www.parl.gc.ca/Parlinfo/compilations/houseofcommons/legislation/billsbyresults.aspx?Parliament=&BillResult=03d93c58-f843-49b3-9653-84275c23f3fb.
  Retrieved April 7, 2014. Missing or empty |title= (help)
[30] "Senate vote to kill Climate Act disrespects Canadians and democracy".
  davidsuzuki.org. October 19, 2010. Retrieved May 9, 2011.
[31] "Debates of the Senate, November 16, 2010".
[32] "Debates of the Senate, June 1, 2010".
[33] "The Canadian Senate In Focus". Parl.gc.ca. Retrieved July 1, 2010.
[34] "How to legitimize Canada's Senate". Retrieved August 19, 2015.
[35] "Senate votes to suspend Andrew Thompson". CBC. November 13, 1998.
  Retrieved April 28, 2008.
[36] Jack Stillborn (November 1992). "Senate Reform Proposals in
  Comparative Perspective" (PDF). Library of Parliament.
[37] Joyal, Serge (July 2003). Protecting Canadian Democracy: The Senate
  You Never Knew. McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-2619-8.
[38] "www2.parl.gc.ca". .parl.gc.ca. Retrieved January 10, 2011.
[39] "www2.parl.gc.ca". .parl.gc.ca. Retrieved January 10, 2011.
[40] Makarenko, Jay (October 1, 2006). "Senate Reform in Canada".
  MapleLeafWeb. Retrieved November 24, 2008.
[41] Curry, Bill; Brian Laghli (May 19, 2008). "Saskatchewan plans to elect
  senators". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved November 24, 2008.
[42] Yaffe, Barbara (June 22, 2008). "Move for an elected Senate will take
  time and patience". The Montreal Gazette. Canwest News Service. Retrieved
  November 28, 2008.
[43] CTV.ca News Staff (May 30, 2006). "Tories to propose fixed terms for
  new senators". CTV.ca. Retrieved December 3, 2006.
[44] "Canadians will choose senators under new bill". CBC news. December
  13, 2006. Retrieved November 8, 2007.
[45] "Bill C-43: An Act to provide for consultations with electors on their
  preferences for appointments to the Senate".
[46] "Bill C-19: An Act to amend the Constitution Act, 1867 (Senate
  tenure)".
[47] "Bill C-20: Senate Appointment Consultations Act".
[48] "Text of Bill S-7, An Act to amend the Constitution Act, 1867".
[49] Government of Canada (June 22, 2006). "Amendment to the Constitution
  of Canada—Western Provincial Representation". Debates of the Senate: 1st
  Session, 39th Parliament. Library of Parliament. Retrieved December 3,
  2006.
[50] Simon Threlkeld, "Let citizen juries choose the Senate," National
  Post, September 15, 2015, page A11
[51] Simon Threlkeld, "Select senators by jury," National Post online
  edition,September 14, 2015,
  http://news.nationalpost.com/full-comment/simon-threlkeld-select-senators-by-jury
[52] He makes an earlier version of his proposal in the Toronto Star: Simon
  Threlkeld, "Juries of citizens should select senators," Toronto Star,
  September 9, 1998, page A17.
[53] CBC News (April 18, 2007). "Harper appoints Albertan
  senator-in-waiting". Canada: CBC. Retrieved April 19, 2007.
[54] Campion-Smith, Bruce (December 11, 2008). "Harper set to name 18 to
  Senate". The Star. Toronto. Retrieved May 23, 2010.
[55] CTV News (September 12, 2008). "Harper to fill 18 Senate seats with
  Tory loyalists". Ctv.ca.
[56] MacCharles, Tonda; Campion-Smith, Bruce (December 22, 2008). "Duffy,
  Wallin named to Senate". The Star. Toronto. Retrieved May 23, 2010.
[57] CBC News (September 11, 2007). "Senate should vanish if it's not
  reformed: Harper". Canada: CBC. Retrieved April 26, 2014.
[58] "CBC News – Canada – Dallaire, Eggleton among nine new senators".
  Canada: CBC. March 24, 2005. Retrieved July 1, 2010.
[59] "- Tom Mulcair ambiguous if he will appoint NDP senators if party wins
  next election". Canada: National Post. October 14, 2013.
[60] "Every Liberal Senator Booted From Caucus As Trudeau Aims To Restore
  Independence". The Canadian Press. Huffington Post. Retrieved January 29,
  2014.
[61] This motion, in calling for the elections of senators, is more
  specific than the current policy of holding a referendum on which
  direction senate reform should take.
[62] Canadian Press (May 24, 2013). "Saskatchewan premier Wall no longer
  believes Senate can be reformed". Canada: Star Phoenix. Retrieved July 9,
  2013.
[63] CBC News (July 8, 2013). "Sask. Party members vote to abolish senate".
  Canada: CBC.ca. Retrieved July 9, 2013.
[64] "Province moves toward senatorial elections". Timescolonist.com. June
  3, 2011. Retrieved September 11, 2011.
[65] Reference re Senate Reform 2014 SCC 32, [2014] 1 SCR 704 (25 April
  2014)
[66] Joanna Smith (September 9, 2015). "What to do about the Senate?".
  Toronto Star.
[67] Harris, Kathleen (December 3, 2015). "Liberal plan to pick
  'non-partisan' senators draws quick criticism B.C. Premier Christy Clark
  slams reforms". CBC News. CBC/Radio Canada. Retrieved December 4, 2015.
[68] Galloway, Gloria (December 3, 2015). "Liberals to set up advisory
  board for Senate nominees, but B.C. won't take part". Globe and Mail.
  Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Retrieved December 4, 2015.
[69] Bryden, Joan (December 6, 2015). "Trudeau's reforms do nothing to
  improve Senate's legitimacy, Christy Clark says". Globe and Mail.
  Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Retrieved December 7, 2015.
[70] Baldrey, Keith (December 3, 2015). "Why Christy Clark is rejecting
  Justin Trudeau's reform of the Senate". Global News. Shaw Media Inc.
  Retrieved December 4, 2015.
[71] Coyne, Andrew (December 14, 2015). "Andrew Coyne: Who asked for this
  kind of Senate reform?". National Post. Toronto, Ontario. Retrieved
  December 15, 2015.
[72] Smith, Joanna (December 3, 2015). "Liberals set up non-partisan,
  merit-based process for choosing new senators". Toronto Star. Toronto,
  Ontario, Canada. Retrieved December 4, 2015.
[73] "Murray Sinclair, Chantal Peticlerc among 7 new Liberal-appointed
  Senators". CBC. CBC News. March 18, 2016. Retrieved March 18, 2016.
[74] The Canadian Press; no by-line.--> (January 19, 2016). "Two Manitoba
  MPs appointed to senate advisory committee". CTV Winnipeg. CTV/Bell
  Media. Retrieved January 19, 2016.
[75] Tasker, John Paul (January 19, 2016). "Senate advisory board named,
  1st appointments expected within weeks". CBC News. CBC/Radio Canada.
  Retrieved January 19, 2016. The board will consult with labour groups,
  chambers of commerce and the arts community to suggest a short list of
  five individuals for each vacancy.
- Department of Justice. (2004). Constitution Acts, 1867 to 1982.
- Forsey, Eugene. (2003). "How Canadians Govern Themselves."
- The Parliament of Canada. Official Website.
- A Legislative and Historical Overview of the Canadian Senate

Bibliography

- Franco, Guida (2006). Canadian Almanac & Directory 2006. Toronto:
  Micromedia ProQuest, 3–42. ISBN 1-895021-90-1.

External links

- Senate of Canada – official website

House of Commons of Canada

"Green Chamber" redirects here. For other uses, see Green room
(disambiguation).

The House of Commons of Canada (French: Chambre des communes du Canada) is
a component of the Parliament of Canada, along with the Sovereign
(represented by the Governor General) and the Senate.² The House of Commons
chamber is located in the Centre Block of the Parliament Buildings on
Parliament Hill in Ottawa.

The House of Commons is a democratically elected body whose members are
known as Members of Parliament (MPs). There were 308 members in the last
Parliament (most members elected in 2011), but that number has risen to 338
following the election on Monday October 19, 2015.² ³ ⁴ ⁵ Members are
elected by simple plurality ('first-past-the-post' system) in each of the
country's electoral districts, which are colloquially known as ridings.⁶
MPs may hold office until Parliament is dissolved and serve for
constitutionally limited terms of up to five years after an election.
Historically however, terms have ended before their expiry and the sitting
government has typically dissolved parliament within four years of an
election according to a long-standing convention. In any case, an Act of
Parliament now limits each term to four years. Seats in the House of
Commons are distributed roughly in proportion to the population of each
province and territory. However, some ridings are more populous than
others, and the Canadian constitution contains some special provisions
regarding provincial representation. As a result, there is some
interprovincial and regional malapportionment relative to population.

The House of Commons was established in 1867, when the British North
America Act—now called the Constitution Act, 1867—created the Dominion of
Canada, and was modelled on the British House of Commons. The lower of the
two houses making up the parliament, the House of Commons in practice holds
far more power than the upper house, the Senate. Although the approval of
both Houses is necessary for legislation, the Senate very rarely rejects
bills passed by the Commons (though the Senate does occasionally amend
bills). Moreover, the Government of Canada is responsible solely to the
House of Commons. The Prime Minister stays in office only as long as he or
she retains the support, or "confidence", of the lower house.

Name

See also: House of Commons

The term derives from the Anglo-Norman word communes, referring to the
geographic and collective "communities" of their parliamentary
representatives and not the third estate, the commonality.⁷ This
distinction is made clear in the official French name of the body, Chambre
des communes. Canada and the United Kingdom remain the only countries to
use the name "House of Commons" for a lower house of parliament.

History

The House of Commons came into existence in 1867, when the British
Parliament passed the British North America Act, uniting the Province of
Canada (which was separated into Quebec and Ontario), Nova Scotia and New
Brunswick into a single federation called the Dominion of Canada. The new
Parliament of Canada consisted of the Queen (represented by the Governor
General, who also represented the Colonial Office), the Senate and the
House of Commons. The Parliament of Canada was based on the Westminster
model (that is, the model of the Parliament of the United Kingdom). Unlike
the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the powers of the Parliament of
Canada were limited in that other powers were assigned exclusively to the
provincial legislatures. The Parliament of Canada also remained subordinate
to the British Parliament, the supreme legislative authority for the entire
British Empire. Greater autonomy was granted by the Statute of Westminster
1931,⁸ after which new Acts of the British Parliament did not apply to
Canada, with some exceptions. These exceptions were removed by the Canada
Act 1982.⁹ From 1867, the Commons met in the same chamber until that was
destroyed by fire in 1916. It relocated to the amphitheatre of the Victoria
Memorial Museum—what is today the Canadian Museum of Nature, where it met
until 1922. Since then, the Commons has sat in its current chamber.

Members and electoral districts

Main article: Electoral district (Canada)

The House of Commons comprises 338 members, each of whom represents a
single electoral district (also called a riding). The constitution
specifies a basic minimum of 295 electoral districts, but additional seats
are allocated according to various clauses. Seats are distributed among the
provinces in proportion to population, as determined by each decennial
census, subject to the following exceptions made by the constitution.
Firstly, the "senatorial clause" guarantees that each province will have at
least as many MPs as Senators.¹⁰ Secondly, the "grandfather clause"
guarantees each province has at least as many Members of Parliament now as
it had in 1985.¹⁰

As a result of these clauses, smaller provinces and provinces that have
experienced a relative decline in population have become over-represented
in the House. Ontario, British Columbia, and Alberta are under-represented
in proportion to their populations, while the other seven provinces
(Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward
Island and Newfoundland and Labrador) are over-represented. Boundary
commissions, appointed by the federal government for each province, have
the task of drawing the boundaries of the electoral districts in each
province. Territorial representation is independent of population; each
territory is entitled to only one seat. The calculation for the provinces
is done with a base of 279 seats.¹⁰ The total population of the provinces
(excluding the territories) is then divided by 279 to equal the electoral
quotient.¹⁰ The population of the province is then divided by the electoral
quotient to equal the base provincial-seat allocation.¹⁰ ¹¹ The "special
clauses" are then applied to increase the number of seats for certain
provinces, bringing the total number of seats (with the three seats for the
territories) to 338.¹⁰

The last redistribution of seats occurred subsequent to the 2011 census.¹⁰
The Fair Representation Act (Bill C-20) was passed and given royal assent
on 16 December 2011, and effectively allocated fifteen additional seats to
Ontario, six new seats each to Alberta and British Columbia, and three more
to Quebec.⁵ ¹²

The following tables summarize representation in the House of Commons by
province and territory:¹³

(→ increase for the 2015 federal election)

Elections

General elections occur whenever Parliament is dissolved by the Governor
General on the Queen's behalf. The timing of the dissolution has
historically been chosen by the Prime Minister. The Constitution Act, 1867
provides that a Parliament last no longer than five years. Canadian
election law requires that elections must be held on the third Monday in
October in fourth year after the last election, subject to the discretion
of the Crown.¹⁴ Campaigns must be at least 36 days long. Candidates are
usually nominated by political parties. It is possible for a candidate to
run independently, although it is rare for such a candidate to win. Most
successful independent candidates have been incumbents who were expelled
from their political parties (for example, John Nunziata in 1997) or who
failed to win their parties' nomination (for example, Chuck Cadman in
2004). The most recent exception to this was the election of André Arthur
in a Quebec City district in 2006. Most Canadian candidates are chosen in
meetings called by their party's local association. In practice, the
candidate who signs up the most local party members generally wins the
nomination.

To run for a seat in the House, candidates must file nomination papers
bearing the signatures of at least 50 or 100 constituents (depending on the
size of the electoral district). Each electoral district returns one member
using the first-past-the-post electoral system, under which the candidate
with a plurality of votes wins. To vote, one must be a citizen of Canada
and at least eighteen years of age.

Once elected, a Member of Parliament normally continues to serve until the
next dissolution of Parliament. If a member dies, resigns, or ceases to be
qualified, his or her seat falls vacant. It is also possible for the House
of Commons to expel a member, but this power is only exercised when the
member has engaged in serious misconduct or criminal activity. Formerly,
MPs appointed to cabinet were expected to resign their seats, though this
practice ceased in 1931. In each case, a vacancy may be filled by a
by-election in the appropriate electoral district. The first-past-the-post
system is used in by-elections, as in general elections.¹⁵

Perquisites

The term member of Parliament is usually used only to refer to members of
the House of Commons, even though the Senate is also a part of Parliament.
Members of the House of Commons may use the post-nominal letters "MP". The
annual salary of each member of Parliament is, as of 2016, $170,400;¹⁶
members may receive additional salaries in right of other offices they hold
(for instance, the Speakership). MPs rank immediately below senators in the
order of precedence.

Qualifications

Under the Constitution Act, 1867, Parliament is empowered to determine the
qualifications of members of the House of Commons. The present
qualifications are outlined in the Canada Elections Act, which was passed
in 2000. Under the act, an individual must be an eligible voter, as of the
day on which he or she is nominated, in order to stand as a candidate.
Thus, minors and individuals who are not citizens of Canada are not allowed
to become candidates. The Canada Elections Act also bars prisoners from
standing for election (although they may vote). Moreover, individuals found
guilty of election-related crimes are prohibited from becoming members for
five years (in some cases, seven years) after conviction.

The act also prohibits certain officials from standing for the House of
Commons. These officers include members of provincial and territorial
legislatures (although this was not always the case), sheriffs, crown
attorneys, most judges, and election officers. The Chief Electoral Officer
and Assistant Chief Electoral Officer (the heads of Elections Canada, the
federal agency responsible for conducting elections) are prohibited not
only from standing as candidates, but also from voting. Finally, under the
Constitution Act, 1867, a member of the Senate may not also become a member
of the House of Commons and MPs must give up their seats when appointed to
the Senate or the bench.

Officers and symbols

The House of Commons elects a presiding officer, known as the Speaker,² at
the beginning of each new parliamentary term, and also whenever a vacancy
arises. Formerly, the Prime Minister determined who would serve as Speaker.
Although the House voted on the matter, the voting constituted a mere
formality. Since 1986, however, the House has elected Speakers by secret
ballot. The Speaker is assisted by a Deputy Speaker, who also holds the
title of Chair of Committees of the Whole. Two other deputies—the Deputy
Chair of Committees of the Whole and the Assistant Deputy Chair of
Committees of the Whole—also preside. The duties of presiding over the
House are divided between the four officers aforementioned; however, the
Speaker usually presides over Question Period and over the most important
debates.

The Speaker controls debates by calling on members to speak. If a member
believes that a rule (or Standing Order) has been breached, he or she may
raise a "point of order", on which the Speaker makes a ruling that is not
subject to any debate or appeal. The Speaker may also discipline members
who fail to observe the rules of the House. When presiding, the Speaker
must remain impartial. The Speaker also oversees the administration of the
House and is Chair of the Board of Internal Economy, the governing body for
the House of Commons. The current Speaker of the House of Commons is the
Honourable Geoff Regan, MP.

The member of the Government responsible for steering legislation through
the House is Leader of the Government in the House of Commons. The
Government House Leader (as he or she is more commonly known) is a Member
of Parliament selected by the Prime Minister and holds cabinet rank. The
Leader manages the schedule of the House of Commons, and attempts to secure
the Opposition's support for the Government's legislative agenda.

Officers of the House who are not members include the Clerk of the House of
Commons, the Deputy Clerk, the Law Clerk and Parliamentary Counsel, and
several other clerks. These officers advise the Speaker and members on the
rules and procedure of the House in addition to exercising senior
management functions within the House administration. Another important
officer is the Sergeant-at-Arms, whose duties include the maintenance of
order and security on the House's premises and inside the buildings of the
Parliamentary precinct. (The RCMP patrol Parliament Hill but are not
allowed into the buildings unless asked by the Speaker). The
Sergeant-at-Arms also carries the ceremonial mace, a symbol of the
authority of the Crown and of the House of Commons, into the House each
sitting. The House is also staffed by parliamentary pages, who carry
messages to the members in the Chamber and otherwise provide assistance to
the House.

The Commons' mace has the shape of a medieval mace which was used as a
weapon, but in brass and ornate in detail and symbolism. At its bulbous
head is a replica of the Imperial State Crown; the choice of this crown for
the Commons' mace differentiates it from the Senate's mace, which has St.
Edward's Crown at its apex. The Commons mace is placed upon the table in
front of the speaker for the duration of the sitting with the crown
pointing towards the prime minister and the other cabinet ministers, who
advise the Queen and governor general and are accountable to this chamber
(in the Senate chamber, the mace points towards the throne, where the Queen
has the right to sit herself).

Carved above the speaker's chair are the Royal Arms of the United Kingdom.
This chair was a gift from the United Kingdom Branch of the Empire
Parliamentary Association in 1921, to replace the chair that was destroyed
by the fire of 1916, and was an exact replica of the chair in the British
House of Commons at the time. These arms at its apex were considered the
royal arms for general purposes throughout the British empire at the time.
Since 1931, however, Canada has been an independent country and the
Canadian Coat of Arms are now understood to be the royal arms of the Queen
of Canada. Escutcheons of the same original royal arms can be found on each
side of the speaker's chair held by a lion and a unicorn.

In response to a campaign by Bruce Hicks for the Canadianization of symbols
of royal authority and to advance the identity of parliamentary
institutions,¹⁷ a proposal that was supported by Speakers of the House of
Commons John Fraser and Gilbert Parent, a Commons committee was eventually
struck following a motion by MP Derek Lee, before which Hicks and Robert
Watt, the first Chief Herald of Canada, were called as the only two expert
witnesses, though Senator Serge Joyal joined the committee on behalf of the
Senate. Commons' Speaker Peter Milliken then asked the governor general to
authorize such a symbol. In the United Kingdom, the House of Commons and
the House of Lords use the royal badge of the portcullis, in green and red
respectively, to represent those institutions and to distinguish them from
the government, the courts and the monarch. The Canadian Heraldic Authority
on 15 April 2008 granted the House of Commons, as an institution, a badge
consisting of the chamber's mace (as described above) behind the escutcheon
of the shield of the Royal Arms of Canada (representing the Queen herself,
in whose name the House of Commons deliberates).¹⁸

Procedure

Like the Senate, the House of Commons meets on Parliament Hill in Ottawa.
The Commons Chamber is modestly decorated in green, in contrast with the
more lavishly furnished red Senate Chamber. The arrangement is similar to
the design of the Chamber of the British House of Commons.¹⁹ The seats are
evenly divided between both sides of the Chamber, three sword-lengths apart
(about three metres).²⁰ The Speaker's chair (which can be adjusted for
height) is at the north end of the Chamber. In front of it is the Table of
the House, on which rests the ceremonial mace. Various "Table
Officers"—clerks and other officials—sit at the Table, ready to advise the
Speaker on procedure when necessary. Members of the Government sit on the
benches on the Speaker's right, while members of the Opposition occupy the
benches on the Speaker's left. Government ministers sit around the Prime
Minister, who is traditionally assigned the 11th seat in the front row on
the Speaker's right-hand side. The leader of the Official Opposition sits
directly across from the Prime Minister and is surrounded by a Shadow
Cabinet, or critics for the government portfolios. The remaining party
leaders sit in the front rows. Other Members of Parliament who do not hold
any kind of special responsibilities are known as "backbenchers".

The House usually sits Monday to Friday from late January to mid-June and
from mid-September to mid-December according to an established calendar,
though it can modify the calendar if additional or fewer sittings are
required.² During these periods, the House generally rises for one week per
month to allow members to work in their constituencies. Sittings of the
House are open to the public. Proceedings are broadcast over cable and
satellite television and over live streaming video on the Internet by CPAC
owned by a consortium of Canadian cable companies. They are also recorded
in text form in print and online in Hansard, the official report of
parliamentary debates.

The Constitution Act, 1867 establishes a quorum of twenty members
(including the member presiding) for the House of Commons. Any member may
request a count of the members to ascertain the presence of a quorum; if,
however, the Speaker feels that at least twenty members are clearly in the
Chamber, he or she may deny the request. If a count does occur, and reveals
that fewer than twenty members are present, the Speaker orders bells to be
rung, so that other members on the parliamentary precincts may come to the
Chamber. If, after a second count, a quorum is still not present, the
Speaker must adjourn the House until the next sitting day.

During debates, members may only speak if called upon by the Speaker (or,
as is most often the case, the deputy presiding). The Speaker is
responsible for ensuring that members of all parties have an opportunity to
be heard. The Speaker also determines who is to speak if two or more
members rise simultaneously, but his or her decision may be altered by the
House. Motions must be moved by one member and seconded by another before
debate may begin. Some motions, however, are non-debatable.

Speeches² may be made in either of Canada's official languages (English and
French), and it is customary for bilingual members of parliament to respond
to these in the same language they were made in. It is common for bilingual
MPs to switch between the languages during speeches. Members must address
their speeches to the presiding officer, not the House, using the words
"Mr. Speaker" ("Monsieur le Président") or "Madam Speaker" ("Madame la
Présidente"). Other members must be referred to in the third person.
Traditionally, members do not refer to each other by name, but by
constituency or cabinet post, using forms such as "the honourable member
for [electoral district]" or "the Minister of..." Members' names are
routinely used only during roll call votes, in which members stand and are
named to have their vote recorded; at that point they are referred to by
title (Ms. or mister for Anglophones and madame, mademoiselle, or monsieur
for Francophones) and last name, except where members have the same or
similar last names, at which point they would be listed by their name and
riding ("M. Massé, Avignon—La Mitis—Matane—Matapédia; Mr. Masse, Windsor
West....)

No member may speak more than once on the same question (except that the
mover of a motion is entitled to make one speech at the beginning of the
debate and another at the end). Moreover, tediously repetitive or
irrelevant remarks are prohibited, as are written remarks read into the
record (although this behaviour is creeping into modern debate). The
presiding officer may order a member making such remarks to cease speaking.
The Standing Orders of the House of Commons prescribe time limits for
speeches. The limits depend on the nature of the motion, but are most
commonly between ten and twenty minutes. However, under certain
circumstances, the Prime Minister, the Leader of the Official Opposition,
and others are entitled to make longer speeches. Debate may be further
restricted by the passage of "time allocation" motions. Alternatively, the
House may end debate more quickly by passing a motion for "closure".

When the debate concludes, the motion in question is put to a vote. The
House first votes by voice vote; the presiding officer puts the question,
and members respond either "yea" (in favour of the motion) or "nay"
(against the motion). The presiding officer then announces the result of
the voice vote, but five or more members may challenge his or her
assessment, thereby forcing a recorded vote (known as a division, although,
in fact, the House does not divide for votes the way the British House of
Commons does). First, members in favour of the motion rise, so that the
clerks may record their names and votes. Then, the same procedure is
repeated for members who oppose the motion. There is no formal means for
recording an abstention, though a member may informally abstain by
remaining seated during the division. If there is an equality of votes, the
Speaker has a casting vote.

The outcome of most votes is largely known beforehand, since political
parties normally instruct members on how to vote. A party normally entrusts
some Members of Parliament, known as whips, with the task of ensuring that
all party members vote as desired. Members of Parliament do not tend to
vote against such instructions, since those who do so are unlikely to reach
higher political ranks in their parties. Errant members may be deselected
as official party candidates during future elections, and, in serious
cases, may be expelled from their parties outright. Thus, the independence
of Members of Parliament tends to be extremely low, and "backbench
rebellions" by members discontent with their party's policies are rare. In
some circumstances, however, parties announce "free votes", allowing
Members to vote as they please. This may be done on moral issues and is
routine on private members' bills.

Committees

Main article: Standing committee (Canada)
See also: List of committees of the Canadian House of Commons

The Parliament of Canada uses committees for a variety of purposes.
Committees consider bills in detail, and may make amendments. Other
committees scrutinize various Government agencies and ministries.

Potentially, the largest of the Commons committees are the Committees of
the Whole, which, as the name suggests, consist of all the members of the
House. A Committee of the Whole meets in the Chamber of the House, but
proceeds under slightly modified rules of debate. (For example, a member
may make more than one speech on a motion in a Committee of the Whole, but
not during a normal session of the House.) Instead of the Speaker, the
Chairman, Deputy Chairman, or Assistant Deputy Chairman presides. The House
resolves itself into a Committee of the Whole to discuss appropriation
bills, and sometimes for other legislation.

The House of Commons also has several standing committees, each of which
has responsibility for a particular area of government (for example,
finance or transport). These committees oversee the relevant government
departments, may hold hearings and collect evidence on governmental
operations and review departmental spending plans. Standing committees may
also consider and amend bills. Standing committees consist of between
sixteen and eighteen members each, and elect their own chairmen.

Some bills are considered by legislative committees, each of which consists
of up to fifteen members. The membership of each legislative committee
roughly reflects the strength of the parties in the whole House. A
legislative committee is appointed on an ad hoc basis to study and amend a
specific bill. In addition, the Chairman of a legislative committee is not
elected by the members of the committee, but is instead appointed by the
Speaker, normally from among his deputies. Most bills, however, are
referred to standing committees rather than legislative committees.

The House may also create ad hoc committees to study matters other than
bills. Such committees are known as special committees. Each such body,
like a legislative committee, may consist of no more than fifteen members.
Other committees include joint committees, which include both members of
the House of Commons and senators; such committees may hold hearings and
oversee government, but do not revise legislation.

Legislative functions

Further information: Act of Parliament

Although legislation may be introduced in either House, most bills
originate in the House of Commons.

In conformity with the British model, the Lower House alone is authorized
to originate bills imposing taxes or appropriating public funds. This
restriction on the power of the Senate is not merely a matter of
convention, but is explicitly stated in the Constitution Act, 1867.
Otherwise, the power of the two Houses of Parliament is theoretically
equal; the approval of each is necessary for a bill's passage.

In practice, however, the House of Commons is the dominant chamber of
Parliament, with the Senate very rarely exercising its powers in a way that
opposes the will of the democratically elected chamber. The last major bill
defeated in the Senate came in 2010, when a bill passed by the Commons
concerning climate change was rejected in the Upper House by a vote.²¹

A clause in the Constitution Act, 1867 permits the Governor General (with
the approval of the Queen) to appoint up to eight extra senators to resolve
a deadlock between the two houses. The clause was invoked only once, in
1990, when Prime Minister Brian Mulroney advised the appointment of an
additional eight senators in order to secure the Upper House's approval for
the Goods and Services Tax.

Relationship with the executive

Though it does not formally elect the prime minister, the House of Commons
indirectly controls the premiership. By convention, the prime minister is
answerable to, and must maintain the support of, the House of Commons.
Thus, whenever the office of prime minister falls vacant, the governor
general has the duty of appointing the person most likely to command the
support of the House—normally the leader of the largest party in the lower
house, although the system allows a coalition of two or more parties. This
has not happened in the Canadian federal parliament, but has occurred in
Canadian provinces. The leader of the second-largest party (or in the case
of a coalition, the largest party out of government) usually becomes the
Leader of the Official Opposition. Moreover, the prime minister is, by
unwritten convention, a member of the House of Commons, rather than of the
Senate. Only two prime ministers governed from the Senate: Sir John Abbott
(1891–1892) and Sir Mackenzie Bowell (1894–1896). Both men got the job
following the death of a Prime Minister, and did not contest elections.

The prime minister may only stay in office as long as he or she retains the
confidence of the House of Commons. The lower house may indicate its lack
of support for the government by rejecting a motion of confidence, or by
passing a motion of no confidence. Important bills that form a part of the
government's agenda are generally considered matters of confidence, as is
any taxation or spending bill and the annual budget. When a government has
lost the confidence of the House of Commons, the prime minister is obliged
to either resign, or request the governor general to dissolve parliament,
thereby precipitating a general election. The governor general may
theoretically refuse to dissolve parliament, thereby forcing the prime
minister to resign. The last instance of a governor general refusing to
grant a dissolution was in 1926.

Except when compelled to request a dissolution by an adverse vote on a
confidence issue, the prime minister is allowed to choose the timing of
dissolutions, and consequently the timing of general elections. The time
chosen reflects political considerations, and is generally most opportune
for the prime minister's party. However, no parliamentary term can last for
more than five years from the first sitting of Parliament; a dissolution is
automatic upon the expiry of this period. Normally, Parliaments do not last
for full five-year terms; prime ministers typically ask for dissolutions
after about three or four years. The 2006 Conservative government
introduced a bill to set fixed election dates every four years, although
snap elections are still permitted. This bill was approved by parliament
and has now become law.

Whatever the reason—the expiry of parliament's five-year term, the choice
of the prime minister, or a government defeat in the House of Commons—a
dissolution is followed by general elections. If the prime minister's party
retains its majority in the House of Commons, then the prime minister may
remain in power. On the other hand, if his or her party has lost its
majority, the prime minister may resign, or may attempt to stay in power by
winning support from members of other parties. A prime minister may resign
even if he or she is not defeated at the polls (for example, for personal
health reasons); in such a case, the premiership goes to the new leader of
the outgoing prime minister's party.

The House of Commons scrutinizes the ministers of the Crown through
Question Period, a daily forty-five-minute period during which members have
the opportunity to ask questions of the prime minister and of other Cabinet
ministers. Questions must relate to the responding minister's official
government activities, not to his or her activities as a party leader or as
a private Member of Parliament. Members may also question committee
chairmen on the work of their respective committees. Members of each party
are entitled to a number of questions proportional to the party caucus'
strength in the house. In addition to questions asked orally during
Question Period, Members of Parliament may also make inquiries in writing.

In times where there is a majority government, the House of Commons'
scrutiny of the government is weak. Since elections use the
first-past-the-post electoral system, the governing party tends to enjoy a
large majority in the Commons; there is often limited need to compromise
with other parties. (Minority governments, however, are not uncommon.)
Modern Canadian political parties are so tightly organized that they leave
relatively little room for free action by their MPs. In many cases, MPs may
be expelled from their parties for voting against the instructions of party
leaders. As well, the major parties require candidates' nominations to be
signed by party leaders, thus giving the leaders the power to, effectively,
end a politician's career. Thus, defeats of majority governments on issues
of confidence are very rare. Paul Martin's Liberal minority government lost
a vote of no confidence in 2005; the last time this had occurred was in
1979, when Joe Clark's Progressive Conservative minority government was
defeated after a term of just six months.

Current composition

See also: List of House members of the 42nd Parliament of Canada, Party
standings in the House of Commons of Canada, and List of federal
by-elections in Canada

²²

Chamber design

The current and original Canadian House of Commons chamber was influenced
by the British House of Commons rectangular layout and that of the original
St. Stephen's Chapel in the Palace of Westminster.²³ The difference from
the British layout is with the use of individual chairs and tables for
members, absent in the British Commons' design.

With the exception of the legislatures in Nunavut (circular seating), the
Northwest Territories (circular seating), and Manitoba (U-shaped seating),
all other Canadian provincial legislatures share the common design of the
Canadian House of Commons.

Public Works and Government Services Canada undertook work during the 41st
Parliament to determine how the seating arrangement could be modified to
accommodate the additional 30 seats added in the 2015 election. Ultimately,
new "theater" seats were designed, with five seats in a row at one desk,
the seats pulling down for use. Such seat sets now comprise almost the
entire length of the last two rows on each side of the chamber.²⁴
Additionally, the current chamber will undergo renovations starting 2018
and relocate during the period of reconstruction to the courtyard of the
West Block.²⁵

See also

Parties and elections

- Elections Canada
- List of Canadian federal electoral districts
- List of Canadian federal general elections
- Party standings in the House of Commons of Canada
- List of political parties in Canada

Parliaments and members

- List of Canadian federal parliaments
  + List of House members of the 41st Parliament of Canada
  + List of House members of the 40th Parliament of Canada
  + List of House members of the 39th Parliament of Canada
  + List of House members of the 38th Parliament of Canada
  + List of Members of the Canadian House of Commons with military service
  + Women in the 41st Canadian Parliament
  + Women in the 40th Canadian Parliament
  + Women in the 39th Canadian Parliament
- Procedural officers and senior officials of the parliament of Canada
- Senate of Canada
- Centre Block
- Joint Address

Offices

Off Parliament Hill MPs have some offices at Justice Building or
Confederation Building down Wellington Street near the Supreme Court of
Canada.

References

[1] "Indemnities, Salaries and Allowances". Library of Parliament.
  Retrieved 1 Oct 2016.
[2] Guide to the Canadian House of Commons (PDF). Library and Archives
  Canada Cataloguing in Publication. House of Commons of Canada. ISBN
  0-662-68678-0. Retrieved 29 September 2007.
[3] "Members of the House of Commons – Current List – By Name". Parliament
  of Canada. Government of Canada. Retrieved 25 September 2007.
[4] "Members of Parliament". Parliament of Canada. Government of Canada.
  Retrieved 25 September 2007.
[5] Thandi Fletcher (16 December 2011). "Crowded House: Parliament gets
  cozier as 30 seats added". Canada.com. Postmedia News. Retrieved 19
  December 2011.
[6] "Elections Canada On-Line". Electoral Insight. 21 November 2006.
  Retrieved 29 September 2007.
[7] A. F. Pollard, The Evolution of Parliament (Longmans, 1920), 107–08.
[8] "The Statute of Westminster, 1931 – History – Intergovernmental
  Affairs". Privy Council Office. Government of Canada. 13 September 2007.
  Retrieved 25 September 2007.
[9] "The Constitution Act, 1982". The Solon Law Archive. W.F.M. Retrieved
  25 September 2007.
[10] Department of Justice (Canada) (2 November 2009). "Constitution Acts,
  1867 to 1982". Retrieved 9 November 2009.
[11] Jackson & Jackson, Politics in Canada, Prentice Hall, Toronto, p 438
[12] "41st Parliament, 1st Session, Bill C-20". Parliament of Canada.
  Government of Canada. Retrieved 19 December 2011.
[13] Elections Canada (2012). "House of Commons Seat Allocation by
  Province". Retrieved 2 November 2015.
[14] Canada Elections Act, Section 56.1(2).
[15] "The Electoral System of Canada : The Political System". Elections
  Canada. Retrieved 11 November 2016.
[16]
  http://www.lop.parl.gc.ca/ParlInfo/Lists/Salaries.aspx?Menu=HOC-Politic&Section=03d93c58-f843-49b3-9653-84275c23f3fb
[17] Hicks, Bruce. A 'Call to Arms' for the Canadian Parliament" (Canadian
  Parliamentary Review 23:4).
[18] Canadian Heraldic Authority. "Public Register of Arms, Flags and
  Badges of Canada > House of Commons of Canada". Queen's Printer for
  Canada. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
[19] Archived 11 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
[20] "Tuesday, June 20, 1995 (222)". House of Commons Hansard. Parliament
  of Canada. Retrieved 29 September 2007.
[21] "Senate vote to kill Climate Act disrespects Canadians and democracy".
  davidsuzuki.org. 19 October 2010. Retrieved 9 May 2011.
[22] "Party Standings in the House of Commons". parl.gc.ca. Retrieved 4
  February 2017.
[23] The Commons Chamber in the 16th Century – UK Parliament. Parliament.uk
  (21 April 2010). Retrieved on 12 April 2014.
[24] O'Mally, Kady. "House of Commons a no-go zone for tourists this
  summer". CBC.ca. Retrieved 25 July 2014.
[25] $42M for Temporary House of Commons under Glass Dome. Abcbuzz.com.
  Retrieved on 12 April 2014.

Bibliography

- David E. Smith (2007). The people's House of Commons: theories of
  democracy in contention. University of Toronto Press. ISBN
  978-0-8020-9465-0.
- Department of Justice. (2004). Constitution Acts, 1867 to 1982.
- Dawson, W F (1962). Procedure in the Canadian House of Commons.
  University of Toronto Press. OCLC 502155. Also under OCLC 252298936.
- Forsey, Eugene (1904–1991). (1st edition published 1980, 6th edition,
  2005). "How Canadians Govern Themselves."
- House of Commons Table Research Branch. (2006). Compendium of Procedure.
- The Parliament of Canada. Official Website.
- Canada's House of Commons from The Canadian Encyclopedia

Judicial branch

Court system of Canada

The court system of Canada forms the judicial branch of government,
formally known as "the Queen on the Bench",¹ which interprets the law and
is made up of many courts differing in levels of legal superiority and
separated by jurisdiction. Some of the courts are federal in nature while
others are provincial or territorial.

The Canadian constitution gives the federal government the exclusive right
to legislate criminal law while the provinces have exclusive control over
civil law. The provinces have jurisdiction over the administration of
justice in their territory. Almost all cases, whether criminal or civil,
start in provincial courts and may be eventually appealed to higher level
courts. The quite small system of federal courts only hears cases concerned
with matters which are under exclusive federal control, such as federal
taxation, federal administrative agencies, intellectual property, some
portions of competition law and certain aspects of national security. The
federal government appoints and pays for both the judges of the federal
courts and the judges of the superior and appellate level courts of each
province. The provincial governments are responsible for appointing judges
of the lower provincial courts. Provincial administrative tribunals also
comprise part of provincial courts. This intricate interweaving of federal
and provincial powers is typical of the Canadian constitution.

Outline of the court system

Very generally speaking, Canada's court system is a four-level hierarchy as
shown below from highest to lowest in terms of legal authority. Each court
is bound by the rulings of the courts above them; however, they are not
bound by the rulings of other courts at the same level in the hierarchy.
Civil courts in Quebec, in particular, are under no obligation to apply
judicial precedent—the principle of stare decisis—which is the general rule
elsewhere in Canada. This is because Quebec's civil law is entirely
codified, while civil law in the other nine provinces grew out of the
English common law.

A note on terminology

There are two terms used in describing the Canadian court structure which
can be confusing, and clear definitions are useful at the outset.

Provincial courts

The first is the term "provincial court," which has two quite different
meanings, depending on context. The first, and most general meaning, is
that a provincial court is a court established by the Legislature of a
province, under its constitutional authority over the Administration of
Justice in the Province, set out in s. 92(14) of the Constitution Act,
1867.² This head of power gives the Provinces the power to regulate "...
the Constitution, Maintenance, and Organization of Provincial Courts, both
of Civil and of Criminal Jurisdiction, and including Procedure in Civil
Matters in those Courts." All courts created by a Province, from the small
claims court or municipal by-law court, up to the provincial Court of
Appeal, are "provincial courts" in this general sense.

However, there is a more limited meaning to the term. In most provinces,
the "Provincial Court" is the term used to refer to a specific court
created by the Province which is the main criminal court, having
jurisdiction over most criminal offences except for the most serious ones.
The Provincial Court of a particular province may also have a limited civil
jurisdiction, over small claims and some family law matters. The exact
scope of the jurisdiction of a Provincial Court will depend on the laws
enacted by the particular province. Provincial Courts in this sense are
courts of limited statutory jurisdiction, sometimes referred to as
"inferior courts." As courts of limited jurisdiction, their decisions are
potentially subject to judicial review by the superior courts via the
prerogative writs, but in most cases there are now well-established
statutory rights of appeal instead.

To distinguish between the two meanings of the term, capitalization is
used. A reference to a "provincial court" normally is a reference to the
broad meaning of the term, any court created by the Province. A reference
to "Provincial Court" normally is referring to the specific court of
limited statutory jurisdiction, created by the Province.

Superior courts

The second is the term "superior courts." This term also has two different
meanings, one general and one specific.

The general meaning is that a superior court is a court of inherent
jurisdiction. Historically, they are the descendants of the royal superior
courts in England. The decisions of a superior court are not subject to
review, unless a statute specifically provides for review or appeal. The
term is not limited to trial courts. The Federal Court of Appeal and the
provincial and territorial Courts of Appeal are all superior courts.

The more limited sense is that "Superior Court" can be used to refer to the
superior trial court of original jurisdiction in the Province. This
terminology is used in the court systems of Ontario and Quebec.

The difference between the two terms is also indicated by capitalisation.
The term "superior court" is used to mean the general sense of the term,
while "Superior Court" is used to refer to specific courts in provinces
which use that term to designate their superior trial courts.

Supreme Court of Canada

Main article: Supreme Court of Canada

The Supreme Court is established by the Supreme Court Act³ as the "General
Court of Appeal for Canada." The Court currently consists of nine justices,
which include the Chief Justice of Canada and eight puisne justices. The
court's duties include hearing appeals of decisions from the appellate
courts (to be discussed next) and, on occasion, delivering references
(i.e., the court's opinion) on constitutional questions raised by the
federal government. By law, three of the nine justices are appointed from
Quebec because of Quebec's use of civil law.

The Constitution Act, 1867 gives the federal Parliament the power to create
a "General Court of Appeal for Canada."⁴ Following Confederation, the
Conservative government of Sir John A. Macdonald proposed the creation of a
Supreme Court and introduced two bills in successive sessions of Parliament
to trigger public debate on the proposed court and its powers.⁵ Eventually,
in 1875, the Liberal government of Alexander Mackenzie passed an Act of
Parliament which established the Supreme Court.⁶ The 1875 Act built upon
the proposals introduced by the Macdonald government, and passed with
bipartisan support.⁷

Initially, decisions of the Supreme Court could be appealed to the Judicial
Committee of the British Privy Council. As well, litigants could appeal
directly from the provincial courts of appeal directly to the Judicial
Committee, by-passing the Supreme Court entirely. There was a provision in
the 1875 Act which attempted to limit appeals to the Judicial Committee.
That clause resulted in the Governor General reserving the bill for
consideration by the Queen-in-Council.⁸ After much debate between Canadian
and British officials, royal assent was granted, on the understanding that
the clause did not in fact affect the royal prerogative to hear appeals,
exercised through the Judicial Committee.⁹ The question of the power of
Parliament to abolish appeals to the Judicial Committee eventually was
tested in the courts. In 1926, the Judicial Committee ruled that the
Canadian Parliament lacked the jurisdiction to extinguish appeals to the
Judicial Committee, as the right of appeal was founded in the royal
prerogative and could only be terminated by the Imperial Parliament.¹⁰
Following the enactment of the Statute of Westminster, in 1933 the federal
Parliament passed legislation again abolishing the right of appeal in
criminal matters. In 1935, the Judicial Committee upheld the constitutional
validity of that amendment.¹¹ In 1939, the federal government proposed a
reference to the Supreme Court of Canada, asking whether the federal
Parliament could terminate all appeals to the Judicial Committee. By a 4-2
decision, the Supreme Court held that the proposal was within the powers of
the federal Parliament and would be constitutional.¹² The question was then
appealed to the Judicial Committee, but the hearing of the appeal was
delayed by the outbreak of World War II.¹³ in 1946, the Judicial Committee
finally heard the appeal and upheld the decision of the majority of the
Supreme Court,¹⁴ clearing the way for Parliament to enact legislation to
end all appeals to the Judicial Committee, whether from the Supreme Court
or from the provincial courts of appeal. In 1949, Parliament passed an
amendment to the Supreme Court Act which abolished all appeals, making the
Court truly the Supreme Court.¹⁵ However, cases which had been instituted
in the lower courts prior to the amendment could still be appealed to the
Judicial Committee. The last Canadian appeal to the Judicial Committee was
not decided until 1960.¹⁶

Appellate courts of the provinces and territories

These courts of appeal (as listed below by province and territory in
alphabetical order) exist at the provincial and territorial levels and were
separately constituted in the early decades of the 20th century, replacing
the former Full Courts of the old Supreme Courts of the provinces, many of
which were then renamed Courts of Queens Bench. Their function is to review
decisions rendered by the superior-level courts and to deliver references
when requested by a provincial or territorial government as the Supreme
Court does for the federal government. These appellate courts do not
normally conduct trials or hear witnesses.

- Court of Appeal of Alberta (ABCA)¹⁷
- Court of Appeal of British Columbia (BCCA)¹⁸
- Manitoba Court of Appeal (MBCA)¹⁹
- Court of Appeal of New Brunswick (NBCA)²⁰
- Supreme Court of Newfoundland and Labrador (Court of Appeal) (NLCA)²¹
- Court of Appeal for the Northwest Territories (NTCA)²²
- Nova Scotia Court of Appeal (NSCA)²³
- Nunavut Court of Appeal (NUCA)²⁴
- Court of Appeal for Ontario (ONCA)²⁵
- Prince Edward Island Court of Appeal (PECA)²⁶
- Québec Court of Appeal (QCCA)²⁷
- Court of Appeal for Saskatchewan (SKCA)²⁸
- Court of Appeal of Yukon (YKCA)²⁹

These courts are Canada's equivalent of the Court of Appeal in England and
the various State Supreme Courts and U.S. Courts of Appeals in the United
States. Each of the above-listed appellate courts is the highest court from
its respective province or territory. Each province's chief justice sits in
the appellate court of that province.

Superior-level courts of the provinces and territories

These courts (as listed below by province and territory in alphabetical
order) exist at the provincial and territorial levels. The superior courts
are the courts of first instance for divorce petitions, civil lawsuits
involving claims greater than small claims, and criminal prosecutions for
indictable offences (i.e., felonies in American legal terminology). They
also perform a reviewing function for judgements from the local inferior
courts and administrative decisions by provincial or territorial government
entities such as labour boards, human rights tribunals and licensing
authorities.

- Court of Queen's Bench of Alberta (ABQB)
- Supreme Court of British Columbia (BCSC)
- Court of Queen's Bench of Manitoba (MBQB)
- Court of Queen's Bench of New Brunswick (NBQB)
- Supreme Court of Newfoundland and Labrador (Trial Division) (NLTD)
- Supreme Court of the Northwest Territories (NTSC)³⁰
- Supreme Court of Nova Scotia (NSSC)
- Nunavut Court of Justice (NUCJ)³¹
- Court of Ontario – Ontario Superior Court of Justice (ONSC)
- Supreme Court of Prince Edward Island (PESC)
- Québec Superior Court (QCCS)
- Court of Queen's Bench for Saskatchewan (SKQB)
- Supreme Court of Yukon (YKSC)³²

Furthermore, some of these superior courts (like the one in Ontario) have
specialized branches that deal only with certain matters such as family law
or small claims. To complicate things further, the Ontario Superior Court
of Justice has a branch called the Divisional Court that hears only appeals
and judicial reviews of administrative tribunals and whose decisions have
greater binding authority than those from the "regular" branch of the
Ontario Superior Court of Justice. Although a court, like the Supreme Court
of British Columbia, may have the word "supreme" in its name, it is not
necessarily the highest court in its respective province or territory.

Most provinces have special courts dealing with small claims (lawsuits for
less than a certain amount of money). These are typically divisions of the
superior courts in each province. Parties often represent themselves,
without lawyers, in these courts.

Provincial and territorial ("inferior") courts

Main article: Provincial Court

Each province and territory in Canada has an "inferior" or "lower" trial
court, usually called a Provincial (or Territorial) Court, to hear certain
types of cases.

- Provincial Court of Alberta (ABPC)
- Provincial Court of British Columbia (BCPC)
- Provincial Court of Manitoba (MBPC)
- Provincial Court of New Brunswick (NBPC)
- Provincial Court of Newfoundland and Labrador (NLPC)
- Territorial Court of the Northwest Territories (NTTC)
- Provincial Court of Nova Scotia (NSPC)
- Nunavut Court of Justice (NUCJ)
- Court of Ontario – Ontario Court of Justice (ONCJ)
- Provincial Court of Prince Edward Island (PEPC)
- Court of Québec (QCCQ)
- Provincial Court of Saskatchewan (SKPC)
- Territorial Court of Yukon (YKTC)

Appeals from these courts are heard either by the superior court of the
province or territory or by the Court of Appeal. In criminal cases, this
depends on the seriousness of the offence. These courts are created by
provincial statute and only have the jurisdiction granted by statute.
Accordingly, inferior courts do not have inherent jurisdiction. These
courts are usually the successors of older local courts presided over by
lay magistrates and justices of the peace who did not necessarily have
formal legal training. However, today all judges are legally trained,
although justices of the peace may not be. Many inferior courts have
specialized functions, such as hearing only criminal law matters, youth
matters, family law matters, small claims matters, "quasi-criminal"
offences (i.e., violations of provincial statutes), or bylaw infractions.
In some jurisdictions these courts serve as an appeal division from the
decisions of administrative tribunals.

Federal courts

In addition to the Supreme Court of Canada, there are three civil courts
created by the federal Parliament under its legislative authority under s.
101 of the Constitution Act, 1867:

- Federal Court of Appeal
- Federal Court
- Tax Court of Canada

Federal Court of Appeal

The Federal Court of Appeal hears appeals from decisions rendered by the
Federal Court, the Tax Court of Canada and a certain group of federal
administrative tribunals like the National Energy Board and the federal
labour board. All judges of the Federal Court are ex officio judges of the
Federal Court of Appeal, and vice versa, although it is rare that a judge
of one court will sit as a member of the other.

Federal Court

The Federal Court exists primarily to review administrative decisions by
federal government bodies such as the immigration board and to hear
lawsuits under the federal government's jurisdiction such as intellectual
property and maritime law. It also has concurrent jurisdiction with the
superior trial courts of the Provinces to hear civil lawsuits brought
against the federal government. The Federal Court also has jurisdiction to
determine inter-jurisidctional legal actions between the federal government
and a provinces, or between different provinces, provided the province in
question has passed corresponding legislation granting the Federal Court
jurisdiction over the dispute.

In the aftermath of 9/11, Parliament enacted a number of laws to protect
national security. The Federal Court has exclusive jurisdiction to
determine many issues which arise under those laws relating to national
security.

Appeals lie from the Federal Court to the Federal Court of Appeal.

Tax Court of Canada

The Tax Court of Canada has a very specialised jurisdiction. It hears
disputes over federal taxes, primarily under the federal Income Tax Act,
between taxpayers and the federal government. Appeals lie from the Tax
Court to the Federal Court of Appeal.

History of the federal courts

The first federal court was the Exchequer Court of Canada, created in 1875
at the same time as the Supreme Court of Canada.⁶ The Exchequer Court was a
trial court, with a limited jurisdiction over civil actions brought against
the federal government, tax disputes under federal tax laws, admiralty
matters, compensation for expropriation of private property by the federal
Crown, negligence of federal public servants, and intellectual property,
including patents and copyright. The name of the court came from the
Exchequer Court of England, which had a similar jurisdiction over tax
disputes. At first, there were no separate judges for the Exchequer Court.
The judges of the Supreme Court of Canada were also appointed to the
Exchequer Court. Individual judges of the Supreme Court would sit as a
judge of the Exchequer Court, with an appeal lying to the Supreme Court.
The Exchequer Court did not have any jurisdiction to review the actions of
federal administrative agencies. That function was fulfilled by the
provincial superior trial courts.

In 1971, Parliament passed the Federal Court Act³³ which abolished the
Exchequer Court and created a new court, the Federal Court of Canada. That
Court had two divisions: the Federal Court - Trial Division, and the
Federal Court - Appeal Division. Although the two divisions had different
functions, they were all part of a single court.

In 2003, Parliament passed legislation which divided the Federal Court into
two courts. The Federal Court - Trial Division became the Federal Court of
Canada, while the Federal Court - Appeal Division became the Federal Court
of Appeal. The jurisdiction of the two new courts is essentially the same
as the corresponding former divisions of the Federal Court.

Although the federal courts can be said to have the same prestige as the
superior courts from the provinces and territories, they lack the "inherent
jurisdiction" (to be explained later) possessed by superior courts such as
the Ontario Superior Court of Justice.

Military courts

- Court Martial Appeal Court of Canada
- Various military courts called courts martial:
  + General Court Martial
  + Standing Court Martial
- Summary Trial hearings

The courts martial are conducted and presided over by military personnel
and exist for the prosecution of military personnel, as well as civilian
personnel who accompany military personnel, accused of violating the Code
of Service Discipline, which is found in the National Defence Act (R.S.C.
1985, Chapter N-5) and constitutes a complete code of military law
applicable to persons under military jurisdiction.

The decisions of the courts martial can be appealed to the Court Martial
Appeal Court of Canada which, in contrast, exists outside the military and
is made up of civilian judges. This appellate court is the successor of the
Court Martial Appeal Board which was created in 1950, presided over by
civilian judges and lawyers, and was the first ever civilian-based
adjudicating body with authority to review decisions by a military court.
The Court Martial Appeal Court is made up of civilian judges from the
Federal Court, Federal Court of Appeal, and the superior courts of the
provinces.

Summary trials are ad hoc hearings used to dispense with minor service
offenses. The Presiding Officer will have little formal legal training and
is generally the service member's Commanding Officer. In this respect,
these hearings are similar to the former lay magistrates' courts.

Federal and provincial administrative tribunals

Known in Canada as simply "tribunals", these are quasi-judicial
adjudicative bodies, which means that they adjudicate (hear evidence and
render decisions) like courts, but are not necessarily presided over by
judges. Instead, the adjudicators may be experts of the very specific legal
field handled by the tribunal (e.g., labour law, human rights law (known in
the US as "civil rights law"), immigration law, energy law, workers'
compensation law, liquor licensing law, etc.) who hear arguments and
evidence provided by lawyers (also lay advocates in British Columbia or
Licensed Paralegals in Ontario) before making a written decision on record.

Depending on its enabling legislation, a tribunal's decisions may be
reviewed by a court through an appeal or a process called judicial review.
The reviewing court may be required to show some deference to the tribunal
if the tribunal possesses some highly specialized expertise or knowledge
that the court does not have. The degree of deference will also depend on
such factors as the specific wording of the legislation creating the
tribunal. Tribunals whose enabling legislation contains a privative clause
are entitled to a high degree of deference, although a recent decision of
the Supreme Court of Canada (Dunsmuir v. New Brunswick, 2008 SCC 9) has
arguably lowered that degree of deference.

Tribunals which have the power to decide questions of law may take into
consideration the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which is part of
Canada's constitution. The extent to which tribunals may use the Charter in
their decisions is a source of ongoing legal debate.

Appearing before some administrative tribunals may feel like appearing in
court, but the tribunal's procedure is relatively less formal than that of
a court, and more importantly, the rules of evidence are not as strictly
observed, so that some evidence that would be inadmissible in a court
hearing may be allowed in a tribunal hearing, if relevant to the
proceeding. While relevant evidence is admissible, evidence which the
adjudicator determines to have questionable reliability, or is otherwise
questionable, is most likely to be afforded little or no weight.

The presiding adjudicator is normally called "Mister/Madam Chair". As is
the case in court, lawyers routinely appear in tribunals advocating matters
for their clients. A person does not require a lawyer to appear before an
administrative tribunal. Indeed, many of these tribunals are specifically
designed to be more representative to unrepresented litigants than courts.
Furthermore, some of these tribunals are part of a comprehensive
dispute-resolution system, which may emphasize mediation rather than
litigation. For example, provincial human rights commissions routinely use
mediation to resolve many human rights complaints without the need for a
hearing.

What tribunals all have in common is that they are created by statute,
their adjudicators are usually appointed by government, and they focus on
very particular and specialized areas of law. Because some subject matters
(e.g., immigration) fall within federal jurisdiction while others (e.g.,
liquor licensing and workers' compensation) in provincial jurisdiction,
some tribunals are created by federal law while others are created by
provincial law. There are both federal and provincial tribunals for some
subject matters such as unionized labour and human rights.

Most importantly, from a lawyer's perspective, is the fact that the
principle of stare decisis does not apply to tribunals. In other words, a
tribunal adjudicator could legally make a decision that differs from a past
decision, on the same subject and issues, delivered by the highest court in
the land. Because a tribunal is not bound by legal precedent, established
by itself or by a reviewing court, a tribunal is not a court even though it
performs an important adjudicative function and contributes to the
development of law like a court would do.

Although stare decisis does not apply to tribunals, their adjudicators will
likely nonetheless find a prior court decision on a similar subject to be
highly persuasive and will likely follow the courts in order to ensure
consistency in the law and to prevent the embarrassment of having their
decisions overturned by the courts. The same is true for past decisions of
the tribunal.

Among the federal tribunals, there is a small group of tribunals whose
decisions must be appealed directly to the Federal Court of Appeal rather
than to the Federal Court Trial Division. These so-called "super tribunals"
are listed in Subsection 28(1) of the Federal Court Act (R.S.C. 1985,
Chapter F-7) and some examples include the National Energy Board, Canadian
International Trade Tribunal, the Competition Tribunal, the Canada
Industrial Relations Board (i.e. federal labour board), the Copyright
Board, and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission
("CRTC").

Courts of inherent jurisdiction

The superior courts from the provinces and territories are courts of
inherent jurisdiction, which means that the jurisdiction of the superior
courts is more than just what is conferred by statute. Following the
principles of English common law, because the superior courts derive their
authority from the Constitution, they can hear any matter unless there is a
federal or provincial statute that says otherwise or that gives exclusive
jurisdiction to some other court or tribunal. The doctrine of inherent
jurisdiction gives superior courts greater freedom than statutory courts to
be flexible and creative in the delivering of legal remedies and relief.

Statutory courts

The Supreme Court of Canada, the federal courts, the various appellate
courts from the provinces and territories, and the numerous low-level
provincial courts are statutory courts whose decision-making power is
granted by either the federal parliament or a provincial legislature.

The word "statutory" refers to the fact that these courts' powers are
derived from a statute and is defined and limited by the terms of the
statute. A statutory court cannot try cases in areas of law that are not
mentioned or suggested in the statute. In this sense, statutory courts are
similar to non-judicial adjudicative bodies such as administrative
tribunals, boards, and commissions, which are created and given limited
power by legislation. The practical implication of this is that a statutory
court cannot provide a type of legal remedy or relief that is not expressly
or implicitly referred to in its enabling or empowering statute.

Appointment and regulation of judges

Main article: Judicial appointments in Canada

Judges in Canada are appointed and not elected. Judges of the Supreme Court
of Canada, the federal courts, the appellate courts and the superior-level
courts are appointed by the Governor-in-Council (by the Governor General on
the advice of the Federal Cabinet).³⁴ Thus, judges of the Ontario Superior
Court of Justice are chosen not by Ontario's provincial government but upon
the recommendations of Her Majesty's Canadian Government. Meanwhile,
judicial appointments to judicial posts in the so-called "inferior" or
"provincial" courts are made by the local provincial governments.

As judicial independence is seen by Canadian law to be essential to a
functioning democracy, the regulating of Canadian judges requires the
involvement of the judges themselves. The Canadian Judicial Council, made
up of the chief justices and associate chief justices of the federal courts
and of each province and territory, receive complaints from the public
concerning questionable behaviour from members of the bench.

Salaries of superior courts are set by Parliament under section 100 of the
Constitution Act, 1867. Since the Provincial Judges Reference of 1997,
provincial courts' salaries are recommended by independent commissions, and
a similar body called the Judicial Compensation and Benefits Commission was
established in 1999 for federally appointed judges.

Tenure of judges and removal from the bench

Judges in positions that are under federal control (federally appointed
positions) are eligible to serve on the bench until age 75. In some but not
all Provincial and Territorial positions, appointed judges have tenure
until age 70 instead.

As for removal from the bench, judges have only rarely been removed from
the bench in Canada. For federally appointed judges, it is the task of The
Canadian Judicial Council to investigate complaints and allegations of
misconduct on the part of federally appointed judges. The Council may
recommend to the (federal) Minister of Justice that the judge be removed.
To do so, the Minister must in turn get the approval of both the House of
Commons and the Senate before a judge can be removed from office. (The
rules for provincial/territorial judges are similar, but they can be
removed by a provincial or territorial cabinet.)³⁵

Languages used in court

English and French are both official languages of the federal government of
Canada. Either official language may be used by any person or in any
pleading or process in or issuing from any Court of Canada established by
Parliament under the Constitution Act, 1867.³⁶ This constitutional
guarantee applies to the Supreme Court of Canada, the Federal Court of
Appeal, the Federal Court, the Tax Court of Canada, and the Court Martial
Appeal Court. Parliament has expanded on that constitutional guarantee to
ensure that the federal courts are institutionally bilingual.³⁷

The right to use either language in the provincial and territorial courts
varies. The Constitution guarantees the right to use either French or
English in the courts of Quebec³⁸ and New Brunswick.³⁹ There is a statutory
right to use either English or French in the courts of Ontario⁴⁰ and
Saskatchewan,⁴¹ and a limited right to use French in oral submissions in
the courts of Alberta.⁴²

As well, in all criminal trials under the Criminal Code, a federal statute,
every accused whose language is either English or French has the right to
be tried in the language of their choice.⁴³ As a result, every court of
criminal jurisdiction in Canada, whether federal, provincial or
territorial, must have the institutional capacity to provide trials in
either language.

Furthermore, under section 14 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and
Freedoms a party or witness in any proceedings who does not understand or
speak the language in which the proceedings are conducted or who is deaf
has the right to the assistance of an interpreter.

In the Northwest Territories⁴⁴ and Nunavut⁴⁵ the official aboriginal
languages may be used as well.

Court customs

Courtroom custom is largely based upon the British tradition, with a few
modifications.

Symbols

Canadian courts derive their authority from the monarch. Consequently, the
judicial system in Canada is formally known as the "The Queen on the
Bench".¹ As a result, important symbols in a courtroom include the picture
of the Canadian monarch and their heraldic Arms, although not all
courtrooms have a picture of the monarch. Many courts display Canadian and
provincial flags. In the British Columbia courts as well as in the Supreme
Court of Newfoundland and Labrador, the Royal coat of arms of the United
Kingdom is displayed for reasons of tradition.

Dress

Main article: Court dress

In superior courts, lawyers wear black robes and white neck tabs, like
barristers in the United Kingdom, but they do not wear wigs. Business
attire is appropriate when appearing before judges of superior courts
sitting in chambers and before judges of provincial or territorial courts
or justices of the peace.

Judges dress in barrister's robes similar to the lawyers'. Judges of some
courts adorn their robes with coloured sashes. For example, Federal Court
Judges' robes are adorned with a gold sash, and Tax Court of Canada Judges'
robes with a purple sash.

Etiquette/Decorum

- Judges do not use gavels. Instead, a judge raises his or her voice (or
  stands up if necessary) to restore order in the courtroom.
- In most jurisdictions, when entering or leaving a courtroom when there is
  a judge seated inside, one should bow, while standing inside the court
  but near the doorway, in the direction of the seated judge. Many lawyers
  also bow when crossing the bar.
- Judges of superior courts in some provinces are traditionally addressed
  as "My Lord" or "My Lady," but in other provinces are referred to as
  "Your Honour". Judges of inferior courts are always traditionally
  referred to in person as "Your Honour". The practice varies across
  jurisdictions, with some superior court judges preferring the titles
  "Mister Justice" or "Madam Justice" to "Lordship".⁴⁶ Judges of the
  Supreme Court of Canada and of the federal-level courts prefer the use of
  "Mister/Madam (Chief) Justice". Justices of the Peace are addressed as
  "Your Worship".
- Judges of inferior courts are referred to as "Judge [Surname]" while
  judges of superior and federal courts are referred to as "Mister/Madam
  Justice [Surname]," except in Ontario, where all trial judges in referred
  to as "Mister/Madam Justice".
- A lawyer advocating in court typically uses "I" when referring to him or
  herself. The word "we" is not used, even if the lawyer is referring to
  him/herself and his/her client as a group.
- The judge in court refers to a lawyer as "counsel" (not "counsellor"), or
  simply "Mr./Ms. [surname]". In Quebec, the title "Maître" is used.
- In court, it is customary for opposing counsel to refer to one another as
  "my friend", or sometimes (usually in the case of Queen's Counsel) "my
  learned friend".
- In any criminal law case, the prosecuting party is "the Crown" while the
  criminally prosecuted person is called the "accused" (not the
  "defendant"). The prosecuting lawyer is called "Crown Counsel" (or, in
  Ontario, "Crown attorney"). Crown counsel in criminal proceedings are
  customarily addressed and referred to as "Mr Crown" or "Madam Crown."
- The "versus" or "v." in the style of cause of Canadian court cases is
  often pronounced "and" (rather than "vee" or "versus" as in the US or
  "against" in criminal proceedings in England, Scotland, and Australasia).
  For example, Roncarelli v. Duplessis would be pronounced "Roncarelli and
  Duplessis".

Procedure

- The judicial function of the Royal Prerogative is performed in trust and
  in the Queen's name by officers of Her Majesty's court, who enjoy the
  privilege granted conditionally by the sovereign to be free from criminal
  and civil liability for unsworn statements made within the court.⁴⁷ This
  dispensation extends from the notion in common law that the sovereign
  "can do no wrong".
- There are no so-called "sidebars" where lawyers from both sides approach
  the bench in order to have a quiet and discreet conversation with the
  judge while court is in session.
- Trial judges typically take a passive role during trial; however, during
  their charge to the jury, judges may comment upon the value of certain
  testimony or suggest the appropriate amount of damages in a civil case,
  although they are required to tell the jury that it is to make its own
  decision and is not bound to agree with the judge.
- Jury trials are less frequent than in the United States and usually
  reserved for serious criminal cases. A person accused of a crime
  punishable by imprisonment for five years or more has the constitutional
  right to a jury trial. Only British Columbia and Ontario regularly use
  juries in civil trials.
- Evidence and documents are not passed directly to the judge, but instead
  passed to the judge through the court clerk. The clerk, referred to as
  "Mister/Madam Clerk" or "Mister/Madam Registrar", also wears a robe and
  sits in front of the judge and faces the lawyers.
- In some jurisdictions, the client sits with the general public, behind
  counsel's table, rather than beside his or her lawyer at counsel's table.
  The accused in a criminal trial sits in the prisoners box often located
  on the side wall opposite the jury, or in the middle of the courtroom.
  However it is becoming increasingly common for accused persons to sit at
  counsel table with their lawyers.
- In four provinces (British Columbia, Alberta, Manitoba and Ontario), the
  superior-level courts employ judicial officers known as Masters who deal
  only with interlocutory motions (or interlocutory applications) in civil
  cases. With such Masters dealing with the relatively short interlocutory
  motion/application hearings, trial judges can devote more time on more
  lengthy hearings such as trials. In the Federal Court, a Prothonotary
  holds a similar positions to that of a Master.

See also

- Canadian legal system

References

[1] MacLeod, Kevin S. (2008), A Crown of Maples (PDF) (1 ed.), Ottawa:
  Queen's Printer for Canada, p. 17, ISBN 978-0-662-46012-1, retrieved 19
  January 2015
[2] Constitution Act, 1867, s. 92(14)
[3] Supreme Court Act, R.S.C. 1985, c. S-26
[4] Constitution Act, 1867, s. 101
[5] Snell and Vaughan, The Supreme Court of Canada - History of the
  Institution (Toronto: Osgoode Society, 1985), pp. 6-7.l
[6] The Supreme and Exchequer Courts Act, S.C. 1875, c. 11.
[7] Snell and Vaughan, The Supreme Court of Canada - History of the
  Institution, pp. 10-11
[8] Snell and Vaughan, The Supreme Court of Canada - History of the
  Institution, p. 16.
[9] Snell and Vaughan, The Supreme Court of Canada - History of the
  Institution, pp. 178-179.
[10] Nadan v. The King, [1926] A.C. 482 (P.C.)
[11] British Coal Corporation v. The King, [1935] A.C. 500 (P.C.).
[12] Reference re Supreme Court Act Amendment Act, [1940] S.C.R. 49.
[13] Snell and Vaughan, The Supreme Court of Canada - History of the
  Institution, p. 188.
[14] Reference re Privy Council Appeals, [1947] A.C. 127.
[15] An Act to Amend the Supreme Court Act, S.C. 1949, c. 37.
[16] Ponoka-Calmar Oils v Wakefield, [1960] A.C. 18 (P.C.).
[17] Court of Appeal Act, R.S.A. 2000, c. C-30
[18] Court of Appeal Act, R.S.B.C. 1996, c. 77
[19] The Court of Appeal Act, C.C.S.M., c. C240
[20] Judicature Act, R.S.N.B. 1973, c. J-2
[21] Judicature Act, R.S.N.L. 1990, c. J-4
[22] Judicature Act, R.S.N.W.T. 1988, c. J-1
[23] Judicature Act, R.S.N.S. 1989, c. 240
[24] Judicature Act, S.N.W.T. (Nu.) 1998, c. 34 s. 1
[25] Courts of Justice Act, R.S.O. 1990, c. C.43
[26] Judicature Act, R.S.P.E.I. 1988, c. J-2.1
[27] Courts of Justice Act, C.Q.L.R., c. T-16
[28] The Court of Appeal Act, S.S. 2000, c. C-42.1
[29] Court of Appeal Act, R.S.Y. 2002, c. 47
[30] Northwest Territories Act, S.C. 2014, c. 2, s. 2; Judicature Act,
  R.S.N.W.T. 1988, c. J-1
[31] Nunavut Act, S.C. 1993, c. 28; Judicature Act, S.N.W.T. (Nu.) 1998, c.
  34 s. 1
[32] Yukon Act, S.C. 2002, c. 7; Supreme Court Act, R.S.Y. 2002, c. 211
[33] Federal Court Act, R.S.C. 1970 (2nd Supp.), c. 10
[34] Constitution Act, 1867, s. 96
[35] "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2011-12-06. Retrieved
  2012-01-29.
[36] Constitution Act, 1867, s. 133; Canadian Charter of Rights and
  Freedoms, s, 19(1)
[37] Official Languages Act, R.S.C. 1985, c. 31 (4th Supp.), Part III,
  Administration of Justice.
[38] Constitution Act, 1867, s. 133
[39] Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, s. 19(2).
[40] Courts of Justice Act, R.S.O. 1990, c. C.43, ss. 125 and 126.
[41] Language Act / Loi linguistique, S.S. 1988, c. L-6.1, s. 11
[42] Language Act, R.S.A. 2000 cL-6, s. 4
[43] Criminal Code, RSC 1985, c C-46, Part XVII.
[44] Official Languages Act, R.S.N.W.T. 1988, c. O-1, s. 9(2)
[45] Official Languages Act = ᑲᑎᑕᐅᓂᖓ ᐊᑕᐅᓯᕐᒧᑦ ᐃᓕᓴᕆᔭᐅᓯᒪᔪᑦ ᐅᖃᐅᓰᑦ ᐱᖁᔭᖅ, S.Nu.
  2008, c. 10, s. 8
[46] Styles of address
[47] "Criminal Code". Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). Senate. 17 February
  2000. col. 1500–1510.
- Leishman, Rory, Against Judicial Activism : The Decline of Freedom and
  Democracy in Canada, McGill-Queen's University Press, 2006, ISBN
  0-7735-3054-1

Further reading

- Morton, Frederick Lee (2002), Law, politics, and the judicial process in
  Canada, Frederick Lee, ISBN 1-55238-046-7
- Riddell, Troy, Lori Hausegger, Matthew Hennigar (2008), Canadian courts :
  law, politics, and process, Don Mills, Ont.: Oxford University Press
  Canada, ISBN 0-19-542373-9

External links

- a searchable database containing nearly all new and many older decisions
  emanating from all Canadian courts and most Canadian tribunals are
  available at the CanLII website and the decisions of individual courts
  are provided through that court's website (see partial list below)
- Canada's Court System from the Department of Justice Canada
- Supreme Court of Canada
- Federal Court and Federal Court of Appeal
- Tax Court of Canada
- Courts of the Northwest Territories
- Courts of Yukon
- Nunavut Court of Justice
- Courts of British Columbia
- Courts of Alberta
- Courts of Manitoba
- Courts of Saskatchewan
- Courts of Ontario
- Courts of Quebec
- Courts of New Brunswick
- Courts of Newfoundland
- Courts of Nova Scotia
- Supreme Court of Prince Edward Island
- Court Martial Appeal Court of Canada
- Canadian Judicial Council
- Justice Canada - Judicial Appointments Press Releases (since 1999 for
  federal and subnational appointments)
- Justice Canada - Judicial Appointments Press Releases (since 1999 for
  federal and subnational appointments)

Supreme Court of Canada

The Supreme Court of Canada (French: Cour suprême du Canada) is the highest
court of Canada, the final court of appeals in the Canadian justice
system.¹ The court grants permission to between 40 and 75 litigants each
year to appeal decisions rendered by provincial, territorial and federal
appellate courts. Its decisions are the ultimate expression and application
of Canadian law and binding upon all lower courts of Canada, except to the
extent that they are overridden or otherwise made ineffective by an Act of
Parliament or the Act of a provincial legislative assembly pursuant to
Section 33 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (the
notwithstanding clause).

History

Main article: History of the Supreme Court of Canada

The creation of the court was provided for by the British North America
Act, 1867, renamed in 1982 the Constitution Act, 1867. The first bills for
the creation of a federal supreme court, introduced in the Parliament of
Canada in 1869 and in 1870, were withdrawn. It was not until 8 April 1875
that a bill was finally passed providing for the creation of a Supreme
Court of Canada.

Prior to 1949, however, the Supreme Court did not constitute the court of
last resort; litigants could appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy
Council in London. As well, some cases could bypass the court and go
directly to the Judicial Committee from the provincial courts of appeal.

The Supreme Court of Canada formally became the Court of last resort for
criminal appeals in 1933 and for all other appeals in 1949. The last
decisions of the Judicial Committee on cases from Canada were made in the
mid-1950s, as a result of their being heard in a court of first instance
prior to 1949.

The increase in the importance of the court was mirrored by the numbers of
its members. The court was established first with six judges, and these
were augmented by an additional member in 1927. It was in 1949 that the
bench reached its current composition, of nine Justices.

Prior to 1949, most of the appointees to the Supreme Court of Canada owed
their position to political patronage. Each judge had strong ties to the
party in power at the time of their appointment. In 1973, the appointment
of a constitutional law professor, Bora Laskin, as chief justice
represented a major turning point for the court. Increasingly in this
period, appointees either came from academic backgrounds or were
well-respected practitioners with several years experience in appellate
courts. Laskin's federalist and liberal views were shared by Prime Minister
Pierre Trudeau, who recommended Laskin's appointment to the Court.

The Constitution Act, 1982, greatly expanded the role of the court in
Canadian society by the addition of the Canadian Charter of Rights and
Freedoms, which greatly broadened the scope of judicial review. The
evolution from the Dickson court (1984–90) through to the Lamer court
(1990–2000) witnessed a continuing vigour in the protection of civil
liberties. Lamer's criminal law background proved an influence on the
number of criminal cases heard by the court during his time as chief
justice. Nonetheless, the Lamer court was more conservative with charter
rights, with only about a 1% success rate for charter claimants.

The appointment of Beverly McLachlin as chief justice in 2000 has resulted
in a more centrist and unified court. Dissenting and concurring opinions
are fewer than during the Dickson and Lamer Courts. With the 2005
appointments of Justices Louise Charron and Rosalie Abella, the court
became the world's most gender-balanced national high court, four of its
nine members being female.² ³ Justice Marie Deschamps' retirement on 7
August 2012 caused the number to fall to three.⁴ The appointment of Suzanne
Côté on 1 December 2014 restored the number of female justices to four.

Canadian judiciary

The structure of the Canadian court system is pyramidal, a broad base being
formed by the various provincial and territorial courts whose judges are
appointed by the provincial or territorial governments. At the next level
are the provinces' and territories' superior courts, where judges are
appointed by the federal government. Judgments from the superior courts may
be appealed to a still higher level, the provincial or territorial courts
of appeal.

Several federal courts also exist: the Tax Court of Canada, the Federal
Court, the Federal Court of Appeal, and the Court Martial Appeal Court of
Canada. Unlike the provincial superior courts, which exercise inherent or
general jurisdiction, the federal courts' jurisdiction is limited by
statute. In all there are over 1,000 federally appointed judges at various
levels across Canada.

Appellate process

The Supreme Court of Canada rests at the apex of the judicial pyramid. This
institution hears appeals from the provincial courts of last resort,
usually the provincial or territorial courts of appeal, and the Federal
Court of Appeal (although in some matters appeals come straight from the
trial courts, as in the case of publication bans and other orders that are
otherwise not appealable).

In most cases, permission to appeal must first be obtained from the court.
Motions for leave to appeal to the court are generally heard by a panel of
three judges of the court and a simple majority is determinative. By
convention, this panel never explains why it grants or refuses leave in any
particular case, but the court typically hears cases of national importance
or where the case allows the court to settle an important issue of law.
Leave is rarely granted, meaning that for most litigants, provincial courts
of appeal are courts of last resort. But leave to appeal is not required
for some cases, primarily criminal cases (in which a Judge below dissented
on a point of law) and appeals from provincial references.

A final source of cases is the referral power of the federal government. In
such cases, the Supreme Court is required to give an opinion on questions
referred to it by the Governor-in-Council (the Cabinet). However, in many
cases, including the most recent same-sex marriage reference, the court has
declined to answer a question from the Cabinet. In that case, the court
said it would not decide if same-sex marriages were required by the charter
of rights, because the government had announced it would change the law
regardless of its opinion, and subsequently did.

Constitutional interpretation

The Supreme Court thus performs a unique function. It can be asked by the
Governor-in-Council to hear references considering important questions of
law. Such referrals may concern the constitutionality or interpretation of
federal or provincial legislation, or the division of powers between
federal and provincial spheres of government. Any point of law may be
referred in this manner. However, the court is not often called upon to
hear references. References have been used to re-examine criminal
convictions that have concerned the country as in the cases of David
Milgaard and Steven Truscott.

The Supreme Court has the ultimate power of judicial review over Canadian
federal and provincial laws' constitutional validity. If a federal or
provincial law has been held contrary to the division of power provisions
of one of the various constitution acts, the legislature or parliament must
either live with the result, amend the law so that it complies, or obtain
an amendment to the constitution. If a law is declared contrary to certain
sections of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, parliament or the
provincial legislatures may make that particular law temporarily valid
again against by using the "override power" of the notwithstanding clause.
In one case, the Quebec National Assembly invoked this power to override a
Supreme Court decision (Ford v. Quebec (A.G.)) that held that one of
Quebec's language laws banning the display of English commercial signs was
inconsistent with the charter. Saskatchewan used it to uphold labour laws.
This override power can be exercised for five years, after which time the
override must be renewed, or the decision comes into force.

In some cases, the court may stay the effect of its judgments so that
unconstitutional laws continue in force for a period of time. Usually this
is done to give parliament or the legislature time to enact a new
replacement scheme of legislation. For example, in Reference re Manitoba
Language Rights, the court struck down Manitoba's laws because they were
not enacted in the French language, as required by the constitution.
However, the court stayed its judgment for five years to give Manitoba time
to re-enact all its legislation in French. It turned out five years was
insufficient so the court was asked, and agreed, to give more time.

Constitutional questions may, of course, also be raised in the normal case
of appeals involving individual litigants, governments, government agencies
or crown corporations. In such cases the federal and provincial governments
must be notified of any constitutional questions and may intervene to
submit a brief and attend oral argument at the court. Usually the other
governments are given the right to argue their case in the Court, although
on rare occasions this has been curtailed and prevented by order of one of
the court's judges.

Sessions

Main article: Procedures of the Supreme Court of Canada

The court sits for 18 weeks of the year beginning the first Monday of
October and usually runs until the end of June and sometimes into July.
Hearings only take place in Ottawa, although litigants can present oral
arguments from remote locations by means of a video-conference system. The
court's hearings are open to the public. Most hearings are taped for
delayed telecast in both of Canada's official languages. When in session,
the court sits Monday to Friday, hearing two appeals a day. A quorum
consists of five members for appeals. A panel of nine justices hears most
cases.

On the bench, the Chief Justice of Canada or, in his or her absence, the
senior puisne justice, presides from the centre chair with the other
justices seated to his or her right and left by order of seniority of
appointment. At sittings of the court, the justices usually appear in black
silk robes but they wear their ceremonial robes of bright scarlet trimmed
with Canadian white mink in court on special occasions and in the Senate at
the opening of each new session of Parliament.

Counsel appearing before the Court may use either English or French. The
judges can also use either English or French. There is simultaneous
translation available to the judges, counsel, and to members of the public
who are in the audience.

The decision of the court is sometimes—but rarely—rendered orally at the
conclusion of the hearing. In these cases, the Court may simply refer to
the decision of the court below to explain its own reasons. In other cases,
the court may announce its decision at the conclusion of the hearing, with
reasons to follow.⁵ ⁶ ⁷ As well, in some cases, the court may not call on
counsel for the respondent, if it has not been convinced by the arguments
of counsel for the appellant.⁸ In very rare cases, the court may not call
on counsel for the appellant and instead calls directly on counsel for the
respondent.⁹ However, in most cases, the court hears from all counsel and
then reserves judgment, to enable the justices to write considered reasons.
Decisions of the court need not be unanimous; a majority may decide, with
dissenting reasons given by the minority. Each justice may write reasons in
any case if he or she chooses to do so.

A Puisne Justice of the Supreme Court of Canada is referred to as The
Honourable Mr/Madam Justice and the chief justice as Right Honourable. At
one time, judges were addressed as My Lord or My Lady during sessions of
the court, but this style of address was disapproved of by the current
Chief Justice, Beverly McLachlin, who has directed lawyers to use the
simpler Your Honour or Justice. The designation My Lord/My Lady continues
in many provincial superior courts and in the Federal Court of Canada and
Federal Court of Appeal, where it is optional.

Every four years, the Judicial Compensation and Benefits Commission makes
recommendations to the federal government about the salaries for federally
appointed judges, including the judges of the Supreme Court. That
recommendation is not legally binding on the federal government, but the
federal government is generally required to comply with the recommendation
unless there is a very good reason to not do so.¹⁰ The chief justice
receives $370,300 while the puisne justices receive $342,800 annually.¹¹

Appointment of Justices

Main article: Judicial appointments in Canada

Justices of the Supreme Court of Canada are appointed by the Governor
General-in-Council, a process whereby the governor general, the viceregal
representative of the Queen of Canada, makes appointments based on the
advice of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada. By tradition and
convention, only the Cabinet, a standing committee in the larger council,
advises the governor general and this advice is usually expressed
exclusively through a consultation with the prime minister. Thus, the
provinces and parliament have no formal role in such appointments,
sometimes a point of contention.

As of August, 2016 Prime Minister Justin Trudeau opened the process of
application to change from the above noted appointment process. The new
revised process "will permit any Canadian lawyer or judge who fits a
specified criteria can apply for a seat on the Supreme Court, through the
Office of the Commissioner for Federal Judicial Affairs."¹²

The Supreme Court Act limits eligibility for appointment to persons who
have been judges of a superior court, or members of the bar for ten or more
years. Members of the bar or superior judiciary of Quebec, by law, must
hold three of the nine positions on the Supreme Court of Canada.¹³ This is
justified on the basis that Quebec uses civil law, rather than common law,
as in the rest of the country. The 3 out of 9 proportion persists despite
the fact that only 24 percent of Canada's population resides in Quebec. As
explained in the Court's reasons in Reference re Supreme Court Act, ss. 5
and 6, sitting judges of the Federal Court and Federal Court of Appeal
cannot be appointed to any of Quebec's three seats. By convention, the
remaining six positions are divided in the following manner: three from
Ontario; two from the western provinces, typically one from British
Columbia and one from the prairie provinces, which rotate amongst
themselves (although Alberta is known to cause skips in the rotation); and
one from the Atlantic provinces, almost always from Nova Scotia or New
Brunswick.

A Supreme Court Justice, as with all federal judges, may sit on the bench
until the age of 75 years, at which age retirement is mandatory.

In 2006, an interview phase by an ad hoc committee of members of parliament
was added. Justice Marshall Rothstein became the first justice to undergo
the new process. The prime minister still has the final say on who becomes
the candidate that is recommended to the governor general for appointment
to the court. The government proposed an interview phase again in 2008, but
a general election and minority parliament intervened with delays such that
the Prime Minister recommended Justice Cromwell after consulting the Leader
of Her Majesty's Official Opposition.

Current members

Further information: List of Justices of the Supreme Court of Canada

Rules of the Court

The Rules of the Supreme Court of Canada are located on the
laws-lois.justice.gc.ca website, as well as in the Canada Gazette, as
SOR/2002-216 (plus amendments). The Rules are made pursuant to subsection
97(1) of the Supreme Court Act; fees and taxes are set out near the end.

Law clerks

Since 1967, the court has hired law clerks to assist in legal research.
Between 1967 and 1982, each puisne justice was assisted by one law clerk
and the chief justice had two. From 1982, the number was increased to two
law clerks for each justice.¹⁴ Currently, each justice has three law
clerks.¹⁵ Typically, the law clerks are selected from among the top
students of each law school across the country. Their service with the
court meets in whole or in part the articling requirements of the
provincial law societies as a condition of admission to the Bar.

Law clerks conduct research, draft bench memoranda, and assist in drafting
judgments, as well as any other research duties assigned by the law clerk's
judge such as drafting speeches or articles.

Building

The Supreme Court of Canada Building, located southwest of Parliament Hill
at 301 Wellington St. in Ottawa, is home to the Supreme Court of Canada. It
also contains two court rooms used by both the Federal Court of Canada and
the Federal Court of Appeal. Construction began in 1939, with the
cornerstone laid by Queen Elizabeth, consort to King George VI and later
Queen Mother. It was designed by Ernest Cormier. The court began hearing
cases in the new building by January 1946. The building is renowned for its
Art Deco decorative details,¹⁶ including two candelabrum-style fluted metal
lamp standards that flank the entrance, and the marble walls and floors of
the grand interior lobby¹⁷ contrasting with the châteauesque roof.

In 2000, it was named by the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada as one
of the top 500 buildings produced in Canada during the last millennium.¹⁸

Canada Post Corporation issued a 'Supreme Court of Canada, Ottawa' stamp on
9 June 2011 as part of the Architecture Art Déco series.¹⁷

Two flagstaffs have been erected in front of the building. A flag on one is
flown daily, while the other is hoisted only on those days when the court
is in session. Also located on the grounds are several statues, notably:

- Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent by Elek Imredy 1976
- Two statues by Canadian sculptor Walter S. Allward:
  + Statue of Veritas (Truth)
  + Statue of Justitia (Justice)

Inside there are busts of several chief justices:

- John Robert Cartwright 1967–1970
- Bora Laskin 1973–1983
- Brian Dickson 1984–1990
- Antonio Lamer 1990–2000

They were all sculpted by Kenneth Phillips Jarvis (1927–2007), Q.C., RCA, a
retired Under Treasurer of the Law Society of Upper Canada.¹⁹

The court was housed previously in two other locations in Ottawa:

- Railway Committee Room and a number of other committee rooms at the
  Centre Block on Parliament Hill 1876–1889 - later used as official
  meeting space for the federal Opposition Party²⁰
- Old Supreme Court building on Bank Street 1889–1945 - demolished in 1955
  and used as parking for Parliament Hill

Cultural recognition

On 9 June 2011 Canada Post issued 'Supreme Court of Canada, Ottawa'
designed by Ivan Novotny (Taylor|Sprules Corporation) and based on a
photograph by Philippe Landreville as part of the Art Deco series. The
stamps feature a photo of the Supreme Court of Canada, designed by Ernest
Cormier in 1939, and were printed by Lowe-Martin Company, Inc.¹⁷

-
Supreme Court of Canada Building in Ottawa, Ontario Canada
-
Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent statue (1976) by Erek Imredy in front of
  Supreme Court of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario Canada
-
Walter Seymour Allward's Justitia (Justice), outside Supreme Court of
  Canada, Ottawa, Ontario Canada
-
Walter Seymour Allward's Veritas (Truth) outside Supreme Court of Canada,
  Ottawa, Ontario Canada

See also

- Supreme Court of Canada cases

References

[1] "Role of the Court". Supreme Court of Canada. 23 May 2014. Retrieved
  2014-05-27.
[2] ""New judges fill gaps in spectrum"". The Globe and Mail. 5 October
  2004. Retrieved 2016-05-06.
[3] " ""Two women named to Canada's supreme court"". UPI. 4 October 2004.
  Retrieved 2016-05-06.
[4] "Supreme Court loses third veteran judge in a year with Justice Marie
  Deschamps' departure". Toronto Star. 18 May 2012. Retrieved 2014-05-27.
[5] R. v. Beare; R. v. Higgins, [1988] 2 S.C.R. 387, para. 19.
[6] Consortium Developments (Clearwater) Ltd. v. Sarnia (City), [1998] 3
  S.C.R. 3, para. 1.
[7] Rothmans, Benson & Hedges Inc. v. Saskatchewan, 2005 SCC 13, [2005] 1
  S.C.R. 188, para. 1.
[8] Whitbread v. Walley, [1990] 3 S.C.R. 1273, para. 2.
[9] Rothmans, Benson & Hedges Inc. v. Saskatchewan, 2005 SCC 13, [2005] 1
  S.C.R. 188.
[10] Provincial Court Judges' Assn. of New Brunswick v. New Brunswick
  (Minister of Justice); Ontario Judges' Assn. v. Ontario (Management
  Board); Bodner v. Alberta; Conférence des juges du Québec v. Quebec
  (Attorney General); Minc v. Quebec (Attorney General), [2005] 2 S.C.R.
  286, 2005 SCC 44, para. 21.
[11] "Judges Act". Minister and Attorney General of Canada. 9 June 2014.
  Retrieved 23 June 2014.
[12]
  http://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/why-canada-has-a-new-way-to-choose-supreme-court-judges/article31220275/
[13] Supreme Court Act, s. 6.
[14] The Supreme Court of Canada / La Cour Suprême du Canada. Ottawa:
  Supreme Court of Canada. 2005. p. 7.
[15] The Supreme Court of Canada / La Cour Suprême du Canada. Ottawa:
  Supreme Court of Canada. 2005. p. 26.
[16] "1940 – Supreme Court of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario". archiseek.com.
  Retrieved 2014-05-27.
[17] "Supreme Court of Canada, Ottawa" (Press release). Canada Post. 9 June
  2011. Retrieved 2014-05-27.
[18] Cook, Marcia (11 May 2000). "Cultural consequence". Ottawa Citizen.
  Canwest. Archived from the original on 30 May 2010. Retrieved 11 October
  2009.
[19]
  http://www.attorneygeneral.jus.gov.on.ca/english/mundell_medal/kenneth_jarvis_memoriam.pdf
[20] Kathryn Blaze Carlson (11 May 2011). "Liberals take their leave of the
  Railway Room". National Post.

Further reading

- McCormick, Peter (2000), Supreme at last: the evolution of the Supreme
  Court of Canada, J. Lorimer, ISBN 1-55028-693-5
- Ostberg, Cynthia L (2007), Attitudinal decision making in the Supreme
  Court of Canada, UBC Press, ISBN 978-0-7748-1312-9
- Songer, Donald R (2008), The transformation of the Supreme Court of
  Canada: an empirical examination, University of Toronto Press, ISBN
  978-0-8020-9689-0

External links

- Supreme Court of Canada website
- Supreme Court of Canada Library Catalogue
- Opinions of the Supreme Court of Canada
- searchable database of SCC decisions (to 1948, with select older cases)
  via CanLII
- Supreme Court of Canada from www.marianopolis.edu
- Explore the Virtual Charter—Charter of Rights website with video, audio
  and the Charter in more than twenty languages
- The appointment process and reform
- SCC building from official site
- SCC Building

Coordinates: 45°25′19″N 75°42′20″W / 45.42195°N 75.705682°W

Federal Court of Appeal (Canada)

The Federal Court of Appeal (French: Cour d'appel fédérale) is a Canadian
appellate court that hears cases concerning federal matters.

History

The court was created on July 2, 2003, by the Courts Administration Service
Act when it and the Federal Court were split from its predecessor, the
Federal Court of Canada.

Administration

The Federal Court of Appeal hears appeals from the Federal Court, Tax Court
of Canada, and certain federal tribunals, as well as applications for
judicial review from certain other federal tribunals.¹

Salaries are determined annually by the Judicial Compensation and Benefits
Commission. The Chief Justice receives $315,900 while other judges earn
$288,100 annually.²

Notable decisions

In April 2014, the court ruled in favour of the Métis people in a case
involving extending protections to Aboriginal peoples in Canada who lived
off-reserve.³

In September 2015, the court dismissed an appeal by the Government of
Canada over a ruling by the Federal Court that found a rule banning the
Niqāb at citizenship ceremonies to be unconstitutional.⁴

Appointments

See also

- List of notable Canadian Courts of Appeal cases

References

[1] Federal Courts Act - R.S.C., 1985, c. F-7 (Section 27)
[2] Judges Act - R.S.C., 1985, c. J-1 (Section 10)
[3] "Court of Appeal upholds landmark ruling on rights of Métis". CBC News.
  Retrieved 2016-02-23.
[4] "Court dismisses federal appeal over niqab at citizenship ceremonies".
  The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 2016-02-23.
[5] Partner at Bennett Jones
[6] Counsel at Deloitte Tax Law LLP before being reappointed
[7] Superior Court of Quebec
[8] Lawyer at Heenan Blaikie LLP

External links

- Federal Court of Appeal website
- Federal Courts Act
- Courts Administration Service Act
- Judges Act

Federal Court (Canada)

The Federal Court (French: Cour fédérale) is a Canadian trial court that
hears cases arising under certain areas of federal law. The Federal Court
is a lower court with nationwide jurisdiction.

History

The Court was created on July 2, 2003 by the Courts Administration Service
Act when it and the Federal Court of Appeal were split from their
predecessor, the Federal Court of Canada (which was created June 1, 1971,
through the enactment of the Federal Court Act, subsequently renamed the
Federal Courts Act). The Court's authority comes from the Federal Courts
Act.

On October 24, 2008, the Federal Court was given its own Armorial bearings
by the Governor General, the third court in Canada to be given its own Coat
of Arms – after the Court Martial Appeal Court of Canada and Ontario
Superior Court of Justice. The coat of arms features a newly created
fantastical creature, the winged sea caribou, as the supporters,
representing the provision of justice on air, land and sea.¹

Structure

The Federal Court consists of a Chief Justice and thirty-two other judges.
Currently, there are 28 full-time judges (leaving five vacancies in the
Court), along with four supernumerary judges, six deputy judges, and six
prothonotaries.

Law Clerks are hired for not more than a one-year terms to help the judges
research and prepare decisions. They are generally assigned to a particular
judge.

Judges' salaries are determined annually by the Judicial Compensation and
Benefits Commission. Chief Justice receives $315,900 while other judges
receives $288,100 annually.²

Jurisdiction

The Federal Court cannot hear any case unless a federal statute confers
jurisdiction on the Court to hear cases of that type.

Some examples of the sort of cases heard by the Federal Court are:³

- judicial review of immigration decisions,
- judicial review of Veterans Review and Appeal Board of Canada decisions,
- intellectual property disputes,
- cases involving admiralty (maritime) law,
- various aboriginal law matters, and
- claims against the Queen in Right of Canada.

These instances of jurisdiction may either be exclusive or concurrent with
provincial superior courts, depending on the statute. The Court has the
authority to judicially review the decisions made by federal boards,
commissions, and administrative tribunals, and to resolve lawsuits by or
against the federal government.

Decisions of the Federal Court may be appealed to the Federal Court of
Appeal. Because it is a superior court of national jurisdiction, judgments
are enforceable across Canada without the need for certification by the
courts of a specific province.

Judges and prothonotaries

The prothonotaries of the court by seniority are:

- Richard Morneau
- Roger Lafrenière
- Mireille Tabib
- Martha Milczynski
- Kevin R. Aalto

Former judges

Chief Justice
- Allan Lutfy: July 3, 2003 – September 30, 2011[note 1]
Puisne judges
- Paul U.C. Rouleau: July 3, 2003 – July 25, 2007[note 2]
- Max M. Teitlebaum: July 3, 2003 – January 27, 2007[note 3]
- W. Andrew MacKay: July 3, 2003 – March 20, 2004[note 4]
- Frederick E. Gibson: July 3, 2003 – August 30, 2008[note 5]
- James K. Hugessen: July 3, 2003 – July 26, 2008[note 6]
- Pierre Blais, P.C.: July 3, 2003 – February 19, 2008[note 7]
- Eleanor Dawson: July 3, 2003 – December 26, 2009[note 8]
- Carolyn Layden-Stevenson: July 3, 2003 – December 12, 2008[note 9]
- Johanne Gauthier: July 3, 2003 – October 21, 2011[note 10]
- Konrad W. von Finckenstein: August 14, 2003 – January 25, 2007
- Robert M. Mainville: June 16, 2009 – June 18, 2010
- Yvon Pinard, P.C.: June 19, 1984 – July 1, 2013
- Robin Camp, June 26, 2015 – March 9, 2017

See also

Notes

[1] Lutfy was Associate Chief Justice of the Federal Court of Canada from
  December 8, 1999, until the reorganisation.
[2] Served on the Federal Court of Canada–Trial Division from August 5,
  1982, until the reorganisation.
[3] Served on the Federal Court of Canada–Trial Division from October 29,
  1985, until the reorganisation.
[4] Served on the Federal Court of Canada–Trial Division from September 2,
  1988, until the reorganisation.
[5] Served on the Federal Court of Canada–Trial Division from April 1,
  1993, until the reorganisation.
[6] Served on the Federal Court of Canada–Trial Division from June 23,
  1998, until the reorganisation.
[7] Served on the Federal Court of Canada–Trial Division from June 23,
  1998, until the reorganisation.
[8] Served on the Federal Court of Canada–Trial Division from December 8,
  1999, until the reorganisation.
[9] Served on the Federal Court of Canada–Trial Division from January 25,
  2002, until the reorganisation.
[10] Served on the Federal Court of Canada–Trial Division from December 11,
  2002, until the reorganisation.

References

[1] "The Federal Court's Coat of Arms". Federal Court. 4 January 2013.
  Retrieved 21 May 2015.
[2] Judges Act, s 10
[3] "About the Court - Jurisdiction". Federal Court. 31 December 2012.
  Retrieved 21 May 2015.

External links

- Federal Court website

Canadian law

Law of Canada

The Canadian legal system has its foundation in the English common law
system, inherited from being a former colony of the United Kingdom and
later a Commonwealth Realm member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The legal
system is bi-jurisdictional, as the responsibilities of public (includes
criminal) and private law are separated and exercised exclusively by
Parliament and the provinces respectively. Quebec, however, still retains a
civil system for issues of private law (as this domain falls within the
exclusive jurisdiction of the provinces).

Both legal systems are subject to the Constitution of Canada. The federal
government has jurisdiction over certain exclusive domains which are
regulated exclusively by Parliament, as well as all matters and disputes
between provinces. These generally include interprovincial transport (rail,
air and marine transport) as well as interprovincial trade and commerce
(which generally concerns energy, the environment, agriculture). Criminal
prosecutions are conducted in the style of the British common law, as this
jurisdiction falls exclusively to the federal government.

Constitution of Canada

See also: Constitution of Canada

Canada's constitution is its supreme law, and any law passed by any
federal, provincial, or territorial government that is inconsistent with
the constitution is invalid.¹

The Constitution Act, 1982 stipulates that Canada's constitution includes
that act, a series of thirty acts and orders referred to in a schedule to
that act (the most notable of which is the Constitution Act, 1867), and any
amendment to any of those acts.² However, the Supreme Court of Canada has
found that this list is not intended to be exhaustive, and in 1998's
Reference re Secession of Quebec identified four "supporting principles and
rules" that are included as unwritten elements of the constitution:
federalism, democracy, constitutionalism and the rule of law, and respect
for minorities.³ While these principles are an enforceable part of Canada's
constitution, Canadian courts have not used them to override the written
text of the constitution, instead confining their role to "filling gaps".⁴

Because the Constitution Act, 1867 provides that Canada's constitution is
"similar in Principle to that of the United Kingdom",⁵ which is considered
to be an uncodified constitution, the Supreme Court has also recognized the
existence of constitutional conventions. In 1981's Reference re a
Resolution to amend the Constitution, the Court provided three factors
necessary for the existence of a constitutional convention: a practice or
agreement developed by political actors, a recognition that they are bound
to follow that practice or agreement, and a purpose for that practice or
agreement. It also found that, while these conventions are not law and are
therefore unenforceable by the courts, courts may recognize conventions in
their rulings.⁶

The Constitution Act, 1867 assigns powers to the provincial and federal
governments. Matters under federal jurisdiction include criminal law, trade
and commerce, banking, and immigration.⁷ The federal government also has
the residual power to make laws necessary for Canada's "peace, order and
good government".⁸ Matters under provincial jurisdiction include hospitals,
municipalities, education (except education on First Nation reserves), and
property and civil rights.⁷ ⁹

The Constitution Act, 1867 also provides that, while provinces establish
their own superior courts, the federal government appoints their judges.¹⁰
It also gives the federal Parliament the right to establish a court system
responsible for federal law and a general court of appeal to hear appeals
of decisions of both federal and provincial courts.¹¹ This last power
resulted in the federal Parliament's creation of the Supreme Court of
Canada, which is, despite its role as supreme arbiter of all Canadian law,
a creation of simple, rather than constitutional, statute.¹²

The Constitution Act, 1982 created a mechanism by which Canada's
constitution could be amended by joint action of federal and provincial
governments; prior to 1982, it could be amended only by the Parliament of
the United Kingdom.¹³ It also created the Charter of Rights and Freedoms,
which grants individual rights which may not be contravened by any
provincial or federal law.¹⁴

Legislation

Acts passed by the Parliament of Canada and by provincial legislatures are
the primary sources of law in Canada. Sections 91 and 92 of the
Constitution Act, 1867 enumerate the subject matters upon which either
level of government (federal and provincial) may legitimately enact
legislation.

Laws passed by the federal government are initially announced in the Canada
Gazette, a regularly published newspaper for new statutes and
regulations.¹⁵ ¹⁶ Federal bills that receive Royal Assent are subsequently
published in the Annual Statutes of Canada. From time to time, the federal
government will consolidate its current laws into a single consolidation of
law known as the Revised Statutes of Canada.¹⁷ The most recent federal
consolidation was in 1985.

Laws passed by the provinces follow a similar practice. The Acts are
announced in a provincial gazette, published annually and consolidated from
time to time.

Legal traditions

Common law

All provinces and territories within Canada, excluding Quebec, follow the
common law legal tradition.¹⁸ Equally, courts have power under the
provincial Judicature Acts to apply equity.

As with all common law countries, Canadian law adheres to the doctrine of
stare decisis.¹⁹ Lower courts must follow the decisions of higher courts by
which they are bound. For instance, all Ontario lower courts are bound by
the decisions of the Ontario Court of Appeal and, all British Columbia
lower courts are bound by the decisions of the British Columbia Court of
Appeal. However, no Ontario court is bound by decisions of any British
Columbia court and no British Columbia court is bound by decisions of any
Ontario court. Nonetheless, decisions made by a province's highest court
(provincial Courts of Appeal) are often considered as "persuasive" even
though they are not binding on other provinces.²⁰

Only the Supreme Court of Canada has authority to bind all courts in the
country with a single ruling.²¹ The busier courts, such as the Court of
Appeal for Ontario, for example, are often looked to for guidance on many
local matters of law outside the province, especially in matters such as
evidence and criminal law.

When there is little or no existing Canadian decision on a particular legal
issue and it becomes necessary to look to a non-Canadian legal authority
for reference, decisions of English courts and American courts are often
utilized.²² In light of the long-standing history between English law and
Canadian law, the English Court of Appeal and the House of Lords are often
cited as and considered persuasive authority, and are often followed.²² If
the legal question at issue relates to matters of constitutional or privacy
law, however, decisions of United States courts are more likely to be
utilized by Canadian lawyers because there is a much greater body of
jurisprudence in U.S. law than English law in these areas.

Decisions from Commonwealth nations, aside from England, are also often
treated as persuasive sources of law in Canada.

A major difference between U.S. and Canadian common law is that Canada does
not follow the doctrine of Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins (1938), and this
is so taken for granted that the Supreme Court of Canada has never needed
to actually rule upon the question.²³ In other words, there is no
distinction in Canada between federal and provincial common law, and the
Supreme Court can and does dictate common law directly to the provinces on
all matters traditionally encompassed by common law (to the extent not
superseded by legislation).²³ From the American perspective, Canadian
federalism is thus relatively incomplete, since Canada continues to operate
as a unitary state with respect to common law (and is truly federal only as
to statutory law).²³

Due to Canada's historical connection with the United Kingdom, decisions of
the House of Lords before 1867 are technically still binding on Canada
unless they have been overturned by the Supreme Court of Canada, and Canada
is still bound by the decisions of the Privy Council before the abolishment
of appeals to that entity in 1949.²⁴ In practice, however, no court in
Canada has declared itself bound by any English court decision for decades,
and it is highly unlikely that any Canadian court will do so in the
future.²⁴

Criminal offences are found only within the Criminal Code and other federal
statutes; an exception is that contempt of court is the only remaining
common law offence in Canada.²⁵

Civil law

Main article: Law in Quebec

For historical reasons, Quebec has a hybrid legal system. Private law
follows the civil law tradition, originally expressed in the Coutume de
Paris as it applied in what was then New France.²⁶ Today, the jus commune
of Quebec is codified in the Civil Code of Quebec. As for public law, it
was made that of the conquering British nation after the fall of New France
in 1760, that is the common law. It is important to note that the
distinction between civil law and common law is not based on the division
of powers set out in the Constitution Act, 1867. Therefore, legislation
enacted by the provincial legislature in matters of public law, such as the
Code of Penal Procedure, should be interpreted following the common law
tradition. Likewise, legislation enacted by the federal Parliament in
matters of private law, such as the Divorce Act, is to be interpreted
following the civil law tradition and in harmony with the Civil Code of
Quebec.

Areas of law

Aboriginal law

Main article: Canadian aboriginal law

Aboriginal law is the area of law related to the Canadian Government's
relationship with its Indigenous peoples (First Nations, Métis and Inuit).
Section 91(24) of the Constitution Act, 1867 gives the federal parliament
exclusive power to legislate in matters related to Aboriginals, which
includes groups governed by the Indian Act, different Numbered Treaties and
outside of those Acts.²⁷

Administrative law

Main article: Canadian administrative law

Canadian administrative law is the body of law that addresses the actions
and operations of governments and governmental agencies.²⁸

Contract law

Main article: Canadian contract law

Individual provinces have codified some principles of contract law in a
Sale of Goods Act, which was modeled on early English versions. Outside of
Quebec, most contract law is still common law, based on the rulings of
judges in contract litigation over the years. Quebec, being a civil law
jurisdiction, does not have contract law, but rather has its own law of
obligations.²⁹

Constitutional law

Main article: Canadian constitutional law

Constitutional law is the area of Canadian law relating to the
interpretation and application of the Constitution of Canada by the
Courts.³⁰ This is represented in the Constitution Act, 1867, Constitution
Act, 1982 and Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.

Copyright law

Main article: Canadian copyright law

Copyright law of Canada governs the legally enforceable rights to creative
and artistic works under the laws of Canada.³¹

Criminal law

Main article: Criminal law of Canada

Criminal law in Canada falls under the exclusive legislative jurisdiction
of the federal government. The power to enact criminal law is derived from
section 91(27) of the Constitution Act, 1867.³² Most criminal laws have
been codified in the Criminal Code, as well as the Controlled Drugs and
Substances Act, Youth Criminal Justice Act, and several other peripheral
Acts.

The provinces are responsible for the administration of justice, including
criminal trials within their respective provinces, despite their inability
to enact criminal laws.³³ Provinces do have the power to promulgate
quasi-criminal or regulatory offences in a variety of administrative and
other areas, and every province has done so with myriad rules and
regulations across a broad spectrum.³⁴

Evidence law

Further information: Canada Evidence Act

Canada Evidence Act is an Act of the Parliament of Canada, first passed in
1893, that regulates the rules of evidence in court proceedings under
federal law.³⁵ Each province also has its own evidence statute, governing
the law of evidence in civil proceedings in the province.

Family law

Main article: Canadian family law

Family law in Canada concerns the body of Canadian law dealing with family
relationship, marriage, and divorce.³⁶ The federal government has exclusive
jurisdiction over the substance of marriage and divorce. Provinces have
exclusive jurisdiction over the procedures surrounding marriage. Provinces
also have laws dealing with marital property and with family maintenance
(including spousal support).

Human Rights Law

Main article: Human rights in Canada

There are currently four key mechanisms in Canada to protect human rights:
the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, the Canadian Human Rights Act,
the Canadian Human Rights Commission, and provincial human rights laws and
legislation.³⁷

Immigration and refugee law

Main article: Canadian immigration and refugee law

Canadian immigration and refugee law concerns the area of law related to
the admission of foreign nationals into Canada, their rights and
responsibilities once admitted, and the conditions of their removal.³⁸ The
primary law on these matters is in the Immigration and Refugee Protection
Act.

Indigenous Legal Traditions

Main article: Indigenous peoples in Canada

Canada was founded on the original territory of over 900 different
Indigenous groups, each using different Indigenous legal traditions. Cree,
Inuit, Mohawk, Mi'kmaq and numerous other First Nations will apply their
own legal traditions in daily life, creating contracts, working with
governmental and corporate entities, ecological management and criminal
proceedings and family law.

Inheritance law

Main article: Inheritance law in Canada

Inheritance law in Canada is constitutionally a provincial matter.
Therefore, the laws governing inheritance in Canada are legislated by each
individual province.

Insolvency law of Canada

Main article: Insolvency law of Canada

The Parliament of Canada has exclusive jurisdiction to regulate matters
relating to bankruptcy and insolvency, by virtue of s.91 of the
Constitution Act, 1867. It has passed some statutes as a result, i.e., The
Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act ("BIA") and the The Winding-Up and
Restructuring Act (which essentially applies only to financial institutions
under federal jurisdiction). In applying these statutes, provincial law has
important consequences. Section 67(1)(b) of the BIA provides that "any
property that as against the bankrupt is exempt from execution or seizure
under any laws applicable in the province within which the property is
situated and within which the bankrupt resides" is not divisible among
their creditors.³⁹ Provincial legislation under the property and civil
rights power of the Constitution Act, 1867 regulates the resolution of
financial difficulties that occur before the onset of insolvency.

Labour and employment law

Main article: Canadian labour and employment law

Canadian labour law is that body of law which regulates the rights,
restrictions obligations of trade unions, workers and employers in Canada.
Canadian employment law is that body of law which regulates the rights,
restrictions obligations of non-unioned workers and employers in Canada.⁴⁰
Most labour regulation in Canada is conducted at the provincial level by
government agencies and boards. However, certain industries under federal
regulation are subject solely to federal labour legislation and standards.

Patent law

Main article: Canadian patent law

Canadian patent law is the legal system regulating the granting of patents
for inventions within Canada, and the enforcement of these rights in
Canada.⁴¹

Procedural law

The functioning of the Courts is regulated by the laws of civil procedure
which are codified in each province's civil procedures rules.

Property law

Main article: Canadian property law

Property law in Canada is the body of law concerning the rights of
individuals over land, objects, and expression within Canada. It
encompasses personal property, real property, and intellectual property.⁴²

Tort law

Main article: Tort law in Canada

Tort law in Canada concerns the treatment of the law of torts within the
Canadian jurisdiction excluding Quebec, which is covered by the law of
obligations.⁴³

Trademark law

Main article: Canadian trademark law

Canada's trademark law provides protection for distinctive marks,
certification marks, distinguishing guises, and proposed marks against
those who appropriate the goodwill of the mark or create confusion between
different vendors' goods or services.⁴⁴

Judicial system

See also: Court system of Canada

Under the Constitution Act, 1867, the federal Parliament and the provincial
legislatures both have the constitutional authority to create courts:
Parliament under s. 101, and the Provinces under s. 92(14).⁴⁵ However, the
federal power to create courts is much more limited than the provincial
power. The provincial courts have a much more extensive jurisdiction,
including the constitutionally entrenched power to determine constitutional
issues.

The Supreme Court of Canada (French: Cour suprême du Canada) is the highest
court of Canada and is the final court of appeal in the Canadian justice
system. Parliament created it by Act of Parliament in 1875, as a "general
court of appeal for Canada".⁴⁶ Prior to 1949, cases could be appealed to
the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in the United Kingdom, and some
cases bypassed the Supreme Court of Canada entirely.⁴⁶

Other than the Supreme Court, the Canadian court system is divided into two
classes of courts:⁴⁷ superior courts of general jurisdiction, and courts of
limited jurisdiction, sometimes referred to as inferior courts. The
superior courts, created and maintained by the provinces, are divided into
superior courts of original jurisdiction and superior courts of appeal.
These courts are sometimes also referred to as "Section 96" courts, in
reference to s. 96 of the Constitution Act, 1867, which grants the federal
government the power to appoint the judges of these courts.¹⁰ As courts of
general jurisdiction, the provincial superior courts of original
jurisdiction have jurisdiction over all matters, under both federal and
provincial law, unless the matter has been assigned to some other court or
administrative agency by a statute passed by the appropriate legislative
body. The superior courts of original jurisdiction have an extensive civil
jurisdiction, under both federal and provincial laws. Under the Criminal
Code, a federal statute, they have jurisdiction over the most serious
criminal offences, such as murder.⁴⁸ They also hear appeals from the
Provincial Courts in criminal matters and some civil matters. A further
appeal normally lies to superior court of appeal, the highest court in each
province.⁴⁹

The provinces also can establish courts of limited jurisdiction, whose
jurisdiction is limited solely to what is included in the statutory grant
of jurisdiction. These courts are often called "Provincial Courts", even
though the superior courts established by the provinces are also provincial
courts. The Provincial Courts have an extensive criminal jurisdiction under
the Criminal Code, a federal statute, and also typically have a limited
civil jurisdiction in matters under provincial jurisdiction, such as small
claims and some family matters. The judges of the Provincial Courts are
appointed by the provincial governments.⁵⁰

There are also additional federal courts established by Parliament, which
have a specialised jurisdiction in certain areas of federal law. These
courts are the Federal Court of Appeal, the Federal Court, the Tax Court of
Canada, and the Court Martial Appeal Court of Canada.

See also

- At Her Majesty's pleasure
- Canadian Legal Information Institute (CanLI)
- Human rights in Canada
- Legal systems of the world
- List of Acts of Parliament of Canada
- Statutes of Canada
- The Canadian Crown and Aboriginal peoples

References

[1] Richard W. Bauman; Tsvi Kahana (2006). The Least Examined Branch: The
  Role of Legislatures in the Constitutional State. Cambridge University
  Press. p. 159. ISBN 978-1-139-46040-8.
[2] Craik 94
[3] Craik 96
[4] Craik 98
[5] Frederick Lee Morton (2002). Law, Politics and the Judicial Process in
  Canada. University of Calgary Press. p. 216. ISBN 978-1-55238-046-8.
[6] Craik 105
[7] OECD (2007). Linking Regions and Central Governments Contracts for
  Regional Development: Contracts for Regional Development. OECD
  Publishing. p. 173. ISBN 978-92-64-00875-5.
[8] Munroe Eagles; Larry Johnston (2008). Politics: An Introduction to
  Modern Democratic Government. University of Toronto Press. p. 262. ISBN
  978-1-55111-858-1.
[9] Craik 125
[10] Patrick N. Malcolmson; Richard Myers (2009). The Canadian Regime: An
  Introduction to Parliamentary Government in Canada. University of Toronto
  Press. p. 149. ISBN 978-1-4426-0047-8.
[11] Craik 127
[12] Craik 127–128
[13] Craik 131
[14] Craik 119
[15] Statutory Instrument Act
[16] "Canada Gazette - About Us". Gazette.gc.ca. 2010-06-09. Retrieved
  2011-02-28.
[17] Legislation Revision and Consolidation Act
[18] Dennis Campbell; Susan Cotter (1998). Comparative Law Yearbook. Kluwer
  Law International. p. 234. ISBN 978-90-411-0740-4.
[19] Richard A. Mann (2013). Business Law and the Regulation of Business.
  Cengage Learning. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-133-58757-6.
[20] Robert A. Battram (2010). Canada In Crisis...: An Agenda to Unify the
  Nation. Trafford Publishing. p. 26. ISBN 978-1-4269-8062-6.
[21] Graeme R. Newman (30 October 2010). Crime and Punishment around the
  World: [Four Volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-313-35134-1.
[22] Ian Bushnell (1992). Captive Court: A Study of the Supreme Court of
  Canada. McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-7735-6301-8.
[23] Hogg, Peter W. (2007). Constitutional Law of Canada (5th ed.).
  Toronto: Carswell. pp. 8–9 — 8–11. ISBN 9780779813377.
[24] Frederick Lee Morton (2002). Law, Politics and the Judicial Process in
  Canada. University of Calgary Press. p. 389. ISBN 978-1-55238-046-8.
[25] A Compendium of Law and Judges
[26] J. M. Smits (2012). Elgar Encyclopedia of Comparative Law. Edward
  Elgar Publishing. p. 132. ISBN 978-1-78100-610-8.
[27] Christian Leuprecht; Peter H. Russell (2011). Essential Readings in
  Canadian Constitutional Politics. University of Toronto Press. p. 477.
  ISBN 978-1-4426-0368-4.
[28] Robert Leckey (2008). Contextual Subjects: Family, State and
  Relational Theory. University of Toronto Press. p. 143. ISBN
  978-0-8020-9749-1.
[29] Simon N. M. Young (2009). Civil Forfeiture of Criminal Property.
  Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 176. ISBN 978-1-84844-621-2.
[30] Leuprecht/Russell, 2011. p. 451.
[31] Lesley Ellen Harris (2001). Canadian Copyright Law. McGraw-Hill
  Ryerson. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-07-560369-6.
[32] Michelle G. Grossman; Julian V. Roberts (2011). Criminal Justice in
  Canada: A Reader. Cengage Learning. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-17-650228-7.
[33] H. Stephen Harris (2001). Competition Laws Outside the United States:
  Supplement. American Bar Association. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-57073-881-4.
[34] Kevin Heller; Markus Dubber (2010). The Handbook of Comparative
  Criminal Law. Stanford University Press. p. 99. ISBN 978-0-8047-7729-2.
[35] Canada; James Crankshaw (1910). The Criminal Code of Canada and the
  Canada Evidence Act as Amended to Date. Carswell Company. p. intro.
[36] Malcolm C. Kronby (2010). Canadian Family Law. John Wiley and Sons. p.
  1. ISBN 978-0-470-67647-9.
[37] Alan Price (2007). Human Resource Management in a Business Context.
  Cengage Learning EMEA. p. 391. ISBN 978-1-84480-548-8.
[38] John Powell (2009). Encyclopedia of North American Immigration.
  Infobase Publishing. p. 362. ISBN 978-1-4381-1012-7.
[39] http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/b-3/page-23.html#h-26
[40] http://www.labour.gc.ca/eng/resources/laws/index.shtml
[41] Thomas F. Cotter (21 March 2013). Comparative Patent Remedies: A Legal
  and Economic Analysis. Oxford University Press. pp. 166–167. ISBN
  978-0-19-984065-6.
[42] Stuart C. McCormack (1999). Intellectual Property Law of Canada. Juris
  Publishing, Inc. p. 11. ISBN 978-1-57823-070-9.
[43] Jean Louis Baudouin; Allen M. Linden (2010). Tort Law in Canada.
  Kluwer Law International. ISBN 978-90-411-3373-1.
[44] Borden Ladner Gervias LLP (2011). Trade-Mark Practice in Canada.
  Borden Ladner Gervais LLP. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-9730750-5-2.
[45] Augustus Henry Frazer Lefroy (2005). Canada's Federal System: Being a
  Treatise on Canadian Constitutional Law Under the British North America
  Act. The Lawbook Exchange. p. 151. ISBN 978-1-58477-591-1.
[46] Ian Bushnell (1997). The Federal Court of Canada: A History,
  1875-1992. University of Toronto Press. pp. 234–237. ISBN
  978-0-8020-4207-1.
[47] Peter H. Russell (2007). Canada's Trial Courts: Two Tiers Or One?.
  University of Toronto Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-8020-9323-3.
[48] Michel Proulx; David Layton (2001). Ethics and Canadian criminal law.
  Irwin Law. p. 153. ISBN 978-1-55221-044-4.
[49] International Business Publications, USA (2008). Canada Company Laws
  and Regulations Handbook. Int'l Business Publications. p. 36. ISBN
  978-1-4330-6959-8.
[50] Gerhard Robbers (2006). Encyclopedia of World Constitutions. Infobase
  Publishing. p. 169. ISBN 978-0-8160-6078-8.

Bibliography

- Craik, Neil; Forcese, Craig; Bryden, Philip; Carver, Peter; Haigh,
  Richard; Ratushny, Ed; Sullivan, Ruth, eds. (2006). Public Law: Cases,
  materials, and commentary. Toronto: Emond Montgomery Publications
  Limited. ISBN 1-55239-185-X.

Further reading

- Jonathan L. Black-Branch; Canadian Education Association (1995). Making
  Sense of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms: A Handbook for
  Administrators and Teachers. Canadian Education Association. ISBN
  978-0-920315-78-1.
- John Borrows (2002). Recovering Canada: The Resurgence of Indigenous Law.
  University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-8501-6.
- J. Brian Casey; Janet E. Mills (2005). Arbitration Law Of Canada:
  Practice And Procedure. Juris Publishing, Inc. ISBN 978-1-929446-68-1.
- Ian Greene (1989). The Charter of Rights. James Lorimer & Company. ISBN
  978-1-55028-185-9.
- Calvin S. Goldman and John D. Bodrug, Editors (2009). Competition Law of
  Canada. Juris Publishing, Inc. ISBN 978-1-57823-096-9.
- Frederick Lee Morton (2002). Law, Politics and the Judicial Process in
  Canada. University of Calgary Press. ISBN 978-1-55238-046-8.
- D. M. McRae (2008). The Canadian Yearbook of International Law: Annuaire
  Canadien de Droit International. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-5826-7.
- Richard Moon (2008). Law and Religious Pluralism in Canada. UBC Press.
  ISBN 978-0-7748-5853-3.
- Peter McCormick (2000). Supreme at Last: The Evolution of the Supreme
  Court of Canada. James Lorimer & Company. ISBN 978-1-55028-692-2.
- Margaret Ann Wilkinson (2010). Genealogy and the Law in Canada. Dundurn.
  ISBN 978-1-77070-585-2.

External links

- Canadian Criminal Law Information Site
- Consolidated Statutes and Regulations of Canada.
- Canada's Justice System - Department of Justice
- CanLII Canadian Legal Information Institute
- Legal Information
- Citizen's Arrest and Self-defence Act

Constitution of Canada

The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law in Canada; the country's
constitution is an amalgamation of codified acts and uncodified traditions
and conventions. It is one of the oldest working constitutions in the
world. The constitution outlines Canada's system of government, as well as
the civil rights of all Canadian citizens and those in Canada. Canadian
constitutional law relates to the interpretation and application of the
constitution.

The composition of the Constitution of Canada is defined in subsection
52(2) of the Constitution Act, 1982 as consisting of the Canada Act 1982
(including the Constitution Act, 1982), all acts and orders referred to in
the schedule (including the Constitution Act, 1867, formerly The British
North America Act, 1867), and any amendments to these documents. The
Supreme Court of Canada held that the list is not exhaustive and includes a
number of pre-confederation acts and unwritten components as well.¹ See
list of Canadian constitutional documents for details.

History of the constitution

Main article: Constitutional history of Canada

The first semblance of a constitution for Canada was the Royal Proclamation
of 1763. The act renamed the northeasterly portion of the former French
province of New France as Province of Quebec, roughly coextensive with the
southern third of contemporary Quebec. The proclamation, which established
an appointed colonial government, was the de facto constitution of Quebec
until 1774, when the British parliament passed the Quebec Act, which
expanded the province's boundaries to the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers,
which was one of the grievances listed in the United States Declaration of
Independence. Significantly, the Quebec Act also replaced the French
criminal law presumption of guilty until proven innocent with the English
criminal law presumption of innocent until proven guilty; but the French
code or civil law system was retained for non-criminal matters.

The Treaty of Paris of 1783 ended the American War of Independence and sent
a wave of British loyalist refugees northward to Quebec and Nova Scotia. In
1784, the two provinces were divided; Nova Scotia was split into Nova
Scotia, Cape Breton Island (rejoined to Nova Scotia in 1820), Prince Edward
Island, and New Brunswick, while Quebec was split into Lower Canada
(southern Quebec) and Upper Canada (southern through lower northern
Ontario). The winter of 1837–38 saw rebellion in both of the Canadas, with
the result they were rejoined as the Province of Canada in 1841. This was
reversed by the British North America Act in 1867 which established the
Dominion of Canada.

Initially, on 1 July 1867, there were four provinces in confederation as
"One dominion under the name of Canada": Canada West (former Upper Canada,
now Ontario), Canada East (former Lower Canada, now Quebec), Nova Scotia,
and New Brunswick. Title to the Northwest Territories was transferred by
the Hudson's Bay Company in 1870 and the province of Manitoba (the first to
be established by the Parliament of Canada) was in the same year the first
created out of it. British Columbia joined confederation in 1871, followed
by Prince Edward Island in 1873. The Yukon Territory was created by
Parliament in 1898, followed by Alberta and Saskatchewan in 1905. The
Dominion of Newfoundland, Britain's oldest colony in the Americas, joined
Canada as a province in 1949. Nunavut was created in 1999.

An Imperial Conference in 1926 that included the leaders of all Dominions
and representatives from India (which then included Burma, Bangladesh, and
Pakistan), led to the eventual enactment of the Statute of Westminster
1931. The statute, an essential transitory step from the British Empire to
the Commonwealth of Nations, provided that all existing Dominions became
fully sovereign of the United Kingdom and all new Dominions would be fully
sovereign upon the grant of Dominion status. Newfoundland never ratified
the statute, so it was still subject to imperial authority when its entire
system of government and economy collapsed in the mid-1930s. Canada did
ratify the statute, but had requested an exception because the Canadian
federal and provincial governments could not agree on an amending formula
for the Canadian constitution. It would be another 50 years before this was
achieved. In the interim, the British parliament periodically passed
enabling acts with respect to amendments to Canada's constitution; this was
never anything but a rubber stamp.²

The patriation of the Canadian constitution was achieved in 1982 when the
British parliament, with the assent of the Canadian parliament, passed the
Canada Act, 1982, which included in its schedules the Constitution Act,
1982, the United Kingdom thus formally absolving itself of any remaining
responsibility for, or jurisdiction over, Canada. In a formal ceremony on
Parliament Hill in Ottawa, Queen Elizabeth II proclaimed both acts as law
on 17 April 1982. Constitution Act, 1982, included the Canadian Charter of
Rights and Freedoms. Prior to the charter, there were various statutes
which protected an assortment of civil rights and obligations, but nothing
was enshrined in the constitution until 1982. The charter has thus placed a
strong focus upon individual and collective rights of the people of Canada.

Enactment of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms has also fundamentally
changed much of Canadian constitutional law. The act also codified many
previously oral constitutional conventions and made amendment of the
constitution significantly more difficult. Previously, the Canadian federal
constitution could be amended by solitary act of the Canadian or British
parliaments, by formal or informal agreement between the federal and
provincial governments, or even simply by adoption as ordinary custom of an
oral convention or unwritten tradition that was perceived to be the best
way to do something. Since the act, amendments must now conform to certain
specified provisions in the written portion of the Canadian constitution.

Constitution Act, 1867

Main article: Constitution Act, 1867

This was an Act of the British parliament, originally called the British
North America Act 1867. It outlined Canada's system of government, which
combines Britain's Westminster model of parliamentary government with
division of sovereignty (federalism). Although it is the first of 20
British North America Acts, it is still the most famous of these and is
understood to be the document of Canadian Confederation. With the
patriation of the Constitution in 1982, this Act was renamed Constitution
Act, 1867. In recent years, the 1867 document has mainly served as the
basis on which the division of powers between the provinces and federal
government have been analyzed.

Constitution Act, 1982

Main article: Constitution Act, 1982

Endorsed by all provincial governments except that of Quebec (led by René
Lévesque), this was the formal Act of Parliament that effected Canada's
full political independence from the United Kingdom. Part V of this act
established an amending formula for the Canadian constitution, the lack of
which (due to more than 50 years of disagreement between the federal and
provincial governments) was the only reason Canada's constitutional
amendments still required approval by the British parliament after
enactment of the Statute of Westminster in 1931.

The Act was enacted as a schedule to the Canada Act 1982, a British Act of
Parliament which was introduced at the request of a joint address to the
Queen by the Senate and House of Commons of Canada. As a bilingual act of
parliament, the Canada Act 1982 has the distinction of being the only
legislation in French that has been passed by an English or British
parliament since Norman French (Law French) ceased to be the language of
government in England. In addition to enacting the Constitution Act, 1982,
the Canada Act 1982 provides that no further British Acts of Parliament
will apply to Canada as part of its law, finalizing Canada's legislative
independence.

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

Main article: Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

As noted above, this is Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982. The Charter
is the constitutional guarantee of the civil rights and liberties of every
citizen in Canada, such as freedom of expression, of religion, and of
mobility. Part II addresses the rights of Canada's Aboriginal people.

It is written in plain language in order to ensure accessibility to the
average citizen. It only applies to government and government actions with
the intention to prevent government from creating laws that are
unconstitutional.

Amending formula

Main article: Amendments to the Constitution of Canada

Instead of the usual parliamentary procedure, that includes the monarch's
formal Royal Assent for enacting legislation, amendments to the
Constitution Act, 1982 must be done in accordance with Part V of the
Constitution Act, 1982, which provides for five different amending
formulae. Amendments can be brought forward under section 46(1) by any
province or either level of the federal government. The general formula is
set out in section 38(1), known as the "7/50 formula", requires: (a) assent
from both the House of Commons and the Senate; (b) the approval of
two-thirds of the provincial legislatures (at least seven provinces)
representing at least 50% of the population (effectively, this would
include at least Quebec or Ontario, as they are the most populous
provinces). This formula specifically applies to amendments related to the
proportionate representation in Parliament, powers, selection, and
composition of the Senate, the Supreme Court and the addition of provinces
or territories.

The other amendment formulae are for exceptional cases as provided by in
the act. In the case of an amendment related to the Office of the Queen,
the use of either official language (subject to section 43), the amending
formula itself, or the composition of the Supreme Court, the amendment must
be adopted by unanimous consent of all the provinces in accordance with
section 41. In the case of an amendment related to provincial boundaries or
the use of an official language within a province alone, the amendment must
be passed by the legislatures affected by the amendment (section 43). In
the case of an amendment that affects the federal government only, the
amendment does not need approval of the provinces (section 44). The same
applies to amendments affecting the provincial government alone (section
45).

Vandalism of the proclamation paper

In 1983, Peter Greyson, an art student, entered Ottawa's National Archives
(known today as Library and Archives Canada) and poured red paint mixed
with glue over a copy of the proclamation of the 1982 constitutional
amendment. He said he was displeased with the federal government's decision
to allow United States missile testing in Canada and had wanted to
"graphically illustrate to Canadians" how wrong he believed the government
to be. A grapefruit-sized stain remains on the original document;
restoration specialists opted to leave most of the paint intact, fearing
that removal attempts would only cause further damage.³

Sources of the constitution

Further information: List of Canadian constitutional documents

Canada's constitution has roots going back to the thirteenth century, and
include England's Magna Carta and the first English parliament of 1275.⁴ It
is one of the oldest working constitutions in the world (others are: UK,
USA, Sweden, Norway, Switzerland, Denmark). Canada's constitution is
composed of several individual statutes. There are three general methods by
which a statute can become entrenched in the Constitution:

- Specific mention as a constitutional document in section 52(2) of the
  Constitution Act, 1982, such as the Constitution Act, 1867.
- Constitutional entrenchment of an otherwise statutory English, British,
  or Canadian document because of subject matter provisions in the amending
  formula of the Constitution Act, 1982, such as provisions with regard to
  the monarchy in the English Bill of Rights 1689⁵ ⁶ or the Act of
  Settlement 1701. English and British statutes are part of Canadian law
  because of the Colonial Laws Validity Act 1865; section 129 of the
  Constitution Act, 1867; and the Statute of Westminster 1931. Those laws
  then became entrenched when the amending formula was made part of the
  constitution.
- Reference by an entrenched document, such as the Preamble of the
  Constitution Act, 1867's entrenchment of written and unwritten principles
  from the constitution of the United Kingdom or the Constitution Act,
  1982's reference of the Proclamation of 1763.

Unwritten sources

The existence of an unwritten constitution was reaffirmed by the Supreme
Court in Reference re Secession of Quebec.

  "The Constitution is more than a written text. It embraces the entire
  global system of rules and principles which govern the exercise of
  constitutional authority. A superficial reading of selected provisions of
  the written constitutional enactment, without more, may be misleading."

In practice, there have been three sources of unwritten constitutional law:

Conventions Constitutional conventions form part of the constitution, but
  they are not legally enforceable. They include the existence of a prime
  minister and Cabinet, the fact that the governor general in most
  circumstances is required to grant Royal Assent to bills adopted by both
  houses of parliament, and the requirement that the prime minister either
  resign or request a dissolution and general election upon losing a vote
  of confidence in the House of Commons.
Royal prerogative Reserve powers of the Canadian Crown, being remnants of
  the powers once held by the British Crown, reduced over time by the
  parliamentary system. Primarily, these are the Orders in Council, which
  give the government the authority to declare war, conclude treaties,
  issue passports, make appointments, make regulations, incorporate, and
  receive lands that escheat to the Crown.
Unwritten principles Principles that are incorporated into the Canadian
  constitution by reference from the preamble of the Constitution Act,
  1867, including a statement that the constitution is "similar in
  Principle to that of the United Kingdom", much of which is unwritten.
  Unlike conventions, they are legally binding. Amongst the recognized
  constitutional principles are federalism, liberal democracy,
  constitutionalism, the rule of law, and respect for minorities.⁷ Other
  principles include responsible government, representation by population,⁸
  judicial independence, parliamentary supremacy,⁹ and an implied bill of
  rights. In one case, the Provincial Judges Reference (1997), it was found
  a law can be held invalid for contradicting unwritten principles, in this
  case judicial independence.

See also

- Law of Canada
- Canadian Bill of Rights
- Canadian Confederation
- Constitution Act (British Columbia)
- Constitution of Quebec
- Constitution
- Constitutional law
- Constitutional economics
- Constitutionalism

References

[1] New Brunswick Broadcasting Co. v. Nova Scotia [1993] 1 S.C.R. 319
[2] Dupras, Daniel (3 April 2000). "INTERNATIONAL TREATIES: CANADIAN
  PRACTICE". Depository Services Program. Public Works and Government
  Services Canada. Retrieved 17 December 2010. In 1931, under the Statute
  of Westminster, Canada and a number of other British dominions, acquired
  full independence(4) and with it authority to act internationally with
  all the attributes of a sovereign state. Full power over foreign affairs
  was thus conferred on Canada and section 132 of the Constitution Act,
  1867 became obsolete." Footnote 4:"Except with respect to amendments to
  Canada's Constitution, which remained under the British Parliament's
  jurisdiction until 1982.
[3] "Missile Protestor defaces Constitution". CBC News.
[4] Tidridge, Nathan (2010), Canada's Constitutional Monarchy: An
  Introduction to Our Form of Government, Toronto: Dundurn Press, p. 54,
  ISBN 9781459700840
[5] Senate of Canada (20 March 2013). "LCJC Meeting No. 74". Queen's
  Printer for Canada. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
[6] Supreme Court of Canada (28 September 1981), Re: Resolution to amend
  the Constitution, [1981] 1 SCR 753, Queen's Printer for Canada, p. 785
[7] these were identified in Reference re Secession of Quebec [1998] 2
  S.C.R. 217
[8] "ARCHIVED - Key Terms - Provinces and Territories - Canadian
  Confederation - Library and Archives Canada". Collectionscanada.gc.ca.
  Retrieved 17 April 2013.
[9] Parliamentary Government in Canada: Basic Organization and
  Practices|http://www.mapleleafweb.com/features/parliamentary-government-canada-basic-organization-and-practices

Further reading

- Munro, Joseph Edwin Crawford (1889), The Constitution of Canada,
  Cambridge University Press
- Doull, James (1997). "The Philosophical Basis of Constitutional
  Discussion in Canada" (PDF). Animus. 2. ISSN 1209-0689. Retrieved August
  9, 2011.
- Christian Leuprecht (2011). Essential Readings in Canadian Constitutional
  Politics. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1-4426-0368-4.
- Manfredi, Christopher; James B. Kelly (2009). Contested
  Constitutionalism: Reflections on the Canadian Charter of Rights and
  Freedoms. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-1674-8.

External links

- Full text of the Constitution
- Canada in the Making – a comprehensive history of the Canadian
  Constitution with digitized primary sources.
- Fundamental Freedoms: The Charter of Rights and Freedoms – Charter of
  Rights and Freedoms website with video, audio and the Charter in over 20
  languages
- Meech Lake Accord, 1987
- Charlottetown Accord, 1992
- Results of Referendum on the Charlottetown Accord, 1992
- CBC Digital Archives – Charting the Future: Canada's New Constitution
- CBC Digital Archives – Canada's Constitutional Debate: What Makes a
  Nation?
- OriginalDocuments.ca

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

"Charter of Rights and Freedoms" redirects here. For the Quebec charter,
see Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms.

The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (French: La Charte canadienne
des droits et libertés), in Canada often simply the Charter, is a bill of
rights entrenched in the Constitution of Canada. It forms the first part of
the Constitution Act, 1982. The Charter guarantees certain political rights
to Canadian citizens and civil rights of everyone in Canada from the
policies and actions of all areas and levels of the government. It is
designed to unify Canadians around a set of principles that embody those
rights. The Charter was signed into law by Queen Elizabeth II of Canada on
April 17, 1982 along with the rest of the Act.

The Charter was preceded by the Canadian Bill of Rights, which was enacted
in 1960. However, the Bill of Rights is only a federal statute, rather than
a constitutional document. As a federal statute, it can be amended through
the ordinary legislative process and has no application to provincial laws.
The Supreme Court of Canada also narrowly interpreted the Bill of Rights
and the Court was reluctant to declare laws inoperative.¹ The relative
ineffectiveness of the Canadian Bill of Rights motivated many to improve
rights protections in Canada. The movement for human rights and freedoms
that emerged after World War II also wanted to entrench the principles
enunciated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.² The British
Parliament formally enacted the Charter as a part of the Canada Act 1982 at
the request of the Parliament of Canada in 1982, the result of the efforts
of the government of Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau.

One of the most notable effects of the adoption of the Charter was to
greatly expand the scope of judicial review, because the Charter is more
explicit with respect to the guarantee of rights and the role of judges in
enforcing them than was the Bill of Rights. The courts, when confronted
with violations of Charter rights, have struck down unconstitutional
federal and provincial statutes and regulations or parts of statutes and
regulations, as they did when Canadian case law was primarily concerned
with resolving issues of federalism. The Charter, however, granted new
powers to the courts to enforce remedies that are more creative and to
exclude more evidence in trials. These powers are greater than what was
typical under the common law and under a system of government that,
influenced by Canada's parent country the United Kingdom, was based upon
Parliamentary supremacy. As a result, the Charter has attracted both broad
support from a majority of the Canadian electorate and criticisms by
opponents of increased judicial power. The Charter only applies to
government laws and actions (including the laws and actions of federal,
provincial, and municipal governments and public school boards), and
sometimes to the common law, not to private activity.

Features

Under the Charter, people physically present in Canada have numerous civil
and political rights. Most of the rights can be exercised by any legal
person (the Charter does not define the corporation as a "legal person"),³
but a few of the rights belong exclusively to natural persons, or (as in
sections 3 and 6) only to citizens of Canada. The rights are enforceable by
the courts through section 24 of the Charter, which allows courts
discretion to award remedies to those whose rights have been denied. This
section also allows courts to exclude evidence in trials if the evidence
was acquired in a way that conflicts with the Charter and might damage the
reputation of the justice system. Section 32 confirms that the Charter is
binding on the federal government, the territories under its authority, and
the provincial governments. The rights and freedoms enshrined in 34
sections of the Charter include:

Exceptions

Precluding all the freedoms and forming the basis of the Charter, the very
first section, known as limitations clause, allows governments to justify
certain infringements of Charter rights. Every case in which a court
discovers a violation of the Charter would therefore require a section 1
analysis to determine if the law can still be upheld. Infringements are
upheld if the purpose for the government action is to achieve what would be
recognized as an urgent or important objective in a free society, and if
the infringement can be "demonstrably justified." Section 1 has thus been
used to uphold laws against objectionable conduct such as hate speech
(e.g., in R. v. Keegstra) and obscenity (e.g., in R. v. Butler). Section 1
also confirms that the rights listed in the Charter are guaranteed.

In addition, some of these rights are also subjected to the notwithstanding
clause (section 33). The notwithstanding clause authorizes governments to
temporarily override the rights and freedoms in sections 2 and 7–15 for up
to five years, subject to renewal. The Canadian federal government has
never invoked it, and some have speculated that its use would be
politically costly.⁴ In the past, the notwithstanding clause was invoked
routinely by the province of Quebec (which did not support the enactment of
the Charter but is subject to it nonetheless). The provinces of
Saskatchewan and Alberta have also invoked the notwithstanding clause, to
end a strike and to protect an exclusively heterosexual definition of
marriage,⁵ respectively. (Note that Alberta's use of the notwithstanding
clause is of no force or effect, since the definition of marriage is
federal not provincial jurisdiction.)⁶ The territory of Yukon also passed
legislation once that invoked the notwithstanding clause, but the
legislation was never proclaimed in force.⁷

Fundamental freedoms

    Section 2: which lists what the Charter calls "fundamental freedoms"
    namely freedom of conscience, freedom of religion, freedom of thought,
    freedom of belief, freedom of expression, freedom of the press and of
    other media of communication, freedom of peaceful assembly, and freedom
    of association.

Democratic rights

Generally, the right to participate in political activities and the right
to a democratic form of government are protected:

    Section 3: the right to vote and to be eligible to serve as member of a
    legislature.Section 4: the maximum duration of legislatures is set at
    five years.Section 5: an annual sitting of legislatures is required as
    a minimum.

Mobility rights

    Section 6: protects the mobility rights of Canadian citizens which
    include the right to enter, remain in, and leave Canada. Citizens and
    Permanent Residents have the ability to move to and take up residence
    in any province to pursue gaining livelihood.

Legal rights

Rights of people in dealing with the justice system and law enforcement are
protected, namely:

    Section 7: right to life, liberty, and security of the person.Section
    8: freedom from unreasonable search and seizure.Section 9: freedom from
    arbitrary detention or imprisonment.Section 10: right to legal counsel
    and the guarantee of habeas corpus.Section 11: rights in criminal and
    penal matters such as the right to be presumed innocent until proven
    guilty.Section 12: right not to be subject to cruel and unusual
    punishment.Section 13: rights against self-incriminationSection 14:
    rights to an interpreter in a court proceeding.

Equality rights

    Section 15: equal treatment before and under the law, and equal
    protection and benefit of the law without discrimination.

Language rights

Generally, people have the right to use either the English or French
language in communications with Canada's federal government and certain
provincial governments. Specifically, the language laws in the Charter
include:

    Section 16: English and French are the official languages of Canada and
    New Brunswick.Section 16.1: the English and French-speaking communities
    of New Brunswick have equal rights to educational and cultural
    institutions.Section 17: the right to use either official language in
    Parliament or the New Brunswick legislature.Section 18: the statutes
    and proceedings of Parliament and the New Brunswick legislature are to
    be printed in both official languages.Section 19: both official
    languages may be used in federal and New Brunswick courts.Section 20:
    the right to communicate with and be served by the federal and New
    Brunswick governments in either official language.Section 21: other
    constitutional language rights outside the Charter regarding English
    and French are sustained.Section 22: existing rights to use languages
    besides English and French are not affected by the fact that only
    English and French have language rights in the Charter. (Hence, if
    there are any rights to use Aboriginal languages anywhere they would
    continue to exist, though they would have no direct protection under
    the Charter.)

Minority language education rights

    Section 23: rights for certain citizens belonging to French and English
    speaking minority communities to be educated in their own language.

Other sections

Various provisions help to clarify how the Charter works in practice. These
include,

    Section 25: states that the Charter does not derogate existing
    Aboriginal rights and freedoms. Aboriginal rights, including treaty
    rights, receive more direct constitutional protection under section 35
    of the Constitution Act, 1982.Section 26: clarifies that other rights
    and freedoms in Canada are not invalidated by the Charter.Section 27:
    requires the Charter to be interpreted in a multicultural
    context.Section 28: states all Charter rights are guaranteed equally to
    men and women.Section 29: confirms the rights of religious schools are
    preserved.Section 30: clarifies the applicability of the Charter in the
    territories.Section 31: confirms that the Charter does not extend the
    powers of legislatures.

Finally, Section 34: states that Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982,
containing the first 34 sections of the Act, may be collectively referred
to as the "Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms".

History

Many of the rights and freedoms that are protected under the Charter,
including the rights to freedom of speech, habeas corpus and the
presumption of innocence,⁸ have their roots in a set of Canadian laws and
legal precedents⁹ sometimes known as the Implied Bill of Rights. Many of
these rights were also included in the Canadian Bill of Rights, which the
Canadian Parliament enacted in 1960. However, the Canadian Bill of Rights
had a number of shortcomings. Unlike the Charter, it was an ordinary Act of
Parliament, which could be amended by a simple majority of Parliament, and
it was applicable only to the federal government. The courts also chose to
interpret the Bill of Rights conservatively, only on rare occasions
applying it to find a contrary law inoperative. The Bill of Rights did not
contain all of the rights that are now included in the Charter, omitting,
for instance, the right to vote¹⁰ and freedom of movement within Canada.¹¹

The centennial of Canadian Confederation in 1967 aroused greater interest
within the government in constitutional reform. Said reforms would include
improving safeguards of rights, as well as patriation of the Constitution,
meaning the British Parliament would no longer have to approve
constitutional amendments. Subsequently, Attorney General Pierre Trudeau
appointed law professor Barry Strayer to research a potential bill of
rights. While writing his report, Strayer consulted with a number of
notable legal scholars, including Walter Tarnopolsky. Strayer's report
advocated a number of ideas that were later incorporated into the Charter,
including protection for language rights. Strayer also advocated excluding
economic rights. Finally, he recommended allowing for limits on rights.
Such limits are included in the Charter's limitation and notwithstanding
clauses.¹² In 1968, Strayer was made the Director of the Constitutional Law
Division of the Privy Council Office and in 1974 he became Assistant Deputy
Minister of Justice. During those years, Strayer played a role in writing
the bill that was ultimately adopted.

Meanwhile, Trudeau, who had become Liberal leader and prime minister in
1968, still very much wanted a constitutional bill of rights. The federal
government and the provinces discussed creating one during negotiations for
patriation, which resulted in the Victoria Charter in 1971. This never came
to be implemented. However, Trudeau continued with his efforts to patriate
the Constitution, and promised constitutional change during the 1980 Quebec
referendum. He would succeed in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act
1982. This enacted the Constitution Act, 1982.

The inclusion of a charter of rights in the Constitution Act was a
much-debated issue. Trudeau spoke on television in October 1980,¹³ and
announced his intention to constitutionalize a bill of rights that would
include fundamental freedoms, democratic guarantees, freedom of movement,
legal rights, equality and language rights.¹⁴ He did not want a
notwithstanding clause. While his proposal gained popular support,¹⁵
provincial leaders opposed the potential limits on their powers. The
federal Progressive Conservative opposition feared liberal bias among
judges, should courts be called upon to enforce rights.¹⁶ Additionally, the
British Parliament cited their right to uphold Canada's old form of
government.¹⁷ At a suggestion of the Conservatives, Trudeau's government
thus agreed to a committee of Senators and MPs to further examine the bill
of rights as well as the patriation plan. During this time, 90 hours were
spent on the bill of rights alone, all filmed for television,¹⁵ while civil
rights experts and advocacy groups put forward their perceptions on the
Charter's flaws and omissions and how to remedy them.¹⁵ As Canada had a
parliamentary system of government, and as judges were perceived not to
have enforced rights well in the past, it was questioned whether the courts
should be named as the enforcers of the Charter, as Trudeau wanted.
Conservatives argued that elected politicians should be trusted instead. It
was eventually decided that the responsibility should go to the courts. At
the urging of civil libertarians, judges could even now exclude evidence in
trials if acquired in breach of Charter rights in certain circumstances,
something the Charter was not originally going to provide for. As the
process continued, more features were added to the Charter, including
equality rights for people with disabilities, more sex equality guarantees
and recognition of Canada's multiculturalism. The limitations clause was
also reworded to focus less on the importance of parliamentary government
and more on justifiability of limits in free societies; the latter logic
was more in line with rights developments around the world after World War
II.¹⁸

In its decision in the Patriation Reference (1981), the Supreme Court of
Canada had ruled there was a tradition that some provincial approval should
be sought for constitutional reform. As the provinces still had doubts
about the Charter's merits, Trudeau was forced to accept the
notwithstanding clause to allow governments to opt out of certain
obligations. The notwithstanding clause was accepted as part of a deal
called the Kitchen Accord, negotiated by the federal Attorney General Jean
Chrétien, Ontario's justice minister Roy McMurtry and Saskatchewan's
justice minister Roy Romanow. Pressure from provincial governments (which
in Canada have jurisdiction over property) and from the country's left
wing, especially the New Democratic Party, also prevented Trudeau from
including any rights protecting private property.¹⁹

Nevertheless, Quebec did not support the Charter (or the Canada Act 1982),
with "conflicting interpretations" as to why. The opposition could have
owed to the Parti Québécois leadership being allegedly uncooperative,
because it was more committed to gaining sovereignty for Quebec. It could
have owed to Quebec leaders being excluded from the negotiation of the
Kitchen Accord, which they saw as being too centralist. It could have owed
to provincial leaders' objections to the Accord's provisions relating to
the process of future constitutional amendment.²⁰ They also opposed the
inclusion of mobility rights and minority language education rights.²¹ The
Charter is still applicable in Quebec because all provinces are bound by
the Constitution. However, Quebec's opposition to the 1982 patriation
package has led to two failed attempts to amend the Constitution (the Meech
Lake Accord and Charlottetown Accord) which were designed primarily to
obtain Quebec's political approval of the Canadian constitutional order.

While the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms was adopted in 1982, it
was not until 1985 that the main provisions regarding equality rights
(section 15) came into effect. The delay was meant to give the federal and
provincial governments an opportunity to review pre-existing statutes and
strike potentially unconstitutional inequalities.

The typography of the physical document pictured here, and still
distributed today, was typeset by Ottawa's David Berman intentionally in
Carl Dair's Cartier typeface: at the time the most prominent Canadian
typeface, having been commissioned by the Governor-General as a celebration
of Canada's centenary in 1967.

The Charter has been amended since its enactment. Section 25 was amended in
1983 to explicitly recognize more rights regarding Aboriginal land claims,
and section 16.1 was added in 1993. A proposed Rights of the Unborn
Amendment in 1986–1987, which would have enshrined fetal rights, failed in
the federal Parliament. Other proposed amendments to the Constitution,
included in the Charlottetown Accord of 1992, were never passed. These
amendments would have specifically required the Charter to be interpreted
in a manner respectful of Quebec's distinct society, and would have added
further statements to the Constitution Act, 1867 regarding racial and
sexual equality and collective rights, and about minority language
communities. Though the Accord was negotiated among many interest groups,
the resulting provisions were so vague that Trudeau, then out of office,
feared they would actually conflict with and undermine the Charter's
individual rights. He felt judicial review of the rights might be
undermined if courts had to favour the policies of provincial governments,
as governments would be given responsibility over linguistic minorities.
Trudeau thus played a prominent role in leading the popular opposition to
the Accord.²²

Interpretation and enforcement

The task of interpreting and enforcing the Charter falls to the courts,
with the Supreme Court of Canada being the ultimate authority on the
matter.

With the Charter's supremacy confirmed by section 52 of the Constitution
Act, 1982, the courts continued their practice of striking down
unconstitutional statutes or parts of statutes as they had with earlier
case law regarding federalism. However, under section 24 of the Charter,
courts also gained new powers to enforce creative remedies and exclude more
evidence in trials. Courts have since made many important decisions,
including R. v. Morgentaler (1988), which struck down Canada's abortion
law, and Vriend v. Alberta (1998), in which the Supreme Court found the
province's exclusion of homosexuals from protection against discrimination
violated section 15. In the latter case, the Court then read the protection
into the law.

Courts may receive Charter questions in a number of ways. Rights claimants
could be prosecuted under a criminal law that they argue is
unconstitutional. Others may feel government services and policies are not
being dispensed in accordance with the Charter, and apply to lower-level
courts for injunctions against the government (as was the case in
Doucet-Boudreau v. Nova Scotia (Minister of Education)). A government may
also raise questions of rights by submitting reference questions to
higher-level courts; for example, Prime Minister Paul Martin's government
approached the Supreme Court with Charter questions as well as federalism
concerns in the case Re Same-Sex Marriage (2004). Provinces may also do
this with their superior courts. The government of Prince Edward Island
initiated the Provincial Judges Reference by asking its provincial Supreme
Court a question on judicial independence under section 11.

In several important cases, judges developed various tests and precedents
for interpreting specific provisions of the Charter. These include the
Oakes test for section 1, set out in the case R. v. Oakes (1986), and the
(now defunct²³ ) Law test for section 15, developed in Law v. Canada
(1999). Since Re B.C. Motor Vehicle Act (1985), various approaches to
defining and expanding the scope of fundamental justice (the Canadian name
for natural justice or due process) under section 7 have been adopted. (For
more information, see the articles on each Charter section).

In general, courts have embraced a purposive interpretation of Charter
rights.²⁴ This means that since early cases like Hunter v. Southam (1984)
and R. v. Big M Drug Mart (1985), they have concentrated not on the
traditional, limited understanding of what each right meant when the
Charter was adopted in 1982, but rather on changing the scope of rights as
appropriate to fit their broader purpose.²⁴ This is tied to the generous
interpretation of rights, as the purpose of the Charter provisions is
assumed to be to increase rights and freedoms of people in a variety of
circumstances, at the expense of the government powers.²⁴ Constitutional
scholar Peter Hogg has approved of the generous approach in some cases,
although for others he argues the purpose of the provisions was not to
achieve a set of rights as broad as courts have imagined.²⁴ Indeed, this
approach has not been without its critics. Alberta politician Ted Morton
and political scientist Rainer Knopff have been very critical of this
phenomenon. Although they feel the basis for the approach, the living tree
doctrine (the classical name for generous interpretations of the Canadian
Constitution), is sound, they argue Charter case law has been more radical.
When the living tree doctrine is applied right, the authors claim, "The elm
remained an elm; it grew new branches but did not transform itself into an
oak or a willow." The doctrine can be used, for example, so a right is
upheld even when a government threatens to violate it with new technology,
as long as the essential right remains the same; but the authors claim that
the courts have used the doctrine to "create new rights." As an example,
the authors note that the Charter right against self-incrimination has been
extended to cover scenarios in the justice system that had previously been
unregulated by self-incrimination rights in other Canadian laws.²⁵

Another general approach to interpreting Charter rights is to consider
international legal precedents with countries that have specific rights
protections, such as the United States Bill of Rights (an influence on
aspects of the Charter) and the Constitution of South Africa. However,
international precedent is only of guiding value, and is not binding. For
example, the Supreme Court has referred to the Charter and the American
Bill of Rights as being "born to different countries in different ages and
in different circumstances."²⁶

Public interest groups frequently intervene in cases to make arguments on
how to interpret the Charter. Some examples are the British Columbia Civil
Liberties Association, Canadian Civil Liberties Association, the Canadian
Mental Health Association, the Canadian Labour Congress, the Women's Legal
Education and Action Fund (LEAF), and REAL Women of Canada. The purpose of
such interventions is to assist the court and to attempt to influence the
court to render a decision favourable to the legal interests of the group.

A further approach to the Charter, taken by the courts, is the dialogue
principle, which involves greater participation by elected governments.
This approach involves governments drafting legislation in response to
court rulings and courts acknowledging the effort if the new legislation is
challenged.

Comparisons with other human rights documents

Some Canadian Members of Parliament saw the movement to entrench a charter
as contrary to the British model of Parliamentary supremacy. Others would
say that the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) has now limited
British parliamentary power to a greater degree than the Canadian Charter
limited the power of the Canadian Parliament and provincial legislatures.
Hogg has speculated that the British adopted the Human Rights Act 1998,
which allows the ECHR to be enforced directly in domestic courts, partly
because they were inspired by the similar Canadian Charter.²⁷

The Canadian Charter bears a number of similarities to the European
Convention, specifically in relation to the limitations clauses contained
in the European document.²⁸ Because of this similarity with European human
rights law, the Supreme Court of Canada turns not only to the Constitution
of the United States case law in interpreting the Charter, but also to
European Court of Human Rights cases.

The core distinction between the United States Bill of Rights and Canadian
Charter is the existence of the limitations and notwithstanding clauses.
Canadian courts have consequently interpreted each right more
expansively.²⁹ However, due to the limitations clause, where a violation of
a right exists, the law will not necessarily grant protection of that
right.²⁹ In contrast, rights under the US Bill of Rights are absolute and
so a violation will not be found until there has been sufficient
encroachment on those rights. The sum effect is that both constitutions
provide comparable protection of many rights.²⁹ Fundamental justice (in
section 7 of the Canadian Charter) is therefore interpreted to include more
legal protections than due process, which is its US equivalent. Freedom of
expression in section 2 also has a more wide-ranging scope than the First
Amendment to the United States Constitution's freedom of speech.²⁹ In RWDSU
v. Dolphin Delivery Ltd. (1986), the Canadian Supreme Court considered
picketing of the kind the US First Amendment did not permit, as it was
disruptive conduct (though there was some speech involved that the First
Amendment might otherwise protect). The Supreme Court, however, ruled the
picketing, including the disruptive conduct, were fully protected under
section 2 of the Charter. The Court then relied on section 1 to find the
injunction against the picketing was just.³⁰ The limitations clause has
also allowed governments to enact laws that would be considered
unconstitutional in the US. The Supreme Court of Canada has upheld some of
Quebec's limits on the use of English on signs and has upheld publication
bans that prohibit media from mentioning the names of juvenile criminals.

Section 28 of the Charter performs a function similar to that of the
unratified Equal Rights Amendment in the US. While that proposed amendment
had many critics, there was no comparable opposition to the Charter's
section 28.³¹ Still, Canadian feminists had to stage large protests to
demonstrate support for the inclusion of the section which had not been
part of the original draft of the charter.³² ³³

The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights has several
parallels with the Canadian Charter, but in some cases the Covenant goes
further with regard to rights in its text. For example, a right to legal
aid has been read into section 10 of the Charter (the right to counsel),
but the Covenant explicitly guarantees the accused need not pay "if he does
not have sufficient means."³⁴

The Canadian Charter has little to say, explicitly at least, about economic
and social rights. On this point, it stands in marked contrast with the
Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms and with the International
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. There are some who feel
economic rights ought to be read into section 7 rights to security of the
person and section 15 equality rights to make the Charter similar to the
Covenant.³² The rationale is that economic rights can relate to a decent
standard of living and can help the civil rights flourish in a livable
environment.³² Canadian courts, however, have been hesitant in this area,
stating that economic rights are political questions and adding that as
positive rights, economic rights are of questionable legitimacy.³²

The Charter itself influenced the Bill of Rights in the Constitution of
South Africa.³² The limitations clause under section 36 of the South
African law has been compared to section 1 of that Charter.²⁸

Jamaica's Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms was also influenced,
in part, by the Canadian charter.³⁵ ³⁶

The Charter and national values

The Charter was intended to be a source for Canadian values and national
unity. As Professor Alan Cairns noted, "The initial federal government
premise was on developing a pan-Canadian identity."²⁷ Trudeau himself later
wrote in his Memoirs that "Canada itself" could now be defined as a
"society where all people are equal and where they share some fundamental
values based upon freedom", and that all Canadians could identify with the
values of liberty and equality.³⁷

The Charter's unifying purpose was particularly important to the mobility
and language rights. According to author Rand Dyck, some scholars believe
section 23, with its minority language education rights, "was the only part
of the Charter with which Pierre Trudeau was truly concerned".³⁸ Through
the mobility and language rights, French Canadians, who have been at the
centre of unity debates, are able to travel throughout all Canada and
receive government and educational services in their own language. Hence,
they are not confined to Quebec (the only province where they form the
majority and where most of their population is based), which would polarize
the country along regional lines. The Charter was also supposed to
standardize previously diverse laws throughout the country and gear them
towards a single principle of liberty.³⁹

Former premier of Ontario Bob Rae has stated that the Charter "functions as
a symbol for all Canadians" in practice because it represents the core
value of freedom.²⁷ Academic Peter Russell has been more skeptical of the
Charter's value in this field. Cairns, who feels the Charter is the most
important constitutional document to many Canadians, and that the Charter
was meant to shape the Canadian identity, has also expressed concern that
groups within society see certain provisions as belonging to them alone
rather than to all Canadians.²⁷ It has also been noted that issues like
abortion and pornography, raised by the Charter, tend to be
controversial.³⁹ Still, opinion polls in 2002 showed Canadians felt the
Charter significantly represented Canada, although many were unaware of the
document's actual contents.⁴⁰

The only values mentioned by the Charter's preamble are recognition for the
supremacy of God and the rule of law, but these have been controversial and
of minor legal consequence. In 1999, MP Svend Robinson brought forward a
failed proposal before the Canadian House of Commons that would have
amended the Charter by removing the mention of God, as he felt it did not
reflect Canada's diversity.

Section 27 also recognizes a value of multiculturalism. In 2002, polls
found 86% of Canadians approved of this section.⁴¹

Criticism

While the Charter has enjoyed a great deal of popularity, with 82% of
Canadians describing it as a good thing in opinion polls in 1987 and
1999,²⁷ the document has also been subject to published criticisms from
both sides of the political spectrum. One left-wing critic is Professor
Michael Mandel, who wrote that in comparison to politicians, judges do not
have to be as sensitive to the will of the electorate, nor do they have to
make sure their decisions are easily understandable to the average Canadian
citizen. This, in Mandel's view, limits democracy.⁴² Mandel has also
asserted that the Charter makes Canada more like the United States,
especially by serving corporate rights and individual rights rather than
group rights and social rights.⁴² He has argued that there are several
rights that should be included in the Charter, such as a right to health
care and a basic right to free education. Hence, the perceived
Americanization of Canadian politics is seen as coming at the expense of
values more important for Canadians.⁴² The union movement has been
disappointed in the reluctance of the courts to use the Charter to support
various forms of union activity, such as the "right to strike".

Right-wing critics Morton and Knopff have raised several concerns about the
Charter, notably by alleging that the federal government has used it to
limit provincial powers by allying with various rights claimants and
interest groups. In their book The Charter Revolution & the Court Party,
Morton and Knopff express their suspicions of this alliance in detail,
accusing the Trudeau and Chrétien governments of funding litigious groups.
For example, these governments used the Court Challenges Program to support
minority language educational rights claims. Morton and Knopff also claim
that crown counsel have intentionally lost cases in which the government
was taken to court for allegedly violating rights, particularly gay rights
and women's rights.⁴³

Political scientist Rand Dyck, in observing these criticisms, notes that
while judges have had their scope of review widened, they have still upheld
most laws challenged on Charter grounds. With regard to litigious interest
groups, Dyck points out that "the record is not as clear as Morton and
Knopff imply. All such groups have experienced wins and losses."⁴⁴

The political philosopher Charles Blattberg has criticized the Charter for
contributing to the fragmentation of the country, at both the individual
and group levels. In encouraging discourse based upon rights, the Charter
is said to inject an adversarial spirit into Canadian politics, making it
difficult to realize the common good. Blattberg also claims that the
Charter undercuts the Canadian political community since it is ultimately a
cosmopolitan document. Finally, he argues that people would be more
motivated to uphold individual liberties if they were expressed with terms
that are much "thicker" (less abstract) than rights.⁴⁵

See also

- Canadian Bill of Rights
- Canadian Human Rights Act
- History of Canada
- Human rights in Canada
- Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms
- Supreme Court of Canada
- Veterans' Bill of Rights
  + List of Supreme Court of Canada cases (Dickson Court)
  + List of Supreme Court of Canada cases (Lamer Court)
  + List of Supreme Court of Canada cases (McLachlin Court)

References

[1] Only one federal law was declared inoperative by the Supreme Court of
  Canada: R. v. Drybones (1969), [1970] S.C.R. 282. For an example of the
  narrow interpretation of the Supreme Court of Canada see Attorney General
  of Canada v. Lavell, [1974] S.C.R. 1349.
[2] Hogg, Peter W. Constitutional Law of Canada. 2003 Student Ed.
  Scarborough, Ontario: Thomson Canada Limited, 2003, page 689.
[3] Hogg, Constitutional Law of Canada. 2003 Student Ed., pages 741–742
[4] Heather Scoffield, "Ottawa rules out invoking notwithstanding clause to
  stop migrant ships," Canadian Press, September 13, 2010
[5] Marriage Act, R.S.A. 2000, c. M-5. Accessed URL on March 10, 2006.
[6] McKnight, Peter. "Notwithstanding what?" The Vancouver Sun, January 21,
  2006, pg. C.4.
[7] Library of Parliament, Parliamentary Information and Research Service,
  The Notwithstanding Clause of the Charter, prepared by David Johansen,
  1989, as revised May 2005. Retrieved August 7, 2006.
[8] "Sources of Canadian Law", Department of Justice Canada. Retrieved
  March 20, 2006.
[9] The Constitutional Law Group, Canadian Constitutional Law, Third
  Edition, Toronto: Edmond Montgomery Publications Limited, p. 635.
[10] Hogg, Peter W. Canada Act 1982 Annotated. Toronto: The Carswell
  Company Limited, 1982.
[11] United States of America v. Cotroni; United States of America v. El
  Zein [1989] 1 S.C.R. 1469.
[12] Strayer, Barry L. "My Constitutional Summer of 1967", Reflections on
  the Charter, Department of Justice Canada. Retrieved March 18, 2006.
[13] "Charting the Future: Canada's New Constitution | CBC Archives".
  Archives.cbc.ca. Retrieved 2010-06-30.
[14] Weinrib, Lorraine Eisenstat. "Trudeau and the Canadian Charter of
  Rights and Freedoms: A Question of Constitutional Maturation." In
  Trudeau's Shadow: The Life and Legacy of Pierre Elliott Trudeau. Edited
  by Andrew Cohen and JL Granatstein. Vintage Canada, 1998, pages 269.
[15] Weinrib, 270.
[16] Weinrib, 271.
[17] Weinrib, 272.
[18] Weinrib, pages 271–272.
[19] David Johansen, "PROPERTY RIGHTS AND THE CONSTITUTION," Library of
  Parliament (Canada), Law and Government Division, October 1991.
[20] "The Night of Long Knives", Canada: A People's History. CBC. Retrieved
  April 8, 2006.
[21] CBC evening news broadcast, November 5, 1981. Online at CBC Archives,
  beginning at timepoint 4:04 of the clip. Retrieved August 8, 2006.
[22] Behiels, Michael D. "Who Speaks for Canada? Trudeau and the
  Constitutional Crisis." In Trudeau's Shadow: The Life and Legacy of
  Pierre Elliott Trudeau, page 346.
[23] R. v. Kapp, 2008 SCC 41, [2008] 2 SCR 483
[24] Hogg, Constitutional Law of Canada, 2003 Student Ed., pages 722 and
  724–725.
[25] Morton, F.L. and Rainer Knopff. The Charter Revolution & the Court
  Party. Toronto: Broadview Press, 2000, pages 46–47.
[26] Hogg, Constitutional Law of Canada. 2003 Student Ed., pages 732; the
  case quoted was R. v. Rahey (1987) by Gérard La Forest.
[27] Saunders, Philip (April 2002). "The Charter at 20". CBC News Online.
  Archived from the original on 7 March 2006. Retrieved March 17, 2006.
[28] Brice Dickson, "Human Rights in the 21st Century," Amnesty
  International Lecture, Queen's University, Belfast, 11 November 1999.
[29] Hogg, Constitutional Law of Canada. 2003 Student Ed., pages 732–733.
[30] Manfredi, Christopher P. "The Canadian Supreme Court and American
  Judicial Review: United States Constitutional Jurisprudence and the
  Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms." The American Journal of
  Comparative Law, vol. 40, no. 1. (Winter, 1992), pages 12–13.
[31] Women's International Network News, "Women on the Move in Canada."
  Summer 1993, Vol. 19 Issue 3, page 71.
[32] Lugtig, Sarah and Debra Parkes, "Where do we go from here?" Herizons,
  Spring 2002, Vol. 15 Issue 4, page 14.
[33] Doris Anderson, "Canadian Women and the Charter of Rights" (2005) 19
  Nat'l J Const L 369.
[34] Hogg, Constitutional Law of Canada. 2003 Student Ed., pages 733–734.
[35] http://jis.gov.jm/media/charter-of-rights1.pdf
[36] http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20110417/cleisure/cleisure2.html
[37] Trudeau, Pierre Elliott. Memoirs, Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1993,
  pages 322–323.
[38] Dyck, Rand. Canadian Politics: Critical Approaches. Third ed.
  Scarborough, Ontario: Nelson Thomson Learning, 2000, page 442.
[39] Hogg, Constitutional Law of Canada. 2003 Student Ed., pages 704–705.
[40] Byfield, Joanne. "The right to be ignorant." Report/Newsmagazine
  (National Edition); December 16, 2002, Vol. 29, Issue 24, page 56.
[41] Tracey Tyler, "Support for Charter runs strong: Survey; Approval
  highest in Quebec on 20-year-old rights law", Toronto Star, Apr 12, 2002,
  p. A07.
[42] Dyck, page 446, summarizing Mandel, Michael, The Charter of Rights and
  the Legalization of Politics in Canada (Toronto: Wall and Thompson, 1989;
  revised edition, 1994)
[43] Morton and Knopff, 95. They complain about crown counsels on page 117.
[44] Dyck, page 448.
[45] Blattberg, Charles. Shall We Dance? A Patriotic Politics for Canada.
  Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2003, especially
  pages 83–94
Bibliography
- G.-A Beaudoin and E. Ratushny, The Canadian Charter of Rights and
  Freedoms 2nd ed., Carswell, Toronto, 1989.
- P.W. Hogg, Constitutional law of Canada, 4th ed., Carswell: Scarborough
  with Supplement to Constitutional Law of Canada (2002-)
- J.P. Humphrey, Human Rights and the United Nations: A Great Adventure,
  New York: Transnational Publishers, 1984.
- J.E. Magnet, Constitutional Law, 8th ed. (2001).

Further reading

- Black-Branch, Jonathan L (1995), Making sense of the Canadian Charter of
  Rights and Freedoms, Canadian Education Association ISBN 0-920315-78-X
- Silver, Cindy (1995?). Family Autonomy and the Charter of Rights:
  Protecting Parental Liberty in a Child-Centred Legal System, in series,
  Discussion Paper [of] the Centre for Renewal in Public Policy, 3.
  Gloucester, Ont.: Centre for Renewal in Public Policy. 27 p.

External links

- Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms - Canadian Department of Justice
  website
- Building a Just Society: A Retrospective of Canadian Rights and Freedoms
  at Library and Archives Canada
- Charter of Rights Decisions Digest by the Canadian Legal Information
  Institute
- Constitutional Law of Canada by Professor Joseph E. Magnet, University of
  Ottawa
- Fundamental Freedoms: The Charter of Rights and Freedoms - Charter of
  Rights and Freedoms website with video, audio and the Charter in more
  than 10 languages

Common law

"Common Law" redirects here. For other uses, see Common law
(disambiguation).

Common law is law developed from the thirteenth century to the present day,
by case law or precedent, by judges, courts, and similar tribunals, stated
in decisions that nominally decide individual cases but that in addition
have precedential effect on future cases.² ³ ⁴ ⁵ Common law is a body of
law made by judges,⁶ in contrast to and on equal footing with statutes
which are adopted through the legislative process, and regulations which
are promulgated by the executive branch. In cases where the parties
disagree on what the law is, a common law court looks to past precedential
decisions of relevant courts. If a similar dispute has been resolved in the
past, the court is usually bound to follow the reasoning used in the prior
decision (a principle known as stare decisis). If, however, the court finds
that the current dispute is fundamentally distinct from all previous cases
(called a "matter of first impression"), and legislative statutes are
either silent or ambiguous on the question, judges have the authority and
duty to resolve the issue (one party or the other has to win, and on
disagreements of law, judges make that decision).⁷ Resolution of the issue
in one case becomes precedent that binds future courts. Stare decisis, the
principle that cases should be decided according to consistent principled
rules so that similar facts will yield similar results, lies at the heart
of all common law systems.⁸

A "common law system" is a legal system that gives great precedential
weight to common law.⁹ ¹⁰ ¹¹ ¹² Common law systems originated during the
Middle Ages in England,¹³ and from there propagated to the colonies of the
British Empire. Today, one third of the world's population live in common
law jurisdictions or in systems mixed with civil law.

Definitions

The term common law has many connotations. The first three set out here are
the most-common usages within the legal community. Other connotations from
past centuries are sometimes seen, and are sometimes heard in everyday
speech.

Common law as opposed to statutory law and regulatory law

Black's Law Dictionary, 10th Ed., gives as definition 1, "1. The body of
law derived from judicial decisions, rather than from statutes or
constitutions; [synonym] CASELAW, [contrast] STATUTORY LAW."³ (Black's Law
Dictionary is the main legal dictionary used among legal professionals in
the U.S.) This usage is given as the first definition in modern legal
dictionaries, is characterized as the "most common" usage among legal
professionals, and is the usage frequently seen in decisions of courts.² ⁴
⁵ ¹⁴ In this connotation, "common law" distinguishes the authority that
promulgated a law. For example, the law in most Anglo-American
jurisdictions includes "statutory law" enacted by a legislature,
"regulatory law" (in the U.S.) or "delegated legislation" (in the U.K.)
promulgated by executive branch agencies pursuant to delegation of
rule-making authority from the legislature, and common law or "case law",
i.e., decisions issued by courts (or quasi-judicial tribunals within
agencies).¹⁵ This first connotation can be further differentiated into

(a) pure common law arising from the traditional and inherent authority of
  courts to define what the law is, even in the absence of an underlying
  statute or regulation. Examples include most criminal law and procedural
  law before the 20th century, and even today, most contract law and the
  law of torts.
(b) interstitial common law court decisions that analyze, interpret and
  determine the fine boundaries and distinctions in law promulgated by
  other bodies. This body of common law, sometimes called "interstitial
  common law," includes judicial interpretation of the Constitution, of
  legislative statutes, and of agency regulations, and the application of
  law to specific facts.²

Publication of decisions, and indexing, is essential to the development of
common law, and thus governments and private publishers publish law
reports.¹⁶ While all decisions in common law jurisdictions are precedent
(at varying levels and scope as discussed throughout the article on
precedent), some become "leading cases" or "landmark decisions" that are
cited especially often.

Common law legal systems as opposed to civil law legal systems

Black's 10th Ed., definition 2, differentiates "common law" jurisdictions
and legal systems from "civil law" or "code" jurisdictions.⁹ ¹⁰ Common law
systems place great weight on court decisions, which are considered "law"
with the same force of law as statutes—for nearly a millennium, common law
courts have had the authority to make law where no legislative statute
exists, and statutes mean what courts interpret them to mean.

By contrast, in civil law jurisdictions (the legal tradition that prevails,
or is combined with common law, in Europe and most non-Islamic, non-common
law countries), courts lack authority to act if there is no statute.
Judicial precedent is given less interpretive weight, which means that a
judge deciding a given case has more freedom to interpret the text of a
statute independently, and less predictably. For example, the Napoleonic
code expressly forbade French judges to pronounce general principles of
law.¹⁷ The role of providing overarching principles, which in common law
jurisdictions is provided in judicial opinions, in civil law jurisdictions
is filled by giving greater weight to scholarly literature, as explained
below.

As a rule of thumb, common law systems trace their history to England,
while civil law systems trace their history through the Napoleonic Code
back to the Corpus Juris Civilis of Roman law.¹⁸ ¹⁹

Law as opposed to equity

Black's 10th Ed., definition 4, differentiates "common law" (or just "law")
from "equity".²⁰ Additional legal dictionary cites include.¹⁵ ²¹ Before
1873, England had two parallel court systems: courts of "law" which could
only award money damages and recognized only the legal owner of property,
and courts of "equity" (courts of chancery) that could issue injunctive
relief (that is, a court order to a party to do something, give something
to someone, or stop doing something) and recognized trusts of property.
This split propagated to many of the colonies, including the United States.
For most purposes, most jurisdictions, including the U.S. federal system
and most states, have merged the two courts.²² ²³ Additionally, even before
the separate courts were merged, most courts were permitted to apply both
law and equity, though under potentially different procedural law.
Nonetheless, the historical distinction between "law" and "equity" remains
important today when the case involves issues such as the following:

- categorizing and prioritizing rights to property—for example, the same
  article of property often has a "legal title" and an "equitable title,"
  and these two groups of ownership rights may be held by different people.
- in the United States, determining whether the Seventh Amendment's right
  to a jury trial applies (a determination of a fact necessary to
  resolution of a "common law" claim)²⁴ or whether the issue will be
  decided by a judge (issues of what the law is, and all issues relating to
  equity).
- the standard of review and degree of deference given by an appellate
  tribunal to the decision of the lower tribunal under review (issues of
  law are reviewed de novo, that is, "as if new" from scratch by the
  appellate tribunal, while most issues of equity are reviewed for "abuse
  of discretion," that is, with great deference to the tribunal below).
- the remedies available and rules of procedure to be applied.

Courts of equity rely on common law principles of binding precedent.

Archaic meanings and historical uses

In addition, there are several historical uses of the term that provide
some background as to its meaning.

In one archaic usage, "common law" refers to the pre-Christian system of
law, imported by the Saxons to England, and dating to before the Norman
conquest, and before there was any consistent law to be applied.²⁵ ²⁶ This
definition is found or alluded to in some internet dictionaries.²⁷

"Common law" as the term is used today in common law countries contrasts
with ius commune. While historically the ius commune became a secure point
of reference in continental European legal systems, in England it was not a
point of reference at all.²⁸

The English Court of Common Pleas dealt with lawsuits in which the Monarch
had no interest, i.e., between commoners.

Black's definition 3 is "3. General law common to a country as a whole, as
opposed to special law that has only local application."²⁹ From at least
the 11th century and continuing for several centuries after that, there
were several different circuits in the royal court system, served by
itinerant judges who would travel from town to town dispensing the King's
justice in "assizes". The term "common law" was used to describe the law
held in common between the circuits and the different stops in each
circuit. The more widely a particular law was recognized, the more weight
it held, whereas purely local customs were generally subordinate to law
recognized in a plurality of jurisdictions.

Misconceptions

A number of misconceptions of the term "common law" exist in popular
culture.

- Under the modern view, "common law" is not grounded in "custom," but
  rather acquires force of law to the extent stated in judicial opinion.
  From the earliest times through the late 19th century, the dominant
  theory was that the common law was a pre-existent law or system of rules,
  a social standard of justice that existed in the habits, customs, and
  thoughts of the people. Under this older view, the legal profession
  considered it no part of judge's duty to make new or change existing law,
  but only to expound and apply the old. By the early 20th century, largely
  at the urging of Oliver Wendell Holmes (as discussed throughout this
  article), this view had fallen into the minority view: Holmes pointed out
  that the older view worked undesirable and unjust results, and hampered a
  proper development of the law. In the century since Holmes, the dominant
  understanding has been that common law "decisions are themselves law, or
  rather the rules which the courts lay down in making the decisions
  constitute law."⁶ The reality of the modern view can be seen in practical
  operation: under the old "pre-existing custom" view, jurisdictions could
  not logically diverge from each other (but nonetheless did), a new
  decision logically needed to operate retroactively (but did not), and
  there was no standard to decide which English medieval customs should be
  "law" and which should not. All three tensions resolve under the modern
  view: the common law in different jurisdictions may diverge, and new
  decisions need not have retroactive operation.
- The common law is not frozen in time. The law as it existed in the 18th
  century is relevant in only a few isolated contexts;³⁰ there is no fixed
  reference point (for example the 11th or 18th centuries) for the
  definition of "common law." The common law evolves daily as courts issue
  precedential decisions, and all parties in the legal system (courts,
  lawyers, and all others) are responsible for up-to-date knowledge.³¹
- The common law is not "unwritten." Common law exists in writing—as must
  any law that is to be applied consistently—in the written decisions of
  judges.² ⁶ ³
- Common law is not the product of "universal consent." Rather, the common
  law is often anti-majoritarian.³² ³³

Basic principles of common law

Common law adjudication

In a common law jurisdiction several stages of research and analysis are
required to determine "what the law is" in a given situation. First, one
must ascertain the facts. Then, one must locate any relevant statutes and
cases. Then one must extract the principles, analogies and statements by
various courts of what they consider important to determine how the next
court is likely to rule on the facts of the present case. Later decisions,
and decisions of higher courts or legislatures carry more weight than
earlier cases and those of lower courts.³⁴ Finally, one integrates all the
lines drawn and reasons given, and determines "what the law is". Then, one
applies that law to the facts.

In practice, common law systems are considerably more complicated than the
simplified system described above. The decisions of a court are binding
only in a particular jurisdiction, and even within a given jurisdiction,
some courts have more power than others. For example, in most
jurisdictions, decisions by appellate courts are binding on lower courts in
the same jurisdiction, and on future decisions of the same appellate court,
but decisions of lower courts are only non-binding persuasive authority.
Interactions between common law, constitutional law, statutory law and
regulatory law also give rise to considerable complexity.

The common law evolves to meet changing social needs and improved
understanding

Justice Holmes cautioned that "the proper derivation of general principles
in both common and constitutional law ... arise gradually, in the emergence
of a consensus from a multitude of particularized prior decisions."³⁵
Justice Cardozo noted the "common law does not work from pre-established
truths of universal and inflexible validity to conclusions derived from
them deductively," but "[i]ts method is inductive, and it draws its
generalizations from particulars."³⁶

The common law is more malleable than statutory law. First, common law
courts are not absolutely bound by precedent, but can (when extraordinarily
good reason is shown) reinterpret and revise the law, without legislative
intervention, to adapt to new trends in political, legal and social
philosophy. Second, the common law evolves through a series of gradual
steps, that gradually works out all the details, so that over a decade or
more, the law can change substantially but without a sharp break, thereby
reducing disruptive effects.³⁷ In contrast to common law incrementalism,
the legislative process is very difficult to get started, as legislatures
tend to delay action until a situation is totally intolerable. For these
reasons, legislative changes tend to be large, jarring and disruptive
(sometimes positively, sometimes negatively, and sometimes with unintended
consequences).

One example of the gradual change that typifies evolution of the common law
is the gradual change in liability for negligence. The traditional common
law rule through most of the 19th century was that a plaintiff could not
recover for a defendant's negligent production or distribution of a harmful
instrumentality unless the two were in privity of contract. Thus, only the
immediate purchaser could recover for a product defect, and if a part was
built up out of parts from parts manufacturers, the ultimate buyer could
not recover for injury caused by a defect in the part. In an 1842 English
case, Winterbottom v. Wright,³⁸ the postal service had contracted with
Wright to maintain its coaches. Winterbottom was a driver for the post.
When the coach failed and injured Winterbottom, he sued Wright. The
Winterbottom court recognized that there would be "absurd and outrageous
consequences" if an injured person could sue any person peripherally
involved, and knew it had to draw a line somewhere, a limit on the causal
connection between the negligent conduct and the injury. The court looked
to the contractual relationships, and held that liability would only flow
as far as the person in immediate contract ("privity") with the negligent
party.

A first exception to this rule arose in 1852, in the case of Thomas v.
Winchester,³⁹ when New York's highest court held that mislabeling a poison
as an innocuous herb, and then selling the mislabeled poison through a
dealer who would be expected to resell it, put "human life in imminent
danger." Thomas relied on this reason to create an exception to the
"privity" rule. In, 1909, New York held in Statler v. Ray Mfg. Co.⁴⁰ that a
coffee urn manufacturer was liable to a person injured when the urn
exploded, because the urn "was of such a character inherently that, when
applied to the purposes for which it was designed, it was liable to become
a source of great danger to many people if not carefully and properly
constructed."

Yet the privity rule survived. In Cadillac Motor Car Co. v. Johnson,⁴¹
(decided in 1915 by the federal appeals court for New York and several
neighboring states), the court held that a car owner could not recover for
injuries from a defective wheel, when the automobile owner had a contract
only with the automobile dealer and not with the manufacturer, even though
there was "no question that the wheel was made of dead and 'dozy' wood,
quite insufficient for its purposes." The Cadillac court was willing to
acknowledge that the case law supported exceptions for "an article
dangerous in its nature or likely to become so in the course of the
ordinary usage to be contemplated by the vendor." However, held the
Cadillac court, "one who manufactures articles dangerous only if
defectively made, or installed, e.g., tables, chairs, pictures or mirrors
hung on the walls, carriages, automobiles, and so on, is not liable to
third parties for injuries caused by them, except in case of willful injury
or fraud,"

Finally, in the famous case of MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co.,⁴² in 1916,
Judge Benjamin Cardozo for New York's highest court pulled a broader
principle out of these predecessor cases. The facts were almost identical
to Cadillac a year earlier: a wheel from a wheel manufacturer was sold to
Buick, to a dealer, to MacPherson, and the wheel failed, injuring
MacPherson. Judge Cardozo held:

  It may be that Statler v. Ray Mfg. Co. have extended the rule of Thomas
  v. Winchester. If so, this court is committed to the extension. The
  defendant argues that things imminently dangerous to life are poisons,
  explosives, deadly weapons—things whose normal function it is to injure
  or destroy. But whatever the rule in Thomas v. Winchester may once have
  been, it has no longer that restricted meaning. A scaffold (Devlin v.
  Smith, supra) is not inherently a destructive instrument. It becomes
  destructive only if imperfectly constructed. A large coffee urn (Statler
  v. Ray Mfg. Co., supra) may have within itself, if negligently made, the
  potency of danger, yet no one thinks of it as an implement whose normal
  function is destruction. What is true of the coffee urn is equally true
  of bottles of aerated water (Torgeson v. Schultz, 192 N. Y. 156). We have
  mentioned only cases in this court. But the rule has received a like
  extension in our courts of intermediate appeal. In Burke v. Ireland (26
  App. Div. 487), in an opinion by CULLEN, J., it was applied to a builder
  who constructed a defective building; in Kahner v. Otis Elevator Co. (96
  App. Div. 169) to the manufacturer of an elevator; in Davies v. Pelham
  Hod Elevating Co. (65 Hun, 573; affirmed in this court without opinion,
  146 N. Y. 363) to a contractor who furnished a defective rope with
  knowledge of the purpose for which the rope was to be used. We are not
  required at this time either to approve or to disapprove the application
  of the rule that was made in these cases. It is enough that they help to
  characterize the trend of judicial thought.

  We hold, then, that the principle of Thomas v. Winchester is not limited
  to poisons, explosives, and things of like nature, to things which in
  their normal operation are implements of destruction. If the nature of a
  thing is such that it is reasonably certain to place life and limb in
  peril when negligently made, it is then a thing of danger. Its nature
  gives warning of the consequences to be expected. If to the element of
  danger there is added knowledge that the thing will be used by persons
  other than the purchaser, and used without new tests then, irrespective
  of contract, the manufacturer of this thing of danger is under a duty to
  make it carefully. ... There must be knowledge of a danger, not merely
  possible, but probable.

Cardozo's new "rule" exists in no prior case, but is inferrable as a
synthesis of the "thing of danger" principle stated in them, merely
extending it to "foreseeable danger" even if "the purposes for which it was
designed" were not themselves "a source of great danger." MacPherson takes
some care to present itself as foreseeable progression, not a wild
departure. Cardozo continues to adhere to the original principle of
Winterbottom, that "absurd and outrageous consequences" must be avoided,
and he does so by drawing a new line in the last sentence quoted above:
"There must be knowledge of a danger, not merely possible, but probable."
But while adhering to the underlying principle that some boundary is
necessary, MacPherson overruled the prior common law by rendering the
formerly dominant factor in the boundary, that is, the privity formality
arising out of a contractual relationship between persons, totally
irrelevant. Rather, the most important factor in the boundary would be the
nature of the thing sold and the foreseeable uses that downstream
purchasers would make of the thing.

This illustrates two crucial principles that are often not well understood
by non-lawyers. (a) The common law evolves, this evolution is in the hands
of judges, and judges have "made law" for hundreds of years. (b) The
reasons given for a decision are often more important in the long run than
the outcome in a particular case. This is the reason that judicial opinions
are usually quite long, and give rationales and policies that can be
balanced with judgment in future cases, rather than the bright-line rules
usually embodied in statutes.

Publication of decisions

All law systems rely on written publication of the law, so that it is
accessible to all. Common law decisions are published in law reports for
use by lawyers, courts and the general public.⁴³

After the American Revolution, Massachusetts became the first state to
establish an official Reporter of Decisions. As newer states needed law,
they often looked first to the Massachusetts Reports for authoritative
precedents as a basis for their own common law.⁴⁴ The United States federal
courts relied on private publishers until after the Civil War, and only
began publishing as a government function in 1874. West Publishing in
Minnesota is the largest private-sector publisher of law reports in the
United States. Government publishers typically issue only decisions "in the
raw," while private sector publishers often add indexing, editorial
analysis, and similar finding aids.

Interaction of constitutional, statutory and common law

In common law legal systems, the common law is crucial to understanding
almost all important areas of law. For example, in England and Wales, in
English Canada, and in most states of the United States, the basic law of
contracts, torts and property do not exist in statute, but only in common
law (though there may be isolated modifications enacted by statute). As
another example, the Supreme Court of the United States in 1877,⁴⁵ held
that a Michigan statute that established rules for solemnization of
marriages did not abolish pre-existing common-law marriage, because the
statute did not affirmatively require statutory solemnization and was
silent as to preexisting common law.

In almost all areas of the law (even those where there is a statutory
framework, such as contracts for the sale of goods,⁴⁶ or the criminal
law),⁴⁷ legislature-enacted statutes generally give only terse statements
of general principle, and the fine boundaries and definitions exist only in
the interstitial common law. To find out what the precise law is that
applies to a particular set of facts, one has to locate precedential
decisions on the topic, and reason from those decisions by analogy.

In common law (as opposed to civil law) jurisdictions, legislatures operate
under the assumption that statutes will be interpreted against the backdrop
of the pre-existing and custom.. As the United States Supreme Court
explained in United States v Texas, 507 U.S. 529 (1993):

  Just as longstanding is the principle that "[s]tatutes which invade the
  common law ... are to be read with a presumption favoring the retention
  of long-established and familiar principles, except when a statutory
  purpose to the contrary is evident." Isbrandtsen Co. v. Johnson, 343 U.S.
  779, 783 (1952); Astoria Federal Savings & Loan Assn. v. Solimino, 501
  U.S. 104, 108 (1991). In such cases, Congress does not write upon a clean
  slate. Astoria, 501 U.S. at 108. In order to abrogate a common-law
  principle, the statute must "speak directly" to the question addressed by
  the common law. Mobil Oil Corp. v. Higginbotham, 436 U. S. 618, 625
  (1978); Milwaukee v. Illinois, 451 U. S. 304, 315 (1981).

For example, in most U.S. states, the criminal statutes are primarily
codification of pre-existing common law. (Codification is the process of
enacting a statute that collects and restates pre-existing law in a single
document—when that pre-existing law is common law, the common law remains
relevant to the interpretation of these statutes.) In reliance on this
assumption, modern statutes often leave a number of terms and fine
distinctions unstated—for example, a statute might be very brief, leaving
the precise definition of terms unstated, under the assumption that these
fine distinctions will be inherited from pre-existing common law. (For this
reason, many modern American law schools teach the common law of crime as
it stood in England in 1789, because that centuries-old English common law
is a necessary foundation to interpreting modern criminal statutes.)

With the transition from English law, which had common law crimes, to the
new legal system under the U.S. Constitution, which prohibited ex post
facto laws at both the federal and state level, the question was raised
whether there could be common law crimes in the United States. It was
settled in the case of United States v. Hudson and Goodwin, 11 U.S. 32
(1812), which decided that federal courts had no jurisdiction to define new
common law crimes, and that there must always be a (constitutional) statute
defining the offense and the penalty for it.

Still, many states retain selected common law crimes. For example, in
Virginia, the definition of the conduct that constitutes the crime of
robbery exists only in the common law, and the robbery statute only sets
the punishment.⁴⁸ Virginia Code section 1-200 establishes the continued
existence and vitality of common law principles and provides that "The
common law of England, insofar as it is not repugnant to the principles of
the Bill of Rights and Constitution of this Commonwealth, shall continue in
full force within the same, and be the rule of decision, except as altered
by the General Assembly."

By contrast to statutory codification of common law, some statutes displace
common law, for example to create a new cause of action that did not exist
in the common law, or to legislatively overrule the common law. An example
is the tort of wrongful death, which allows certain persons, usually a
spouse, child or estate, to sue for damages on behalf of the deceased.
There is no such tort in English common law; thus, any jurisdiction that
lacks a wrongful death statute will not allow a lawsuit for the wrongful
death of a loved one. Where a wrongful death statute exists, the
compensation or other remedy available is limited to the remedy specified
in the statute (typically, an upper limit on the amount of damages). Courts
generally interpret statutes that create new causes of action narrowly—that
is, limited to their precise terms—because the courts generally recognize
the legislature as being supreme in deciding the reach of judge-made law
unless such statute should violate some "second order" constitutional law
provision (cf. judicial activism).

Where a tort is rooted in common law, all traditionally recognized damages
for that tort may be sued for, whether or not there is mention of those
damages in the current statutory law. For instance, a person who sustains
bodily injury through the negligence of another may sue for medical costs,
pain, suffering, loss of earnings or earning capacity, mental and/or
emotional distress, loss of quality of life, disfigurement and more. These
damages need not be set forth in statute as they already exist in the
tradition of common law. However, without a wrongful death statute, most of
them are extinguished upon death.

In the United States, the power of the federal judiciary to review and
invalidate unconstitutional acts of the federal executive branch is stated
in the constitution, Article III sections 1 and 2: "The judicial Power of
the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such
inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish.
... The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity,
arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and
Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority..." The first
famous statement of "the judicial power" was Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. (1
Cranch) 137 (1803). Later cases interpreted the "judicial power" of Article
III to establish the power of federal courts to consider or overturn any
action of Congress or of any state that conflicts with the Constitution.

The interactions between decisions of different courts is discussed further
in the article on precedent.

Overruling precedent—the limits of stare decisis

The United States federal courts are divided into twelve regional circuits,
each with a circuit court of appeals (plus a thirteenth, the Court of
Appeals for the Federal Circuit, which hears appeals in patent cases and
cases against the federal government, without geographic limitation).
Decisions of one circuit court are binding on the district courts within
the circuit and on the circuit court itself, but are only persuasive
authority on sister circuits. District court decisions are not binding
precedent at all, only persuasive.

Most of the U.S. federal courts of appeal have adopted a rule under which,
in the event of any conflict in decisions of panels (most of the courts of
appeal almost always sit in panels of three), the earlier panel decision is
controlling, and a panel decision may only be overruled by the court of
appeals sitting en banc (that is, all active judges of the court) or by a
higher court.⁴⁹ In these courts, the older decision remains controlling
when an issue comes up the third time.

Other courts, for example, the Court of Customs and Patent Appeals and the
Supreme Court, always sit en banc, and thus the later decision controls.
These courts essentially overrule all previous cases in each new case, and
older cases survive only to the extent they do not conflict with newer
cases. The interpretations of these courts—for example, Supreme Court
interpretations of the constitution or federal statutes—are stable only so
long as the older interpretation maintains the support of a majority of the
court. Older decisions persist through some combination of belief that the
old decision is right, and that it is not sufficiently wrong to be
overruled.

In the UK, since 2009, the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom has the
authority to overrule and unify decisions of lower courts. From 1966 to
2009, this power lay with the House of Lords, granted by the Practice
Statement of 1966.⁵⁰

Canada's system, described below, avoids regional variability of federal
law by giving national jurisdiction to both layers of appellate courts.

Common law as a foundation for commercial economies

The industrial revolution (comprising a shift from an agrarian peasant
cottage industry system to a mass-manufacturing economy with workers paid
in cash) began in England in the early 1700s in Coalbrookdale and
Ironbridge. Crucially, the English common law was sufficiently flexible to
adapt its archaic contractual rules into new formats suited to modern
commerce. The rigidity of continental legal systems held their economies
back for decades: while in 1789 the French were embarking on the overthrow
of their absolute monarch, the English courts (in Payne v Cave) were busily
refining the rules of auction sales!

The reliance on judicial opinion is a strength of common law systems, and
is a significant contributor to the robust commercial systems in the United
Kingdom and United States. Because there is reasonably precise guidance on
almost every issue, parties (especially commercial parties) can predict
whether a proposed course of action is likely to be lawful or unlawful, and
have some assurance of consistency. As Justice Brandeis famously expressed
it, "in most matters it is more important that the applicable rule of law
be settled than that it be settled right."⁵¹ This ability to predict gives
more freedom to come close to the boundaries of the law.⁵² For example,
many commercial contracts are more economically efficient, and create
greater wealth, because the parties know ahead of time that the proposed
arrangement, though perhaps close to the line, is almost certainly legal.
Newspapers, taxpayer-funded entities with some religious affiliation, and
political parties can obtain fairly clear guidance on the boundaries within
which their freedom of expression rights apply.

In contrast, in non-common-law countries, and jurisdictions with very weak
respect for precedent,⁵³ fine questions of law are redetermined anew each
time they arise, making consistency and prediction more difficult, and
procedures far more protracted than necessary because parties cannot rely
on written statements of law as reliable guides. In jurisdictions that do
not have a strong allegiance to a large body of precedent, parties have
less a priori guidance and must often leave a bigger "safety margin" of
unexploited opportunities, and final determinations are reached only after
far larger expenditures on legal fees by the parties.

This is the reason for the frequent choice of the law of the State of New
York in commercial contracts, even when neither entity has extensive
contacts with New York—and remarkably often even when neither party has
contacts with the United States.⁵⁴ Commercial contracts almost always
include a "choice of law clause" to reduce uncertainty. Somewhat
surprisingly, contracts throughout the world (for example, contracts
involving parties in Japan, France and Germany, and from most of the other
states of the United States) often choose the law of New York, even where
the relationship of the parties and transaction to New York is quite
attenuated. Because of its history as the United States' commercial center,
New York common law has a depth and predictability not (yet) available in
any other jurisdictions of the United States. Similarly, American
corporations are often formed under Delaware corporate law, and American
contracts relating to corporate law issues (merger and acquisitions of
companies, rights of shareholders, and so on.) include a Delaware choice of
law clause, because of the deep body of law in Delaware on these issues.⁵⁵
On the other hand, some other jurisdictions have sufficiently developed
bodies of law so that parties have no real motivation to choose the law of
a foreign jurisdiction (for example, England and Wales, and the state of
California), but not yet so fully developed that parties with no
relationship to the jurisdiction choose that law.⁵⁶ Outside the United
States, parties that are in different jurisdictions from each other often
choose the law of England and Wales, particularly when the parties are each
in former British colonies and members of the Commonwealth. The common
theme in all cases is that commercial parties seek predictability and
simplicity in their contractual relations, and frequently choose the law of
a common law jurisdiction with a well-developed body of common law to
achieve that result.

Likewise, for litigation of commercial disputes arising out of
unpredictable torts (as opposed to the prospective choice of law clauses in
contracts discussed in the previous paragraph), certain jurisdictions
attract an unusually high fraction of cases, because of the predictability
afforded by the depth of decided cases. For example, London is considered
the pre-eminent centre for litigation of admiralty cases.⁵⁷

This is not to say that common law is better in every situation. For
example, civil law can be clearer than case law when the legislature has
had the foresight and diligence to address the precise set of facts
applicable to a particular situation. For that reason, civil law statutes
tend to be somewhat more detailed than statutes written by common law
legislatures—but, conversely, that tends to make the statute more difficult
to read (the United States tax code is an example).⁵⁸ Nonetheless, as a
practical matter, no civil law legislature can ever address the full
spectrum of factual possibilities in the breadth, depth and detail of the
case law of the common law courts of even a smaller jurisdiction, and that
deeper, more complete body of law provides additional predictability that
promotes commerce.

History

See also: English law

Pre-Norman roots

In the late 9th century, Alfred the Great assembled the Doom book (not to
be confused with the more-famous Domesday Book from 200 years later), which
collected the existing laws of Kent, Wessex, and Mercia, and attempted to
blend in the Mosaic code, Christian principles, and Germanic customs dating
as far as the 5th century.⁵⁹

Before the Norman conquest in 1066, justice was administered primarily by
what is today known as the county courts (the modern "counties" were
referred to as "shires" in pre-Norman times), presided by the diocesan
bishop and the sheriff, exercising both ecclesiastical and civil
jurisdiction.⁶⁰ While in some sense an early form of jury came to be part
of the procedure in the shire courts,⁶⁰ the development of the common law
grand jury and petty jury came later.

The main sources for the history of the common law in the Middle Ages are
the plea rolls and the Year Books. The plea rolls, which were the official
court records for the Courts of Common Pleas and King's Bench, were written
in Latin. The rolls were made up in bundles by law term: Hilary, Easter,
Trinity, and Michaelmas, or winter, spring, summer, and autumn. They are
currently deposited in the UK National Archives, by whose permission images
of the rolls for the Courts of Common Pleas, King's Bench, and Exchequer of
Pleas, from the 13th century to the 17th, can be viewed online at the
Anglo-American Legal Tradition site (The O'Quinn Law Library of the
University of Houston Law Center).⁶¹ ⁶²

Norman conquest

The term "common law" originally derives from the 1150s and 1160s, when
Henry II of England established the secular English tribunals. The "common
law" was the law that emerged as "common" throughout the realm (as distinct
from the various legal codes that preceded it, such as Mercian law, the
Danelaw and the law of Wessex)⁶³ as the king's judges followed each other's
decisions to create a unified common law throughout England.From at least
the 11th century and continuing for several centuries after that, there
were several different circuits in the royal court system, served by
itinerant judges who would travel from town to town dispensing the King's
justice. The term "common law" was used to describe the law held in common
between the circuits and the different stops in each circuit.⁶⁴ The more
widely a particular law was recognized, the more weight it held, whereas
purely local customs were generally subordinate to law recognized in a
plurality of jurisdictions.

The doctrine of precedent developed during the 12th and 13th centuries,⁶⁵
as the collective judicial decisions that were based in tradition, custom
and precedent.⁶⁶

The form of reasoning used in common law is known as casuistry or
case-based reasoning. The common law, as applied in civil cases (as
distinct from criminal cases), was devised as a means of compensating
someone for wrongful acts known as torts, including both intentional torts
and torts caused by negligence, and as developing the body of law
recognizing and regulating contracts. The type of procedure practiced in
common law courts is known as the adversarial system; this is also a
development of the common law.

Medieval English common law

The early development of case-law in the thirteenth century has been traced
to Bracton's On the Laws and Customs of England and led to the yearly
compilations of court cases known as Year Books, of which the first extant
was published in 1268, the same year that Bracton died.⁶⁷ The Year Books
are known as the law reports of medieval England, and are a principal
source for knowledge of the developing legal doctrines, concepts, and
methods in the period from the 13th to the 16th centuries, when the common
law developed into recognizable form.⁶⁸ ⁶⁹

See also: English law

In 1154, Henry II became the first Plantagenet king. Among many
achievements, Henry institutionalized common law by creating a unified
system of law "common" to the country through incorporating and elevating
local custom to the national, ending local control and peculiarities,
eliminating arbitrary remedies and reinstating a jury system—citizens sworn
on oath to investigate reliable criminal accusations and civil claims. The
jury reached its verdict through evaluating common local knowledge, not
necessarily through the presentation of evidence, a distinguishing factor
from today's civil and criminal court systems.

Henry II developed the practice of sending judges from his own central
court to hear the various disputes throughout the country. His judges would
resolve disputes on an ad hoc basis according to what they interpreted the
customs to be. The king's judges would then return to London and often
discuss their cases and the decisions they made with the other judges.
These decisions would be recorded and filed. In time, a rule, known as
stare decisis (also commonly known as precedent) developed, whereby a judge
would be bound to follow the decision of an earlier judge; he was required
to adopt the earlier judge's interpretation of the law and apply the same
principles promulgated by that earlier judge if the two cases had similar
facts to one another. Once judges began to regard each other's decisions to
be binding precedent, the pre-Norman system of local customs and law
varying in each locality was replaced by a system that was (at least in
theory, though not always in practice) common throughout the whole country,
hence the name "common law."

Henry II's creation of a powerful and unified court system, which curbed
somewhat the power of canonical (church) courts, brought him (and England)
into conflict with the church, most famously with Thomas Becket, the
Archbishop of Canterbury. The murder of the Archbishop gave rise to a wave
of popular outrage against the King. Henry was forced to repeal the
disputed laws and to abandon his efforts to hold church members accountable
for secular crimes (see also Constitutions of Clarendon).

The English Court of Common Pleas was established after Magna Carta to try
lawsuits between commoners in which the monarch had no interest. Its judges
sat in open court in the Great Hall of the king's Palace of Westminster,
permanently except in the vacations between the four terms of the Legal
year.

Judge-made common law operated as the primary source of law for several
hundred years, before Parliament acquired legislative powers to create
statutory law. It is important to understand that common law is the older
and more traditional source of law, and legislative power is simply a layer
applied on top of the older common law foundation. Since the 12th century,
courts have had parallel and co-equal authority to make law⁷⁰ —"legislating
from the bench" is a traditional and essential function of courts, which
was carried over into the U.S. system as an essential component of the
"judicial power" specified by Article III of the U.S. constitution.⁷¹
Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. observed in 1917 that "judges do and
must legislate."⁷² There are legitimate debates on how the powers of courts
and legislatures should be balanced. However, a view that courts lack
law-making power is historically inaccurate and constitutionally
unsupportable.

Influences of foreign legal systems

Roman law

The term "common law" is often used as a contrast to Roman-derived "civil
law", and the fundamental processes and forms of reasoning in the two are
quite different. Nonetheless, there has been considerable
cross-fertilization of ideas, while the two traditions and sets of
foundational principles remain distinct.

By the time of the rediscovery of the Roman law in Europe in the 12th and
13th centuries, the common law had already developed far enough to prevent
a Roman law reception as it occurred on the continent.⁷³ However, the first
common law scholars, most notably Glanvill and Bracton, as well as the
early royal common law judges, had been well accustomed with Roman law.
Often, they were clerics trained in the Roman canon law.⁷⁴ One of the first
and throughout its history one of the most significant treatises of the
common law, Bracton's De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Angliae (On the Laws
and Customs of England), was heavily influenced by the division of the law
in Justinian's Institutes.⁷⁵ The impact of Roman law had decreased sharply
after the age of Bracton, but the Roman divisions of actions into in rem
(typically, actions against a thing or property for the purpose of gaining
title to that property; must be filed in a court where the property is
located) and in personam (typically, actions directed against a person;
these can affect a person's rights and, since a person often owns things,
his property too) used by Bracton had a lasting effect and laid the
groundwork for a return of Roman law structural concepts in the 18th and
19th centuries. Signs of this can be found in Blackstone's Commentaries on
the Laws of England,⁷⁶ and Roman law ideas regained importance with the
revival of academic law schools in the 19th century.⁷⁷ As a result, today,
the main systematic divisions of the law into property, contract, and tort
(and to some extent unjust enrichment) can be found in the civil law as
well as in the common law.⁷⁸

Coke and Blackstone

The first attempt at a comprehensive compilation of centuries of common law
was by Lord Chief Justice Edward Coke, in his treatise, Institutes of the
Lawes of England in the 17th century. and as described in Blackstone's
Commentaries on the Laws of England (1765–69).

The next definitive historical treatise on the common law is Commentaries
on the Laws of England, written by Sir William Blackstone and first
published in 1765–1769.

Propagation of the common law to the colonies and Commonwealth by reception
statutes

A reception statute is a statutory law adopted as a former British colony
becomes independent, by which the new nation adopts (i.e. receives)
pre-independence English law, to the extent not explicitly rejected by the
legislative body or constitution of the new nation. Reception statutes
generally consider the English common law dating prior to independence, and
the precedent originating from it, as the default law, because of the
importance of using an extensive and predictable body of law to govern the
conduct of citizens and businesses in a new state. All U.S. states, with
the partial exception of Louisiana, have either implemented reception
statutes or adopted the common law by judicial opinion.⁷⁹

Other examples of reception statutes in the United States, the states of
the U.S., Canada and its provinces, and Hong Kong, are discussed in the
reception statute article.

Yet, adoption of the common law in the newly-independent nation was not a
foregone conclusion, and was controversial. Immediately after the American
Revolution, there was widespread distrust and hostility to anything
British, and the common law was no exception. Jeffersonians decried lawyers
and their common law tradition as threats to the new republic. The
Jeffersonians preferred a legislatively-enacted civil law under the control
of the political process, rather than the common law developed by judges
that—by design—were insulated from the political process. The Federalists
believed that the common law was the birthright of Independence: after all,
the natural rights to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" were
the rights protected by common law. Even advocates for the common law
approach noted that it was not an ideal fit for the newly-independent
colonies: judges and lawyers alike were severely hindered by a lack of
printed legal materials. Before Independence, the most comprehensive law
libraries had been maintained by Tory lawyers, and those libraries vanished
with the loyalist expatriation, and the ability to print books was limited.
Lawyer (later president) John Adams complained that he "suffered very much
for the want of books." To bootstrap this most basic need of a common law
system—knowable, written law—in 1803, lawyers in Massachusetts donated
their books to found a law library. A Jeffersonian newspaper criticized the
library, as it would carry forward "all the old authorities practiced in
England for centuries back ... whereby a new system of jurisprudence [will
be founded] on the high monarchical system [to] become the Common Law of
this Commonwealth... [The library] may hereafter have a very unsocial
purpose."⁴⁴

Decline of Latin maxims, and adding flexibility to stare decisis

Well into the 19th century, ancient maxims played a large role in common
law adjudication. Many of these maxims had originated in Roman Law,
migrated to England before the introduction of Christianity to the British
Isles, and were typically stated in Latin even in English decisions. Many
examples are familiar in everyday speech even today, "One cannot be a judge
in one's own cause" (see Dr. Bonham's Case), rights are reciprocal to
obligations, and the like. Judicial decisions and treatises of the 17th and
18th centuries, such at those of Lord Chief Justice Edward Coke, presented
the common law as a collection of such maxims.

Reliance on old maxims and rigid adherence to precedent, no matter how old
or ill-considered, was under full attack by the late 19th century. Oliver
Wendell Holmes, Jr. in his famous article, "The Path of the Law",⁸⁰
commented, "It is revolting to have no better reason for a rule of law than
that so it was laid down in the time of Henry IV. It is still more
revolting if the grounds upon which it was laid down have vanished long
since, and the rule simply persists from blind imitation of the past."
Justice Holmes noted that study of maxims might be sufficient for "the man
of the present," but "the man of the future is the man of statistics and
the master of economics." In an 1880 lecture at Harvard, he wrote:⁸¹

  The life of the law has not been logic; it has been experience. The felt
  necessities of the time, the prevalent moral and political theories,
  intuitions of public policy, avowed or unconscious, even the prejudices
  which judges share with their fellow men, have had a good deal more to do
  than the syllogism in determining the rules by which men should be
  governed. The law embodies the story of a nation's development through
  many centuries, and it cannot be dealt with as if it contained only the
  axioms and corollaries of a book of mathematics.

In the early 20th century, Louis Brandeis, later appointed to the United
States Supreme Court, became noted for his use of policy-driving facts and
economics in his briefs, and extensive appendices presenting facts that
lead a judge to the advocate's conclusion. By this time, briefs relied more
on facts than on Latin maxims.

Reliance on old maxims is now deprecated.⁸² Common law decisions today
reflect both precedent and policy judgment drawn from economics, the social
sciences, business, decisions of foreign courts, and the like. The degree
to which these external factors should influence adjudication is the
subject of active debate, but it is indisputable that judges do draw on
experience and learning from everyday life, from other fields, and from
other jurisdictions.⁸³

1870 through 20th century, and the procedural merger of law and equity

As early as the 15th century, it became the practice that litigants who
felt they had been cheated by the common-law system would petition the King
in person. For example, they might argue that an award of damages (at
common law (as opposed to equity)) was not sufficient redress for a
trespasser occupying their land, and instead request that the trespasser be
evicted. From this developed the system of equity, administered by the Lord
Chancellor, in the courts of chancery. By their nature, equity and law were
frequently in conflict and litigation would frequently continue for years
as one court countermanded the other,⁸⁴ even though it was established by
the 17th century that equity should prevail.

In England, courts of (law (as opposed to equity)) and equity were combined
by the Judicature Acts of 1873 and 1875, with equity prevailing in case of
conflict.⁸⁵

In the United States, parallel systems of law (providing money damages,
with cases heard by a jury upon either party's request) and equity
(fashioning a remedy to fit the situation, including injunctive relief,
heard by a judge) survived well into the 20th century. The United States
federal courts procedurally separated law and equity: the same judges could
hear either kind of case, but a given case could only pursue causes in law
or in equity, and the two kinds of cases proceeded under different
procedural rules. This became problematic when a given case required both
money damages and injunctive relief. In 1937, the new Federal Rules of
Civil Procedure combined law and equity into one form of action, the "civil
action." Fed.R.Civ.P. 2. The distinction survives to the extent that issues
that were "common law (as opposed to equity)" as of 1791 (the date of
adoption of the Seventh Amendment) are still subject to the right of either
party to request a jury, and "equity" issues are decided by a judge.⁸⁶

Delaware, Mississippi, and Tennessee still have separate courts of law and
equity, for example, the Court of Chancery. In many states there are
separate divisions for law and equity within one court.

Common law pleading and its abolition in the early 20th century

For centuries, through the 19th century, the common law recognized only
specific forms of action, and required very careful drafting of the opening
pleading (called a writ) to slot into one of them: Debt, Detinue, Covenant,
Special Assumpsit, General Assumpsit, Trespass, Trover, Replevin, Case (or
Trespass on the Case), and Ejectment.⁸⁷ To initiate a lawsuit, a pleading
had to be drafted to meet myriad technical requirements: correctly
categorizing the case into the correct legal pigeonhole (pleading in the
alternative was not permitted), and using specific "magic words" encrusted
over the centuries. Under the old common law pleading standards, a suit by
a pro se ("for oneself," without a lawyer) party was all but impossible,
and there was often considerable procedural jousting at the outset of a
case over minor wording issues.

One of the major reforms of the late 19th century and early 20th century
was the abolition of common law pleading requirements.⁸⁸ A plaintiff can
initiate a case by giving the defendant "a short and plain statement" of
facts that constitute an alleged wrong. This reform moved the attention of
courts from technical scrutiny of words to a more rational consideration of
the facts, and opened access to justice far more broadly.

Contrasts between common law and civil law systems

In common law systems, a single decided case is binding common law, under
the principle of stare decisis. In contrast, in civil law systems, case law
only acquires weight when a long series of cases use consistent reasoning,
called jurisprudence constante. In civil law systems, individual decisions
have only advisory, not binding effect.

For that reason, statutes in civil law systems are more comprehensive,
detailed, and continuously updated, covering all matters capable of being
brought before a court.⁸⁹

General principles of law

Both common law and civil law jurisdictions have formed what they variously
call "pure common law" or "general principles of law" to define what the
law is in the absence of, or gap in, legislation. In common law systems,
judge made law is binding to the same extent as statute or regulation. In
civil law systems, case law is advisory, not binding. Civil law lawyers
consult case law to obtain their best prediction of how a court will rule,
but comparatively, civil law judges are less bound to follow it.

Adversarial system vs. inquisitorial system

- Common law systems tend to give more weight to separation of powers
  between the judicial branch and the executive branch (which promulgates
  regulatory law, called "administrative law" in civil law systems). In
  contrast, civil law systems often allow individual officials to exercise
  both powers.

Common law courts usually use an adversarial system, in which two sides
present their cases to a neutral judge. In contrast, civil law systems
usually use an inquisitorial system in which an examining magistrate serves
two roles by developing the evidence and arguments for one side and then
the other during the investigation phase.

The examining magistrate then presents the dossier detailing his or her
findings to the president of the bench that will adjudicate on the case
where it has been decided that a trial shall be conducted. Therefore, the
president of the bench's view of the case is not neutral and may be biased
while conducting the trial after the reading of the dossier. Unlike the
common law proceedings, the president of the bench in the inquisitorial
system is not merely an umpire and is entitled to directly interview the
witnesses or express comments during the trial, as long as he or she does
not express his or her view on the guilt of the accused.

The proceeding in the inquisitorial system is essentially by writing. Most
of the witnesses would have given evidence in the investigation phase and
such evidence will be contained in the dossier under the form of police
reports. In the same way, the accused would have already put his or her
case at the investigation phase but he or she will be free to change her or
his evidence at trial. Whether the accused pleads guilty or not, a trial
will be conducted. Unlike the adversarial system, the conviction and
sentence to be served (if any) will be released by the trial jury together
with the president of the trial bench, following their common deliberation.

There are many exceptions in both directions. For example, most proceedings
before U.S. federal and state agencies are inquisitorial in nature, at
least the initial stages (e.g., a patent examiner, a social security
hearing officer, and so on), even though the law to be applied is developed
through common law processes.

Contrasting role of treatises and academic writings in common law and civil
law systems

The role of the legal academy presents a significant "cultural" difference
between common law (connotation 2) and civil law jurisdictions.

In common law jurisdictions, legal treatises compile common law decisions
and state overarching principles that (in the author's opinion) explain the
results of the cases. However, in common law jurisdictions, treatises are
not the law, and lawyers and judges tend to use these treatises as only
"finding aids" to locate the relevant cases. In common law jurisdictions,
scholarly work is seldom cited as authority for what the law is.⁹⁰ When
common law courts rely on scholarly work, it is almost always only for
factual findings, policy justification, or the history and evolution of the
law, but the court's legal conclusion is reached through analysis of
relevant statutes and common law, seldom scholarly commentary.

In contrast, in civil law jurisdictions, courts give the writings of law
professors significant weight, partly because civil law decisions
traditionally were very brief, sometimes no more than a paragraph stating
who wins and who loses. The rationale had to come from somewhere else: the
academy often filled that role.

Common law legal systems in the present day

The common law constitutes the basis of the legal systems of: England and
Wales and Northern Ireland in the UK, Ireland, the United States (both the
federal system and the individual states (with the partial exception of
Louisiana)), Canada (both federal and the individual provinces (except
Quebec)), Australia (both federal and individual states), Kenya, New
Zealand, South Africa, India, Myanmar, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Brunei,
Pakistan, Singapore, Hong Kong, Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Bahamas,
Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, St Vincent and the Granadines, Saint
Kitts and Nevis, Trinidad and Tobago, and many other generally
English-speaking countries or Commonwealth countries (except the UK's
Scotland, which is bijuridicial, and Malta). Essentially, every country
that was colonised at some time by England, Great Britain, or the United
Kingdom uses common law except those that were formerly colonised by other
nations, such as Quebec (which follows the law of France in part), South
Africa and Sri Lanka (which follow Roman Dutch law), where the prior civil
law system was retained to respect the civil rights of the local colonists.
Guyana and Saint Lucia have mixed Common Law and Civil Law systems.

Scotland

Scotland is often said to use the civil law system, but it has a unique
system that combines elements of an uncodified civil law dating back to the
Corpus Juris Civilis with an element of its own common law long predating
the Treaty of Union with England in 1707 (see Legal institutions of
Scotland in the High Middle Ages), founded on the customary laws of the
tribes residing there. Historically, Scottish common law differed in that
the use of precedent was subject to the courts' seeking to discover the
principle that justifies a law rather than searching for an example as a
precedent,⁹¹ and principles of natural justice and fairness have always
played a role in Scots Law. From the 19th century, the Scottish approach to
precedent developed into a stare decisis akin to that already established
in England thereby reflecting a narrower, more modern approach to the
application of case law in subsequent instances. This is not to say that
the substantive rules of the common laws of both countries are the same
although in many matters (particularly those of UK-wide interest) they are
very similar.

Scotland shares the Supreme Court (formerly the House of Lords), with
England, Wales and Northern Ireland for civil cases; and the Court's
decisions are binding throughout the UK for civil cases and throughout
England and Wales and Northern Ireland for criminal cases. This has had the
effect of homogenising the law in certain areas. For instance, the modern
UK law of negligence is based on Donoghue v Stevenson, a case originating
in Paisley, Scotland. Scotland maintains a separate criminal law system
from the rest of the UK, with the High Court of Justiciary being the final
court for criminal appeals.⁹²

States of the United States (17th century on)

New York (17th century)

The state of New York, which also has a civil law history from its Dutch
colonial days, began a codification of its law in the 19th century. The
only part of this codification process that was considered complete is
known as the Field Code applying to civil procedure. The original colony of
New Netherland was settled by the Dutch and the law was also Dutch. When
the English captured pre-existing colonies they continued to allow the
local settlers to keep their civil law. However, the Dutch settlers
revolted against the English and the colony was recaptured by the Dutch.
When the English finally regained control of New Netherland they forced, as
a punishment unique in the history of the British Empire, the English
imposed common law upon all the colonists, including the Dutch. This was
problematic, as the patroon system of land holding, based on the feudal
system and civil law, continued to operate in the colony until it was
abolished in the mid-19th century. The influence of Roman-Dutch law
continued in the colony well into the late 19th century. The codification
of a law of general obligations shows how remnants of the civil law
tradition in New York continued on from the Dutch days.

Louisiana (1700s)

Under Louisiana's codified system, the Louisiana Civil Code, private
law—that is, substantive law between private sector parties—is based on
principles of law from continental Europe, with some common law influences.
These principles derive ultimately from Roman law, transmitted through
French law and Spanish law, as the state's current territory intersects the
area of North America colonized by Spain and by France. Contrary to popular
belief, the Louisiana code does not directly derive from the Napoleonic
Code, as the latter was enacted in 1804, one year after the Louisiana
Purchase. However, the two codes are similar in many respects due to common
roots.

Louisiana's criminal law largely rests on English common law. Louisiana's
administrative law is generally similar to the administrative law of the
U.S. federal government and other U.S. states. Louisiana's procedural law
is generally in line with that of other U.S. states, which in turn is
generally based on the U.S. Federal Rules of Civil Procedure.

Historically notable among the Louisiana code's differences from common law
is the role of property rights among women, particularly in inheritance
gained by widows.

California (1850s)

The U.S. state of California has a system based on common law, but it has
codified the law in the manner of the civil law jurisdictions. The reason
for the enactment of the California Codes in the 19th century was to
replace a pre-existing system based on Spanish civil law with a system
based on common law, similar to that in most other states. California and a
number of other Western states, however, have retained the concept of
community property derived from civil law. The California courts have
treated portions of the codes as an extension of the common-law tradition,
subject to judicial development in the same manner as judge-made common
law. (Most notably, in the case Li v. Yellow Cab Co., 13 Cal.3d 804 (1975),
the California Supreme Court adopted the principle of comparative
negligence in the face of a California Civil Code provision codifying the
traditional common-law doctrine of contributory negligence.)

United States federal courts (1789 and 1938)

The United States federal government (as opposed to the states) has a
variant on a common law system. United States federal courts only act as
interpreters of statutes and the constitution by elaborating and precisely
defining broad statutory language (connotation 1(b) above)), but, unlike
state courts, do not act as an independent source of common law.

Before 1938, the federal courts, like almost all other common law courts,
decided the law on any issue where the relevant legislature (either the
U.S. Congress or state legislature, depending on the issue), had not acted,
by looking to courts in the same system, that is, other federal courts,
even on issues of state law, and even where there was no express grant of
authority from Congress or the Constitution.

In 1938, the U.S. Supreme Court in Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins 304 U.S.
64, 78 (1938), overruled earlier precedent,⁹³ and held "There is no federal
general common law," thus confining the federal courts to act only as
interpreters of law originating elsewhere. E.g., Texas Industries v.
Radcliff, 451 U.S. 630 (1981) (without an express grant of statutory
authority, federal courts cannot create rules of intuitive justice, for
example, a right to contribution from co-conspirators). Post-1938, federal
courts deciding issues that arise under state law are required to defer to
state court interpretations of state statutes, or reason what a state's
highest court would rule if presented with the issue, or to certify the
question to the state's highest court for resolution.

Later courts have limited Erie slightly, to create a few situations where
United States federal courts are permitted to create federal common law
rules without express statutory authority, for example, where a federal
rule of decision is necessary to protect uniquely federal interests, such
as foreign affairs, or financial instruments issued by the federal
government. See, e.g., Clearfield Trust Co. v. United States, 318 U.S. 363
(1943) (giving federal courts the authority to fashion common law rules
with respect to issues of federal power, in this case negotiable
instruments backed by the federal government); see also International News
Service v. Associated Press, 248 U.S. 215 (1918) (creating a cause of
action for misappropriation of "hot news" that lacks any statutory
grounding); but see National Basketball Association v. Motorola, Inc., 105
F.3d 841, 843–44, 853 (2d Cir. 1997) (noting continued vitality of INS "hot
news" tort under New York state law, but leaving open the question of
whether it survives under federal law). Except on Constitutional issues,
Congress is free to legislatively overrule federal courts' common law.⁹⁴

United States executive branch agencies (1946)

Most executive branch agencies in the United States federal government have
some adjudicatory authority. To greater or lesser extent, agencies honor
their own precedent to ensure consistent results. Agency decision making is
governed by the Administrative Procedure Act of 1946.

For example, the National Labor Relations Board issues relatively few
regulations, but instead promulgates most of its substantive rules through
common law (connotation 1).

India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh (19th century and 1948)

The law of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh are largely based on English
common law because of the long period of British colonial influence during
the period of the British Raj.

Ancient India represented a distinct tradition of law, and had an
historically independent school of legal theory and practice. The
Arthashastra, dating from 400 BCE and the Manusmriti, from 100 CE, were
influential treatises in India, texts that were considered authoritative
legal guidance.⁹⁵ Manu's central philosophy was tolerance and pluralism,
and was cited across Southeast Asia.⁹⁶ Early in this period, which finally
culminated in the creation of the Gupta Empire, relations with ancient
Greece and Rome were not infrequent. The appearance of similar fundamental
institutions of international law in various parts of the world show that
they are inherent in international society, irrespective of culture and
tradition.⁹⁷ Inter-State relations in the pre-Islamic period resulted in
clear-cut rules of warfare of a high humanitarian standard, in rules of
neutrality, of treaty law, of customary law embodied in religious charters,
in exchange of embassies of a temporary or semi-permanent character.⁹⁸

When India became part of the British Empire, there was a break in
tradition, and Hindu and Islamic law were supplanted by the common law.⁹⁹
After the failed rebellion against the British in 1857, the British
Parliament took over control of India from the British East India Company,
and British India came under the direct rule of the Crown. The British
Parliament passed the Government of India Act of 1858 to this effect, which
set up the structure of British government in India.¹⁰⁰ It established in
Britain the office of the Secretary of State for India through whom the
Parliament would exercise its rule, along with a Council of India to aid
him. It also established the office of the Governor-General of India along
with an Executive Council in India, which consisted of high officials of
the British Government. As a result, the present judicial system of the
country derives largely from the British system and has little correlation
to the institutions of the pre-British era.¹⁰¹

post-partition India (1948)

Post-partition, India retained its common law system.¹⁰² Much of
contemporary Indian law shows substantial European and American influence.
Legislation first introduced by the British is still in effect in modified
form today. During the drafting of the Indian Constitution, laws from
Ireland, the United States, Britain, and France were all synthesized to
produce a refined set of Indian laws. Indian laws also adhere to the United
Nations guidelines on human rights law and environmental law. Certain
international trade laws, such as those on intellectual property, are also
enforced in India.

The exception to this rule is in the state of Goa, annexed in stages in the
1960s through 1980s. In Goa, a Portuguese uniform civil code is in place,
in which all religions have a common law regarding marriages, divorces and
adoption.

There are 1160 laws as of September 2007.¹⁰³

post-partition Pakistan (1948)

Post-partition, Pakistan retained its common law system.¹⁰⁴

post-partition Bangladesh (1968)

Post-partition, Bangladesh retained its common law system.

Canada (1867)

Canada has separate federal and provincial legal systems. The division of
jurisdiction between the federal and provincial Parliaments is specified in
the Canadian constitution.¹⁰⁵

Canadian provincial law

Each province and territory is considered a separate jurisdiction with
respect to common law matters. As such, only the provincial legislature may
enact legislation to amend private law. Each has its own procedural law,
statutorily created provincial courts and superior trial courts with
inherent jurisdiction culminating in the Court of Appeal of the province.
This is the highest court in provincial jurisdiction, only subject to the
Supreme Court of Canada in terms of appeal of their decisions. All but one
of the provinces of Canada use a common law system (the exception being
Quebec, which uses a civil law system for issues arising within provincial
jurisdiction, such as property ownership and contracts).

Canadian federal law

Canadian Federal Courts operate under a separate system throughout Canada
and deal with narrower subject matter than superior courts in provincial
jurisdiction. They hear cases reserved for federal jurisdiction by the
Canadian constitution, such as immigration, intellectual property, judicial
review of federal government decisions, and admiralty. The Federal Court of
Appeal is the appellate level court in federal jurisdiction and hears cases
in multiple cities, and unlike the United States, the Canadian Federal
Court of Appeal is not divided into appellate circuits.¹⁰⁶

Criminal law is uniform throughout Canada. It is based on the constitution
and federal statutory Criminal Code, as interpreted by the Supreme Court of
Canada. The administration of justice and enforcement of the criminal code
are the responsibilities of the provinces.

Canadian federal statutes must use the terminology of both the common law
and civil law for those matters; this is referred to as legislative
bijuralism.¹⁰⁷

Nicaragua

Nicaragua's legal system is also a mixture of the English Common Law and
Civil Law. This situation was brought through the influence of British
administration of the Eastern half of the Mosquito Coast from the mid-17th
century until about 1894, the William Walker period from about 1855 through
1857, USA interventions/occupations during the period from 1909 to 1933,
the influence of USA institutions during the Somoza family administrations
(1933 through 1979) and the considerable importation between 1979 and the
present of USA culture and institutions.

Israel (1948)

Israel has a common law legal system. Its basic principles are inherited
from the law of the British Mandate of Palestine and thus resemble those of
British and American law, namely: the role of courts in creating the body
of law and the authority of the supreme court¹⁰⁸ in reviewing and if
necessary overturning legislative and executive decisions, as well as
employing the adversarial system. One of the primary reasons that the
Israeli constitution remains unwritten is the fear by whatever party holds
power that creating a written constitution, combined with the common-law
elements, would severely limit the powers of the Knesset (which, following
the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty, holds near-unlimited power).¹⁰⁹

Roman Dutch Common law

Roman Dutch Common law is a bijuridical or mixed system of law similar to
the common law system in Scotland and Louisiana. Roman Dutch common law
jurisdictions include South Africa, Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, Swaziland,
Sri-Lanka and Zimbabwe. Many of these jurisdictions recognise customary
law, and in some, such as South Africa the Constitution requires that the
common law be developed in accordance with the Bill of Rights. Roman Dutch
common law is a development of Roman Dutch law by courts in the Roman Dutch
common law jurisdictions. During the Napoleonic wars the Kingdom of the
Netherlands adopted the French code civil in 1809, however the Dutch
colonies in the Cape of Good Hope and Sri Lanka, at the time called Ceylon,
were seized by the British to prevent them being used as bases by the
French Navy. The system was developed by the courts and spread with the
expansion of British colonies in Southern Africa. Roman Dutch common law
relies on legal principles set out in Roman law sources such as Justinian's
Institutes and Digest, and also on the writing of Dutch jurists of the 17th
century such as Grotius and Voet. In practice, the majority of decisions
rely on recent precedent.

Alternatives to common law systems

The main alternative to the common law system is the civil law system,
which is used in Continental Europe, and most of the rest of the world. The
contrast between civil law and common law legal systems has become
increasingly blurred, with the growing importance of jurisprudence (similar
to case law but not binding) in civil law countries, and the growing
importance of statute law and codes in common law countries.

Examples of common law being replaced by statute or codified rule in the
United States include criminal law (since 1812, U.S. courts have held that
criminal law must be embodied in statute if the public is to have fair
notice), commercial law (the Uniform Commercial Code in the early 1960s)
and procedure (the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure in the 1930s and the
Federal Rules of Evidence in the 1970s). But note that in each case, the
statute sets the general principles, but the interstitial common law
process determines the scope and application of the statute.

An example of convergence from the other direction is shown in Srl CILFIT
and Lanificio di Gavardo SpA v Ministry of Health, in which the European
Court of Justice held that questions it has already answered need not be
resubmitted. This brought in a distinctly common law principle into an
essentially civil law jurisdiction.

The former Soviet Bloc and other Socialist countries used a Socialist law
system.

Much of the Muslim world uses Sharia (also called Islamic law).

Scholarly works

Edward Coke, a 17th-century Lord Chief Justice of the English Court of
Common Pleas and a Member of Parliament, wrote several legal texts that
collected and integrated centuries of case law. Lawyers in both England and
America learned the law from his Institutes and Reports until the end of
the 18th century. His works are still cited by common law courts around the
world.

The next definitive historical treatise on the common law is Commentaries
on the Laws of England, written by Sir William Blackstone and first
published in 1765–1769. Since 1979, a facsimile edition of that first
edition has been available in four paper-bound volumes. Today it has been
superseded in the English part of the United Kingdom by Halsbury's Laws of
England that covers both common and statutory English law.

While he was still on the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, and before
being named to the U.S. Supreme Court, Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.
published a short volume called The Common Law, which remains a classic in
the field. Unlike Blackstone and the Restatements, Holmes' book only
briefly discusses what the law is; rather, Holmes describes the common law
process. Law professor John Chipman Gray's The Nature and Sources of the
Law, an examination and survey of the common law, is also still commonly
read in U.S. law schools.

In the United States, Restatements of various subject matter areas
(Contracts, Torts, Judgments, and so on.), edited by the American Law
Institute, collect the common law for the area. The ALI Restatements are
often cited by American courts and lawyers for propositions of uncodified
common law, and are considered highly persuasive authority, just below
binding precedential decisions. The Corpus Juris Secundum is an
encyclopedia whose main content is a compendium of the common law and its
variations throughout the various state jurisdictions.

Scots common law covers matters including murder and theft, and has sources
in custom, in legal writings and previous court decisions. The legal
writings used are called Institutional Texts and come mostly from the 17th,
18th and 19th centuries. Examples include Craig, Jus Feudale (1655) and
Stair, The Institutions of the Law of Scotland (1681).

See also

Development of English legal system and case law

- Books of authority
- Lists of case law

Early common law systems

- Anglo-Saxon law
- Brehon law, or Irish law
- Doom book, or Code of Alfred the Great
- Time immemorial

Examples of modern common law systems

- Common law legal systems in the present day
- English law

Common law as applied to matrimony

- Common-law marriage
- Alimony

Common vs. civil laws

- Common law offences
- Civil law

Stages of common law trials

- Arraignment
- Grand jury
- Jury trial

Slavery

- Slavery at common law

References

[1] Alphabetical Index of the 192 United Nations Member States and
  Corresponding Legal Systems, Website of the Faculty of Law of the
  University of Ottawa
[2] Garner, Bryan A. (2001). A Dictionary of Modern Legal Usage (2nd,
  revised ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 177. In modern usage,
  common law is contrasted with a number of other terms. … [P]erhaps most
  commonly within Anglo-American jurisdictions, common law is contrasted
  with statutory law
[3] Black's Law Dictionary - Common law (10th ed.). 2014. p. 334. 1. The
  body of law derived from judicial decisions, rather than from statutes or
  constitutions; CASE LAW [contrast to] STATUTORY LAW.
[4] Lloyd Duhaime. "Common Law Legal Definition". duhaime.org.
  Judge-declared law. ...
[5] Washington Probate, "Estate Planning & Probate Glossary", Washington
  (State) Probate, s.v. "common", 8 Dec. 2008:, retrieved 7 November
  2009."1. A law based on a prior court decision"
[6] Carpenter, Charles E. (1917). "Court Decisions and the Common Law".
  Columbia Law Review. 17 (7): 593–607. (common law court "decisions are
  themselves law, or rather the rules which the courts lay down in making
  the decisions constitute law.")
[7] Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. 137 (1803) ("It is emphatically the province
  and duty of the judicial department to say what the law is. Those who
  apply the rule to particular cases, must of necessity expound and
  interpret that rule. If two laws conflict with each other, the courts
  must decide on the operation of each.")
[8] Karl Llewellyn, The Common Law Tradition: Deciding Appeals at 77-87,
  Little, Brown, Boston MA (1960)
[9] Black's Law Dictionary - Common law (10th ed.). 2014. p. 334. 2. The
  body of law based on the English legal system, as distinct from a
  civil-law system; the general Anglo-American system of legal concepts,
  together with the techniques of applying them, that form the basis of the
  law in jurisdictions where the system applies...
[10] Garner, Bryan A. (2001). A Dictionary of Modern Legal Usage (2nd,
  revised ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. "common law" is
  contrasted by comparative jurists to civil law.
[11] Washington Probate, "Estate Planning & Probate Glossary", Washington
  (State) Probate, s.v. "common law", 8 Dec. 2008:, retrieved on 7 November
  2009. "2. The system of law originated and developed in England and based
  on prior court decisions, on the doctrines implicit in those decisions,
  and on customs and usages rather than codified written law. Contrast:
  CIVIL LAW."
[12] Charles Arnold-Baker, The Companion to British History, s.v. "English
  Law" (London: Loncross Denholm Press, 2008), 484.
[13] http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/188090/English-law ; British
  History: Middle Ages "Common Law – Henry II and the Birth of a State".
  BBC. Retrieved 2009-07-23.
[14] For an example of this usage in a decision of the United States
  Supreme Court, see the quote from United States v Texas in the section
  "Interaction of constitutional, statutory and common law" below.
[15] Salmond 1907, p. 32
[16] In the United States, large legal publishers include West Publishing
  and Lexis. In the U.K., examples of private reports are the All England
  Law Reports and the Lloyd's Law Reports
[17] "5. The judges are forbidden to pronounce, by way of general and
  legislative determination, on the causes submitted to them." Code of
  Napoleon, Decree of March 5, 1803, Law 5
[18] "Description and History of Common Law".
[19] "The Common Law and Civil Law Traditions".
[20] Black's Law Dictionary - Common law (10th ed.). 2014. p. 334. 4. The
  body of law derived from law courts as opposed to those sitting in
  equity.
[21] Garner, Bryan A. (2001). A Dictionary of Modern Legal Usage (2nd,
  revised ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 177. Second, with the
  development of equity and equitable rights and remedies, common law and
  equitable courts, procedure, rights, and remedies, etc., are frequently
  contrasted, and in this sense common law is distinguished from equity.
[22] Federal Rule of Civil Procedure, Rule 2 ("There is one form of
  action—the civil action.") (1938)
[23] Friedman 2005, p. xix
[24] "In Suits at common law ... the right of trial by jury shall be
  preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined in
  any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common
  law."
[25] Jefferson, Thomas (February 10, 1814). "Letter to Dr. Thomas Cooper".
  Retrieved 11 July 2012. Authorities for what is common law may therefore
  be as well cited, as for any part of the Lex Scripta, and there is no
  better instance of the necessity of holding the judges and writers to a
  declaration of their authorities than the present; where we detect them
  endeavoring to make law where they found none, and to submit us at one
  stroke to a whole system, no particle of which has its foundation in the
  common law. For we know that the common law is that system of law which
  was introduced by the Saxons on their settlement in England, and altered
  from time to time by proper legislative authority from that time to the
  date of Magna Carta, which terminates the period of the common law, or
  lex non scripta, and commences that of the statute law, or Lex Scripta.
  This settlement took place about the middle of the fifth century. But
  Christianity was not introduced till the seventh century; the conversion
  of the first christian king of the Heptarchy having taken place about the
  year 598, and that of the last about 686. Here, then, was a space of two
  hundred years, during which the common law was in existence, and
  Christianity no part of it.
[26] Jefferson, Thomas (June 5, 1824). "Letter To Major John Cartwright".
  Retrieved 11 July 2012. I was glad to find in your book a formal
  contradiction, at length, of the judiciary usurpation of legislative
  powers; for such the judges have usurped in their repeated decisions,
  that Christianity is a part of the common law. The proof of the contrary,
  which you have adduced, is incontrovertible; to wit, that the common law
  existed while the Anglo-Saxons were yet Pagans, at a time when they had
  never yet heard the name of Christ pronounced, or knew that such a
  character had ever existed.
[27] E.g., Lectric Law Dictionary : That which derives its force and
  authority from the universal consent and immemorial practice of the
  people. It is at best obsolete. It is both underinclusive and
  overinclusive. Lawyers never rely on this definition.
[28] David John Ibbetson, Common Law and Ius Commune p.20 (2001) ISBN
  978-0-85423-165-2
[29] Black's Law Dictionary - Common law (10th ed.). 2014. p. 334.
[30] See, for example, applicability of the Seventh Amendment
[31] For example, Abington School District v. Schempp ended prayer in
  public schools immediately, and same-sex marriage became legal throughout
  the United States immediately on the Supreme Court's decision in
  Obergefell v. Hodges.
[32] The Federalist, No. 10 and 78
[33] Bickel, Alexander M. "The Least Dangerous Branch." Yale University
  Press; 2d Ed. (1986).
[34] e.g., Ex parte Holt, 19 USPQ2d 1211, 1214 (Bd. Patent App. & Interf.
  1991) (explaining the hierarchy of precedent binding on tribunals of the
  United States Patent Office)
[35] Frederic R. Kellog, Law, Morals, and Justice Holmes, 69 Judicature 214
  (1986).
[36] Benjamin N. Cardozo, The Nature of the Judicial Process 22–23 (1921).
[37] The beneficial qualities of the common law's incrementalist evolution
  was most eloquently expressed by the future Lord Mansfield, then
  Solicitor General Murray, in the case of Omychund v. Barker, who
  contended that "a statute very seldom can take in all cases; therefore
  the common law, that works itself pure by rules drawn from the fountain
  of justice, is for that reason superior to an act of parliament." I Atk.
  21, 33, 26 Eng. Rep. 15, 22–23 (Ch. 1744)
[38] Winterbottom v. Wright, 10 M&W 109, 152 Eng.Rep. 402, 1842 WL 5519
  (Exchequer of pleas 1842)
[39] Thomas v. Winchester, 6 N.Y. 397 (N.Y. 1852)
[40] Statler v. Ray Mfg. Co., 195 N.Y. 478, 480 (N.Y. 1909)
[41] Cadillac Motor Car Co. v. Johnson, 221 F. 801 (2nd Cir. 1915)
[42] MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co., 217 N.Y. 382, 111 N.E. 1050 (N.Y. 1916)
[43] "Legal Dictionary - Law.com". Law.com Legal Dictionary.
[44] Social Law Library, Common Law or Civil Code?, Boston Mass.
[45] Meister v. Moore, 96 U.S. 76 (1877) ("No doubt a statute may take away
  a common law right, but there is always a presumption that the
  legislature has no such intention unless it be plainly expressed.")
[46] E.g., Uniform Commercial Code, Article 2, on Contracts for the Sales
  of Goods
[47] Model Penal Code as adopted in several states, for example, New York's
  Penal Law
[48] Johnson v. Commonwealth, 209 Va. 291, 293, 163 S.E.2d 570, ___ (1968)
[49] E.g., South Corp. v. United States, 690 F.2d 1368 (Fed. Cir. 1982) (en
  banc in relevant part) (explaining order of precedent binding on the
  United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit); Bonner v. City
  of Prichard, Alabama, 661 F.2d 1206 (11th Cir. 1981) (en banc) (after the
  Eleventh Circuit was split off from the Fifth Circuit, adopting precedent
  of Fifth Circuit as binding until overruled by the Eleventh Circuit en
  banc: "The [pre-split] Fifth followed the absolute rule that a prior
  decision of the circuit (panel or en banc) could not be overruled by a
  panel but only by the court sitting en banc. The Eleventh Circuit decides
  in this case that it chooses, and will follow, this rule."); Ex parte
  Holt, 19 USPQ2d 1211, 1214 (Bd. Patent App. & Interf. 1991) (explaining
  the hierarchy of precedent binding on tribunals of the United States
  Patent Office).
[50] 83 Cr App R 191, 73 Cr App R 266
[51] Burnet v. Coronado Oil & Gas Co., 285 U.S. 393, 406 (1932) (Brandeis,
  J., dissenting).
[52] See, e.g., Yeo Tiong Min, "A Note on Some Differences in English Law,
  New York Law, and Singapore Law" (2006).
[53] for example, the U.S. Patent Office issues very few of its decisions
  in precedential form, Kate Gaudry & Thomas Franklin, Only 1 in 20,631 ex
  parte appeals designated precedential by PTAB, IPWatchdog (Sep. 27,
  2015), and various lower tribunals in the Patent Office give very weak
  respect to earlier superior decisions.
[54] Theodore Eisenberg & Geoffrey P. Miller, The Flight to New York: An
  Empirical Study of Choice of Law and Choice of Forum Clauses in
  Publicly-Held Companies' Contracts (2008). New York University Law and
  Economics Working Papers. Paper 124, http://lsr.nellco.org/nyu_lewp/124
  (based on a survey of 2882 contracts, "New York law plays a role for
  major corporate contracts similar to the role Delaware law plays in the
  limited setting of corporate governance disputes. ... New York's
  dominance is striking. It is the choice of law in approximately 46
  percent of contracts," and if merger contracts excluded, over half)
[55] Eisenberg & Miller at 19–20 (Delaware is chosen in about 15% of
  contracts, "Delaware dominates for one type of contract—[merger] trust
  agreements. ... The dominance of Delaware for this specialized type of
  contract is apparently due to the advantages and flexibility which
  Delaware's business trust statute.")
[56] Eisenberg & Miller at 19, only about 5% of commercial contracts
  designate California choice of law, where nearly 50% designate New York.
[57] Osley, Richard (2008-11-23). "London becomes litigation capital of the
  world". The Independent. London.. London is also forum for many
  defamation cases, because U.K. law is more plaintiff-friendly—in the
  United States, the First Amendment protection for freedom of the press
  allows for statements concerning public figures of questionable veracity,
  where in the U.K., those same statements support a judgment for libel.
[58] U.S. Internal Revenue Service, Taxpayer Advocate Service, 2008 Report
  to Congress, http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-utl/08_tas_arc_msp_1.pdf
[59] see Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., The Common Law, Lecture I, sec. 2, "In
  Massachusetts today...there are some (rules) which can only be understood
  by reference to the infancy of procedure among the German tribes."
[60]  Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Common Law". Catholic Encyclopedia.
  New York: Robert Appleton Company.
[61] Documents from Medieval and Early Modern England from the National
  Archives in London. Publications of the Selden Society include a Year
  Books series and other volumes transcribing and translating the original
  manuscripts of early common law cases and law reports, each volume having
  its editor's scholarly introduction. Publications of the Selden Society
[62] One history of the law before the Norman Conquest is Pollock and
  Maitland, The History of English Law before the Time of Edward I, .
[63] "The National Archives - Exhibitions - Citizenship - Citizen or
  subject". nationalarchives.gov.uk. 26 March 1482.
[64] Black's Law Dictionary - Common law (10th ed.). 2014. 3. General law
  common to a country as a whole, as opposed to special law that has only
  local application.
[65] Jeffery, Clarence Ray (1957). "The Development of Crime in Early
  English Society". Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police
  Science. The Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science,
  Vol. 47, No. 6. 47 (6): 647–666. doi:10.2307/1140057. JSTOR 1140057.
[66] Winston Churchill, A History of the English Speaking Peoples, Chapter
  13, The English Common Law
[67] T. F. T. Plucknett, A Concise History of the Common Law, 5th edition,
  1956, London and Boston, pp.260-261
[68] BUSL, Legal History: The Year Books
[69] Cambridge History of English and American Literature The Year Books
  and their Value
[70] William Burnham, Introduction to the Law and Legal System of the
  United States, 4th ed. (St. Paul, Thomson West, 2006), 42.
[71] E.g., MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co., 217 N.Y. 382, 111 N.E. 1050 (N.Y.
  1916) (discussed above, adjudicating the tort of negligence that existed
  in no statute, and expanding the law to cover parties that had never been
  addressed by statute); Hadley v Baxendale (1854) 9 Exch 341 (defining a
  new rule of contract law with no basis in statute); Marbury v. Madison,
  137 5 U.S. 137 (1803) ("It is emphatically the province and duty of the
  judicial department to say what the law is."); Alexander Hamilton, THE
  FEDERALIST, Nos. 78 and 81 (J. Cooke ed. 1961), 521–530, 541–55 ("The
  interpretation of the laws is the proper and peculiar province of the
  courts. A constitution, is, in fact, and must be regarded by the judges,
  as a fundamental law. It therefore belongs to them to ascertain its
  meaning, as well as the meaning of any particular act proceeding from the
  legislative body."); see rule against perpetuities for a judicially
  created law originating in 1682 that governs the validity of trusts and
  future interests in real property, Rule in Shelley's Case for a rule
  created by judges in 1366 or before, and life estate and fee simple for
  rules of real property ownership that were judicially created in the late
  12th century as the crown began to give law-making power to courts.
[72] Southern Pacific Co. v. Jensen, 244 U.S. 205, 221 (1917) (Holmes, J.,
  dissenting).
[73] E.g., R. C. van Caenegem, The Birth of the English Common Law 89–92
  (1988).
[74] E.g., Peter Birks, Grant McLeod, Justinian's Institutes 7 (1987).
[75] E.g., George E. Woodbine (ed.), Samuel E. Thorne (transl.), Bracton on
  the Laws and Customs of England, Vol. I (Introduction) 46 (1968); Carl
  Güterbock, Bracton and his Relation to the Roman Law 35–38 (1866).
[76] Stephen P. Buhofer, Structuring the Law: The Common Law and the Roman
  Institutional System, Swiss Review of International and European Law
  (SZIER/RSDIE) 5/2007, 24.
[77] Peter Stein, Continental Influences on English Legal thought,
  1600–1900, in Peter Stein, The Character and Influence of the Roman Civil
  Law 223 et seq. (1988).
[78] See generally Stephen P. Buhofer, Structuring the Law: The Common Law
  and the Roman Institutional System, Swiss Review of International and
  European Law (SZIER/RSDIE) 5/2007.
[79] Thinking like a lawyer: an introduction to legal reasoning (Westview
  Press, 1996), pg. 10
[80] Holmes, Jr., Oliver Wendell (1897). "The Path of the Law". Harvard Law
  Review. 10 (8): 457, 469. doi:10.2307/1322028.
[81] The Common Law O. W. Holmes, Jr., The Common Law
[82] Acree v. Republic of Iraq, 370 F.3d 41 (D.C. Cir. 2004) (Roberts, J.,
  concurring).
[83] Roper v. Simmons, 543 U.S. 551 (2005) (holding unconstitutional to
  impose capital punishment for crimes committed while under the age of 18,
  based on "evolving standards of decency," largely based on other nations'
  law)
[84] Salmond 1907, p. 34
[85] Lobban, Michael "Preparing for Fusion: Reforming the
  Nineteenth-Century Court of Chancery, Part II | year=2004 | work=Law and
  History Review, 2004 (University of Illinois Press) . ISSN 0738-2480.
[86] E.g., Markman v. Westview Instruments, Inc., 517 U.S. 370, 376 (1996)
  ("[W]e [the U.S. Supreme Court] have understood that the right of trial
  by jury thus preserved is the right which existed under the English
  common law (as opposed to equity) when the Amendment was adopted. In
  keeping with our longstanding adherence to this 'historical test,', we
  ask, first, whether we are dealing with a cause of action that either was
  tried at law (as opposed to equity) at the time of the founding or is at
  least analogous to one that was. If the action in question belongs in the
  law category, we then ask whether the particular trial decision must fall
  to the jury in order to preserve the substance of the common-law right as
  it existed in 1791." citations and quotations omitted, holding that
  interpretation of the scope of a patent had no analogy in 1790, and is
  thus a question to be decided by a judge, not a jury)
[87] F. W. Maitland, The Forms of Action at Common Law, 1909, Lecture I,
  online or John Jay McKelvey, Principles of Common Law Pleading (1894) or
  Ames, Chitty, Stephen, Thayer and other writers named in the preface of
  Perry's Common-law Pleading: its history and principles (Boston, 1897) or
  Handbook of Common Law Pleading, Koffler and Reppy, 1969, online
[88] Note that the remainder of the "common law" discussed in the rest of
  the article remained intact; all that was abolished were the highly
  technical requirements for language of the paper provided by the
  plaintiff to the defendant to initiate a case.
[89] The Common Law and Civil Law Traditions, Robbins Collection,
  University of California at Berkeley.
[90] At least in the U.S., practicing lawyers tend to use "law professor"
  or "law review article" as a pejorative to describe a person or work that
  is insufficiently grounded in reality or practicality—every young lawyer
  is admonished repeatedly by senior lawyers not to write "law review
  articles," but instead to focus on the facts of the case and the
  practical effects of a given outcome.
[91] Stair Memorial Encyclopedia
[92] https://www.supremecourt.uk/about/role-of-the-supreme-court.html
[93] Swift v. Tyson, 41 U.S. 1 (1842). In Swift, the United States Supreme
  Court had held that federal courts hearing cases brought under their
  diversity jurisdiction (allowing them to hear cases between parties from
  different states) had to apply the statutory law of the states, but not
  the common law developed by state courts. Instead, the Supreme Court
  permitted the federal courts to make their own common law based on
  general principles of law. Erie v. Tompkins, 304 U.S. 64 (1938). Erie
  overruled Swift v. Tyson, and instead held that federal courts exercising
  diversity jurisdiction had to use all of the same substantive law as the
  courts of the states in which they were located. As the Erie Court put
  it, there is no "general federal common law", the key word here being
  general. This history is elaborated infederal common law.
[94] City of Boerne v. Flores, 521 U.S. 507 (1997) (invalidating the
  Religious Freedom Restoration Act, in which Congress had attempted to
  redefine the court's jurisdiction to decide constitutional issues);
  Milwaukee v. Illinois, 451 U.S. 304 (1981)
[95] Glenn 2000, p. 255
[96] Glenn 2000, p. 276
[97] Alexander 1952, pp. 289–300.
[98] Viswanatha, S.T., International Law in Ancient India, 1925
[99] Glenn 2000, p. 273
[100] "Official, India". World Digital Library. 1890–1923. Retrieved
  2013-05-30.
[101] Jain 2006, p. 2
[102] K. G. Balakrishnan (23–24 March 2008). An Overview of the Indian
  Justice Delivery Mechanism (PDF) (Speech). International Conference of
  the Presidents of the Supreme Courts of the World. Abu Dhabi. Retrieved 1
  August 2012. India, being a common law country, derives most of its
  modern judicial framework from the British legal system.
[103] "Indian Legislation". Commonlii.org. Retrieved 2010-05-30.
[104] "Federation of Pakistan v. Bhatti, "in a common law jurisdiction such
  as ours"" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-02-22.
[105] Constitution Act, 1867, s. 91(10), (18)
[106] "Federal Court of Appeal - Home". Fca-caf.gc.ca. Retrieved
  2013-08-17.
[107] "Canadian Legislative Bijuralism Site At the Crossroads of our Legal
  Diversity". Canada.justice.gc.ca. 2009-08-05. Retrieved 2010-05-30.
[108] "Supreme court decisions database".
[109] Mahler 2004, p. 126.

Further reading

- Elaine Forman Crane, Witches, Wife Beaters, and Whores: Common Law and
  Common Folk in Early America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2011.
- Friedman, Lawrence Meir (2005). A History of American Law (3rd ed.). New
  York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-8258-1.
- Garner, Bryan A. (2001). A Dictionary of Modern Legal Usage (2nd, revised
  ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514236-5.
- Glenn, H. Patrick (2000). Legal Traditions of the World. Oxford
  University Press. ISBN 0-19-876575-4.
- Ibbetson, David John (2001). Common Law and Ius Commune. Selden Society.
  ISBN 978-0-85423-165-2.
- Jain, M.P. (2006). Outlines of Indian Legal and Constitutional History
  (6th ed.). Nagpur: Wadhwa & Co. ISBN 978-81-8038-264-2.
- Milsom, S.F.C., A Natural History of the Common Law. Columbia University
  Press (2003) ISBN 0231129947
- Milsom, S.F.C., Historical Foundations of the Common Law (2nd ed.). Lexis
  Law Publishing (Va), 1981) ISBN 0406625034
- Morrison, Alan B. (1996). Fundamentals of American Law. New York: Oxford
  University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-876405-2.
- Nagl, Dominik (2013). No Part of the Mother Country, but Distinct
  Dominions - Law, State Formation and Governance in England, Massachusetts
  and South Carolina, 1630-1769. Berlin: LIT. ISBN 978-3-643-11817-2.
- Potter, Harry (2015). Law, Liberty and the Constitution: a Brief History
  of the Common Law. Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer. ISBN
  978-1-78327-011-8.
- Salmond, John William (1907). Jurisprudence: The Theory of the Law (2nd
  ed.). London: Stevens and Haynes. OCLC 1384458.

External links

- The History of the Common Law of England, and An analysis of the civil
  part of the law, Matthew Hale
- The History of English Law before the Time of Edward I, Pollock and
  Maitland with notes by S. F. C. Milsom
- Select Writs. (F.W.Maitland)
- Common-law Pleading: its history and principles, R.Ross Perry, (Boston,
  1897)
- The Common Law by Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.
-
- The Common Law by Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. at Project Gutenberg
- The Principle of stare decisis American Law Register
- The Australian Institute of Comparative Legal Systems
- The International Institute for Law and Strategic Studies (IILSS)
- New South Wales Legislation
- Historical Laws of Hong Kong Online – University of Hong Kong Libraries,
  Digital Initiatives
- Maxims of Common Law from Bouvier's 1856 Law Dictionary

Civil law (legal system)

This article is about a type of system of law, contrasting with common law.
For non-criminal law in a common-law system, see Civil law (common law).
For other uses, see Civil law (disambiguation).

Civil law, civilian law, or Roman law is a legal system originating in
Europe, intellectualized within the framework of late Roman law, and whose
most prevalent feature is that its core principles are codified into a
referable system which serves as the primary source of law. This can be
contrasted with common law systems whose intellectual framework comes from
judge-made decisional law which gives precedential authority to prior court
decisions on the principle that it is unfair to treat similar facts
differently on different occasions (doctrine of judicial precedent, or
stare decisis).¹ ²

Historically, a civil law is the group of legal ideas and systems
ultimately derived from the Codex Justinianus, but heavily overlaid by
Napoleonic, Germanic, canonical, feudal, and local practices,³ as well as
doctrinal strains such as natural law, codification, and legal positivism.

Conceptually, civil law proceeds from abstractions, formulates general
principles, and distinguishes substantive rules from procedural rules.⁴ It
holds case law to be secondary and subordinate to statutory law. When
discussing civil law, one should keep in mind the conceptual difference
between a statute and a codal article. The marked feature of civilian
systems is that they use codes with brief text that tend to avoid factually
specific scenarios.⁵ Code articles deal in generalities and thus stand at
odds with statutory schemes which are often very long and very detailed.

Overview

The purpose of codification is to provide all citizens with manners and
written collection of the laws which apply to them and which judges must
follow. It is the most widespread system of law in the world, in force in
various forms in about 150 countries,⁶ and draws heavily from Roman law,
arguably the most intricate known legal system dating from before the
modern era.

Where codes exist, the primary source of law is the law code, which is a
systematic collection of interrelated articles,⁷ arranged by subject matter
in some pre-specified order,⁸ and that explain the principles of law,
rights and entitlements, and how basic legal mechanisms work. Law codes are
simply laws enacted by a legislature, even if they are in general much
longer than other laws. Other major legal systems in the world include
common law, Halakha, canon law, and Islamic law.

Civilian countries can be divided into:

- those where Roman law in some form is still living law but there has been
  no attempt to create a civil code: Andorra and San Marino
- those with uncodified mixed systems in which civil law is an academic
  source of authority but common law is also influential: Scotland and the
  Roman-Dutch law countries (South Africa, Zimbabwe, Sri Lanka and Guyana)
- those with codified mixed systems in which civil law is the background
  law but has its public law heavily influenced by common law: Puerto Rico,
  Philippines, Quebec and Louisiana
- those with comprehensive codes that exceed a single civil code, such as
  Spain, Italy, France, Germany, Greece, Japan, Mexico: it is this last
  category that is normally regarded as typical of civil law systems, and
  is discussed in the rest of this article.

The Scandinavian systems are of a hybrid character since their background
law is a mix of civil law and Scandinavian customary law and have been
partially codified. Likewise, the laws of the Channel Islands (Jersey,
Guernsey, Alderney, Sark) are hybrids which mix Norman customary law and
French civil law.

A prominent example of a civil-law code would be the Napoleonic Code
(1804), named after French emperor Napoleon. The Code comprises three
components: the law of persons, property law, and commercial law. Rather
than a compendium of statutes or catalog of caselaw, the Code sets out
general principles as rules of law.⁷

Unlike common law systems, civil law jurisdictions deal with case law apart
from any precedent value. Civil law courts generally decide cases using
codal provisions on a case-by-case basis, without reference to other (or
even superior) judicial decisions.¹⁰ In actual practice, an increasing
degree of precedent is creeping into civil law jurisprudence, and is
generally seen in many nations' highest courts.¹⁰ While the typical
French-speaking supreme court decision is short, concise and devoid of
explanation or justification, in Germanic Europe, the supreme courts can
and do tend to write more verbose opinions supported by legal reasoning.¹⁰
A line of similar case decisions, while not precedent per se, constitute
jurisprudence constante.¹⁰ While civil law jurisdictions place little
reliance on court decisions, they tend to generate a phenomenal number of
reported legal opinions.¹⁰ However, this tends to be uncontrolled, since
there is no statutory requirement that any case be reported or published in
a law report, except for the councils of state and constitutional courts.¹⁰
Except for the highest courts, all publication of legal opinions are
unofficial or commercial.¹¹

Civil law is sometimes referred to as neo-Roman law, Romano-Germanic law or
Continental law. The expression civil law is a translation of Latin jus
civile, or "citizens' law", which was the late imperial term for its legal
system, as opposed to the laws governing conquered peoples (jus gentium);
hence, the Justinian code's title Corpus Juris Civilis. Civil law
practitioners, however, traditionally refer to their system in a broad
sense as jus commune, literally "common law", meaning the general
principles of law as opposed to laws peculiar to particular areas. (The use
of "common law" for the Anglo-Saxon systems may or may not be influenced by
this usage.)

History

The civil law takes as its major inspiration classical Roman law (c. AD
1–250), and in particular Justinian law (6th century AD), and further
expounding and developments in the late Middle Ages under the influence of
canon law.¹² The Justinian Code's doctrines provided a sophisticated model
for contracts, rules of procedure, family law, wills, and a strong
monarchical constitutional system.¹³ Roman law was received differently in
different countries. In some it went into force wholesale by legislative
act, i.e., it became positive law, whereas in others it was diffused into
society by increasingly influential legal experts and scholars.

Roman law continued without interruption in the Byzantine Empire until its
final fall in the 15th century. However, subject as it was to multiple
incursions and occupations by Western European powers in the late medieval
period, its laws became widely available in the West. It was first received
into the Holy Roman Empire partly because it was considered imperial law,
and it spread in Europe mainly because its students were the only trained
lawyers. It became the basis of Scots law, though partly rivaled by
received feudal Norman law. In England, it was taught academically at
Oxford and Cambridge, but underlay only probate and matrimonial law insofar
as both were inherited from canon law, and maritime law, adapted from lex
mercatoria through the Bordeaux trade.

Consequently, neither of the two waves of Romanism completely dominated in
Europe. Roman law was a secondary source that was applied only when local
customs and laws were found lacking on a certain subject. However, after a
time, even local law came to be interpreted and evaluated primarily on the
basis of Roman law (it being a common European legal tradition of sorts),
thereby in turn influencing the main source of law. Eventually, the works
of civilian glossators and commentators led to the development of a common
body of law and writing about law, a common legal language, and a common
method of teaching and scholarship, all termed the jus commune, or law
common to Europe, which consolidated canon law and Roman law, and to some
extent, feudal law.

Codification

An important common characteristic of civil law, aside from its origins in
Roman law, is the comprehensive codification of received Roman law, i.e.,
its inclusion in civil codes. The earliest codification known is the Code
of Hammurabi, written in ancient Babylon during the 18th century BC.
However, this, and many of the codes that followed, were mainly lists of
civil and criminal wrongs and their punishments. Codification of the type
typical of modern civilian systems did not first appear until the Justinian
Code.

Germanic codes appeared over the 6th and 7th centuries to clearly delineate
the law in force for Germanic privileged classes versus their Roman
subjects and regulate those laws according to folk-right. Under feudal law,
a number of private custumals were compiled, first under the Norman empire
(Très ancien coutumier, 1200–1245), then elsewhere, to record the manorial
– and later regional – customs, court decisions, and the legal principles
underpinning them. Custumals were commissioned by lords who presided as lay
judges over manorial courts in order to inform themselves about the court
process. The use of custumals from influential towns soon became
commonplace over large areas. In keeping with this, certain monarchs
consolidated their kingdoms by attempting to compile custumals that would
serve as the law of the land for their realms, as when Charles VII of
France commissioned in 1454 an official custumal of Crown law. Two
prominent examples include the Coutume de Paris (written 1510; revised
1580), which served as the basis for the Napoleonic Code, and the
Sachsenspiegel (c. 1220) of the bishoprics of Magdeburg and Halberstadt
which was used in northern Germany, Poland, and the Low Countries.

The concept of codification was further developed during the 17th and 18th
centuries AD, as an expression of both natural law and the ideas of the
Enlightenment. The political ideal of that era was expressed by the
concepts of democracy, protection of property and the rule of law. That
ideal required the creation of certainty of law, through the recording of
law and through its uniformity. So, the aforementioned mix of Roman law and
customary and local law ceased to exist, and the road opened for law
codification, which could contribute to the aims of the above-mentioned
political ideal.

Another reason that contributed to codification was that the notion of the
nation-state required the recording of the law that would be applicable to
that state.

Certainly, there was also a reaction to law codification. The proponents of
codification regarded it as conducive to certainty, unity and systematic
recording of the law; whereas its opponents claimed that codification would
result in the ossification of the law.

In the end, despite whatever resistance to codification, the codification
of European private laws moved forward. Codifications were completed by
Denmark (1687), Sweden (1734), Prussia (1794), France (1804), and Austria
(1811). The French codes were imported into areas conquered by Emperor
Napoleon and later adopted with modifications in Poland (Duchy of
Warsaw/Congress Poland; Kodeks cywilny 1806/1825), Louisiana (1807), Canton
of Vaud (Switzerland; 1819), the Netherlands (1838), Italy and Romania
(1865), Portugal (1867) and Spain (1888). Germany (1900), and Switzerland
(1912) adopted their own codifications. These codifications were in turn
imported into colonies at one time or another by most of these countries.
The Swiss version was adopted in Brazil (1916) and Turkey (1926).

In the United States, U.S. states began codification with New York's "Field
Code" (1850), followed by California's Codes (1872), and the federal
Revised Statutes (1874) and the current United States Code (1926).

Because Germany was a rising power in the late 19th century and its legal
system was well organized, when many Asian nations were developing, the
German Civil Code became the basis for the legal systems of Japan. In
China, the German Civil Code was introduced in the later years of the Qing
Dynasty emulating Japan. In addition, it formed the basis of the law of the
Republic of China, which remains in force in Taiwan. Furthermore, Korea,
Taiwan, Manchuria, which were the colonies of Japan, has been strongly
influenced by the Japanese legal system.

Some authors consider civil law to have served as the foundation for
socialist law used in communist countries, which in this view would
basically be civil law with the addition of Marxist–Leninist ideas. Even if
this is so, civil law was generally the legal system in place before the
rise of socialist law, and some Eastern European countries reverted to the
pre-Socialist civil law following the fall of socialism, while others
continued using their socialist legal systems.

Several civil-law mechanisms seem to have been borrowed from medieval
Islamic Sharia and fiqh. For example, the Islamic hawala (hundi) underlies
the avallo of Italian law and the aval of French and Spanish law.¹⁴

Differentiation from other major legal systems

The table below contains essential disparities (and in some cases
similarities) between the world's four major legal systems.⁷

Civil law is primarily contrasted with common law, which is the legal
system developed first in England, and later among English-speaking peoples
of the world. Despite their differences, the two systems are quite similar
from a historical point of view. Both evolved in much the same way, though
at different paces. The Roman law underlying civil law developed mainly
from customary law that was refined with case law and legislation. Canon
law further refined court procedure. Similarly, English law developed from
Norman and Anglo-Saxon customary law, further refined by case law and
legislation. The differences of course being that (1) Roman law had
crystallized many of its principles and mechanisms in the form of the
Justinian Code, which drew from case law, scholarly commentary, and
senatorial statutes; and (2) civilian case law has persuasive authority,
not binding authority as under common law.

Codification, however, is by no means a defining characteristic of a civil
law system. For example, the statutes that govern the civil law systems of
Sweden and other Nordic countries or Roman-Dutch countries are not grouped
into larger, expansive codes like those found in France and Germany.¹⁶

Subgroups

The term civil law comes from English legal scholarship and is used in
English-speaking countries to lump together all legal systems of the jus
commune tradition. However, legal comparativists and economists promoting
the legal origins theory prefer to subdivide civil law jurisdictions into
four distinct groups:

- Napoleonic: France, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Chile, Belgium,
  Luxembourg, Romania, and most of the Arab world when Islamic law is not
  used. Former colonies include Quebec (Canada) and Louisiana (U.S.).
  + The Chilean Code is an original work of jurist and legislator Andrés
    Bello. Traditionally, the Napoleonic Code has been considered the main
    source of inspiration for the Chilean Code. However, this is true only
    with regard to the law of obligations and the law of things (except for
    principle of abstraction), while it is not true at all in the matters
    of family and successions. This code was integrally adopted by Ecuador,
    El Salvador, Nicaragua, Honduras, Colombia, Panama and Venezuela
    (although only for one year). According to other Latin American experts
    of its time, like Augusto Teixeira de Freitas (author of the "Esboço de
    un Código Civil para Brasil") or Dalmacio Vélez Sársfield (main author
    of the argentinian Civil Code), it is the most important legal
    accomplishment of Latin America.
  + Cameroon is a former colony of both France and United Kingdom and
    therefore is bi-juridical/mixed.
  + South Africa is a former colony of the United Kingdom but was heavily
    influenced by colonists from the Netherlands and therefore is
    bi-juridical/mixed.
- Germanistic: Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Latvia, Estonia, Roman-Dutch,
  Czech Republic, Lithuania, Croatia, Hungary, Serbia, Slovenia, Slovakia,
  Bosnia and Herzegovina, Greece, Brazil, Ukraine, Portugal, other CPLP
  countries, Macau, former Portuguese territories in India (Goa, Daman and
  Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli), Turkey, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan and
  Thailand.
- Nordic: Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden.
- Chinese (except Hong Kong) is a mixture of civil law and socialist law.
  Nowadays, Chinese laws absorb some features of common law system,
  especially those related to commercial and international transactions.
  Hong Kong, although part of China, uses common law. The Basic Law of Hong
  Kong ensures the use and status of common law in Hong Kong. Macau has
  continued to have a Portuguese legal system in place.

However, some of these legal systems are often and more correctly said to
be of hybrid nature:

- Napoleonic to Germanistic influence

The Italian civil code of 1942 replaced the original one of 1865,
introducing germanistic elements due to the geopolitical alliances of the
time.¹⁷ This approach has been imitated by other countries including
Portugal (1966), the Netherlands (1992), Brazil (2002) and Argentina
(2014). Most of them have innovations introduced by the Italian
legislation, including the unification of the civil and commercial codes.¹⁸

- Germanistic to Napoleonic influence

The Swiss civil code is considered mainly influenced by the German civil
code and partly influenced by the French civil code. The civil code of the
Republic of Turkey is a slightly modified version of the Swiss code,
adopted in 1926 during Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's presidency as part of the
government's progressive reforms and secularization.

Some systems of civil law do not fit neatly into this typology, however.
The Polish law developed as a mixture of French and German civil law in the
19th century. After the reunification of Poland in 1918, five legal systems
(French Napoleonic Code from the Duchy of Warsaw, German BGB from Western
Poland, Austrian ABGB from Southern Poland, Russian law from Eastern
Poland, and Hungarian law from Spisz and Orawa) were merged into one.
Similarly, Dutch law, while originally codified in the Napoleonic
tradition, has been heavily altered under influence from the Dutch native
tradition of Roman-Dutch law (still in effect in its former colonies).
Scotland's civil law tradition borrowed heavily from Roman-Dutch law. Swiss
law is categorized as Germanistic, but it has been heavily influenced by
the Napoleonic tradition, with some indigenous elements added in as well.

Louisiana private law is primarily a Napoleonic system. Louisiana is the
only U.S. state partially based on French and Spanish codes and ultimately
Roman law, as opposed to English common law.¹⁹ In Louisiana, private law
was codified into the Louisiana Civil Code. Current Louisiana law has
converged considerably with American law, especially in its public law,
judicial system, and adoption of the Uniform Commercial Code (except for
Article 2) and certain legal devices of American common law.²⁰ In fact, any
innovation, whether private or public, has been decidedly common law in
origin. Likewise, Quebec law, whose private law is similarly of French
civilian origin, has developed along the same lines, having adapted in the
same way as Louisiana to the public law and judicial system of Canadian
common law. By contrast, Quebec private law has innovated mainly from
civilian sources. To a lesser extent, other states formerly part of the
Spanish Empire, such as Texas and California, have also retained aspects of
Spanish civil law into their legal system, for example community property.
The legal system of Puerto Rico exhibits the same tendencies that of
Louisiana has shown: the application of a civil code whose interpretations
are reliant on both the civil and common law systems. Because Puerto Rico's
Civil Code is based on the Spanish Civil Code of 1889, available
jurisprudence has tended to rely on common law innovations due to the
code's age and in many cases, obsolete nature.

Several Islamic countries have civil law systems that contain elements of
Islamic law.²¹ As an example, the Egyptian Civil Code of 1810 that
developed in the early 19th century—which remains in force in Egypt is the
basis for the civil law in many countries of the Arab world where the civil
law is used— is based on the Napoleonic Code, but its primary author Abd
El-Razzak El-Sanhuri attempted to integrate principles and features of
Islamic law in deference to the unique circumstances of Egyptian society.

Japanese Civil Code was considered as a mixture of roughly 60 percent of
the German civil code and roughly 30 percent of the French civil code and 8
percent of Japanese customary law and 2 percent of the English law.²² The
code includes the doctrine of ultra vires and a precedent of Hadley v
Baxendale from English common law system.

See also

- Civil law notary
- Rule according to higher law
- Tort
- List of national legal systems

Notes

[1] Washington Probate, "Estate Planning & Probate Glossary", Washington
  (State) Probate, s.v. "common law", [htm], 8 Dec. 2008, retrieved on 7
  November 2009.
[2] Charles Arnold-Baker, The Companion to British History, s.v. "English
  Law" (London: Loncross Denholm Press, 2008), 484.
[3] Charles Arnold Baker, The Companion to British History, s.v. "Civilian"
  (London: Routledge, 2001), 308.
[4] Michel Fromont, Grands systèmes de droit étrangers, 4th edn. (Paris:
  Dalloz, 2001), 8.
[5] "The role of legislation is to set, by taking a broad approach, the
  general propositions of the law, to establish principles which will be
  fertile in application, and not to get down to the details. . . ." Alain
  Levasseur, Code Napoleon or Code Portalis?, 43 Tul. L. Rev. 762, 769
  (1969).
[6] "The World Factbook". cia.gov.
[7] Neubauer, David W., and Stephen S. Meinhold. Judicial Process: Law,
  Courts, and Politics in the United States.Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth,
  2007, pg.28.
[8] "Glossary of Legal Terms", 12th District Court – Jackson, County, MI,
  retrieved on 12 June 2009:
[9] Alphabetical Index of the 192 United Nations Member States and
  Corresponding Legal Systems, Website of the Faculty of Law of the
  University of Ottawa
[10] Reynolds 1998, p. 58.
[11] Reynolds 1998, p. 59.
[12] "Roman Law and Its Influence". Infoplease.com. Retrieved 2011-08-18.
[13] Kenneth Pennington, "Roman and Secular Law in the Middle Ages",
  Medieval Latin: An Introduction and Bibliographical Guide, edd. F.A.C.
  Mantello and A.G. Rigg (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University Press of
  America, 1996), 254–266; [html], available at , retrieved 27 August 2011.
[14] Badr, Gamal Moursi (Spring 1978), "Islamic Law: Its Relation to Other
  Legal Systems", The American Journal of Comparative Law, The American
  Journal of Comparative Law, Vol. 26, No. 2, 26 (2 [Proceedings of an
  International Conference on Comparative Law, Salt Lake City, Utah,
  February 24–25, 1977]): 187–198 [196–8], doi:10.2307/839667, JSTOR 839667
[15] Makdisi, John A. (June 1999), "The Islamic Origins of the Common Law",
  North Carolina Law Review, 77 (5): 1635–1739
[16] Smits, Jan (ed.); Dotevall, Rolf (2006), Elgar Encyclopedia of
  Comparative Law, "63: Sweden", Edward Elgar Publishing, ISBN
  1-84542-013-6
[17] "Towards a civil code: the italian experience".
  teoriaestoriadeldirittoprivato.com.
[18] ""On the Legal Method of the Uniform Commercial Code" by Mitchell
  Franklin". duke.edu.
[19] "How the Code Napoleon makes Louisiana law different". LA-Legal.
  Archived from the original on 2006-10-31. Retrieved 2006-10-26.
[20] "Louisiana – Judicial system". City-data.com. Retrieved 2011-08-18.
[21] "Civil Law". Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009. Archived
  2009-10-31.
[22] 和仁陽「岡松参太郎――法比較と学理との未完の綜合――」『法学教室』No.183 (Japanese) P.79

Bibliography

- Lydorf, Claudia. (2011). Romance Legal Family. Mainz: Institute of
  European History.
- MacQueen, Hector L. "Scots Law and the Road to the New Ius Commune."
  Electronic Journal of Comparative Law 4, no. 4 (December 2000).
- Moustaira Elina N., Comparative Law: University Courses (in Greek), Ant.
  N. Sakkoulas Publishers, Athens, 2004, ISBN 960-15-1267-5
- Reynolds, Thomas H. (1998). "Introduction to Foreign and Comparative
  Law". In Rehberg, Jeanne; Popa, Radu D. Accidental Tourist on the New
  Frontier: An Introductory Guide to Global Legal Research. pp. 47–86. ISBN
  978-0-837-71075-4.

External links

- A collection of Roman Law resources maintained by professor Ernest
  Metzger.
- The Roman Law Library by Professor Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev
- A Primer on the Civil Law System from the Federal Judicial Center
- Brasil Law Articles in English
- A Civil Law to Common Law Dictionary by N. Stephan Kinsella, Louisiana
  Law Review (1994)
- Brehon Law (King Ollamh Fodhla)

Criminal law of Canada

The criminal law of Canada is under the exclusive legislative jurisdiction
of the Canadian federal government. The power to enact criminal law is
derived from section 91(27) of the Constitution Act, 1867. Most criminal
laws have been codified in the Criminal Code, as well as the Controlled
Drugs and Substances Act, Youth Criminal Justice Act, and several other
peripheral Acts.

Prosecution

In all Canadian provinces and territories, criminal prosecutions are
brought in the name of the "Queen in Right of Canada".

A person may be prosecuted criminally for any offences found in the
Criminal Code or any other federal statute containing criminal offences.¹

There are two basic types of offences. The most minor offences are summary
conviction offences. They are defined as "summary" within the Act and,
unless otherwise stated, are punishable by a fine of no more than $5,000
and/or 6 months in jail. Examples of offences which are always summary
offences include trespassing at night (section 177), causing a disturbance
(section 175) and taking a motor vehicle without the owner's consent
(section 335) (an equivalent to the British TWOC).

All non-summary offences are indictable: the available penalties are
greater for indictable offences than for summary offences. These in turn
may be divided into three categories.

- Indictable-only offences include treason and murder (section 235), and
  are listed in section 469 of the Criminal Code. These can only be tried
  by the higher court of the province with a jury, unless both the accused
  person and the Attorney General consent to trial by a higher court judge
  alone: section 473.
- Offences of absolute jurisdiction include theft and fraud up to the value
  of $5,000 and certain nuisance offences. These are listed in section 553
  of the Criminal Code: the accused person does not have an election and
  must be tried by a judge of the provincial court without a jury.
- Most other offences defined by the Criminal Code are triable either way,
  and are sometimes known as hybrid offences. In these offences the accused
  person can elect whether to be tried by:
- a provincial court judge,
- a judge of the higher court of the province without a jury or
- a judge of the higher court with a jury.

However, if the accused elects trial by a provincial court judge, that
judge can decline jurisdiction and refer the case to the higher court:
section 554. The Attorney General can also require a case to be tried by
the higher court with a jury: section 568.

Elements of an offence

Criminal offences require the prosecuting crown to prove that there was
criminal conduct (known as the actus reus or "guilty act") accompanied by a
criminal state of mind (known as the mens rea or "guilty mind")² on a
standard of "beyond a reasonable doubt".³ Exceptions to the mens rea
requirement exist for strict and absolute liability offences.

The specific elements of each offence can be found in the wording of the
offence as well as the case law interpreting it. The external elements
typically require there to be an "act", within some "circumstances", and
sometimes a specific "consequence" that is caused by the action.⁴

For the crown to prove the accused is guilty the actus reus and mens rea
must be proven. Actus Reus + Mens Rea = Crime/ Guilty

Mens rea

The mental or fault elements of an offence are typically determined by the
use of words within the text of the offence or else by case law. Mens Rea
in Canada typically focuses on the actual or 'subjective' state of mind of
the accused. Where no standard is explicitly stated conduct must typically
be proven to have been done with a general intent (i.e. intent to act in a
certain way irrespective of the action's outcome). Where certain
circumstances are part of the offence, the accused must have had knowledge
of them, which can be imputed based on conduct and other evidence.

Defences

When the Crown is able to prove the elements of the offence beyond a
reasonable doubt, the defence may still avoid conviction by raising a
positive defence.

A true defence arises when some circumstances afford the accused a partial
or complete justification or excuse for committing the criminal act. In
Canada, the defences are generally similar to standard and popularly
understood defences of other common law jurisdictions such as the U.K.,
Australia and the United States. The true defences include duress,⁵
automatism,⁶ intoxication,⁷ or necessity.⁸ There is also a partial defence
of provocation, which has the effect of reducing what would otherwise be
murder to manslaughter. This partial defence is provided by s.232 of the
Criminal Code.

Some defences are provided for by statute and some defences are provided
for solely by the common law. In some cases common law defences are
superseded by statutory enactment, for example duress, self-defence and as
mentioned above, extreme intoxication. Interestingly, in the case of duress
the Supreme Court of Canada struck down the statutory provision as
violative of s.7 of the Charter, leaving the broader common law defence
instead. Statutory encroachments on the scope of common law defences can
violate s.7 of the Charter if they unacceptably reduce the fault
requirement of offences.

In addition to the true defences as mentioned above, there are other
"defences" in a broader sense. In some cases, these "defences" are really
just an assertion that the Crown has not proven one of the elements of the
offence. For example, the mistake of fact defence involves an assertion
that the accused misunderstood some material factual matter that prevented
him from forming the requisite mens rea for the offence. In the context of
sexual assault, for example, a mistake of fact defence usually involves an
assertion that the accused did not realize the complainant was not
consenting. Since the mens rea for sexual assault includes a subjective
appreciation of the fact that the complainant is not consenting, the
"defence" of mistake of fact in this context is thus properly understood as
a failure on the part of the Crown to prove its case. In practical terms
and common parlance, however, it is still considered to be a defence.
Another example of this more general kind of defence is the "i.d. defence",
which is really just an assertion by the accused that the Crown has failed
to prove the identity of the perpetrator of a crime beyond a reasonable
doubt. There are many other examples of this kind of defence. In reality
they are just clusters of specific shortcomings that arise frequently in
the prosecution of certain kinds of offences.

All defences – whether one is speaking of true defences or defences in the
broader sense – can arise from the evidence called by the Crown or the
accused. A defence can only be left with the jury (or considered by a judge
trying the case without a jury) where there is an "air of reality" to the
defence on the evidence. That air of reality can arise from the Crown's
case and/or from the defence case if one is called. It is not necessary for
an accused to testify or call other evidence to raise a defence. If the
evidence called by the Crown is sufficient to raise an air of reality to a
defence, the jury must consider whether the defence applies, most on the
standard of whether it raises a reasonable doubt. For example, in an
assault case it may be that one of the Crown's eyewitnesses testifies that
it looked to him like the victim punched the accused first and that the
accused was defending himself. In such a case, even if all the other
eyewitnesses saw the accused punch first, the jury must consider whether on
all of the evidence it has a reasonable doubt that the accused acted in
self-defence.

There is an even broader sense of the word "defence". Sometimes the defence
will raise an issue capable of leading either to the termination of the
proceedings or the exclusion of evidence. For example, in a drug case the
accused might argue that the search warrant by which the police entered his
house and seized the drugs was defective and that his constitutional rights
were therefore violated. If he is successful in establishing such a
violation, the evidence can be excluded, and usually the Crown cannot
otherwise prove its case. When this sort of thing happens, it is not really
a defence at all, since the accused must establish it in a separate
pre-trial application. Nevertheless, lawyers often refer to such
applications as a "Charter defence" in reference to the Charter of Rights.

Other forms of Charter defence can lead not to the exclusion of evidence
but to the termination of the proceedings, known as a stay of proceedings.
For example, if the accused is not brought to trial within a reasonable
time, the proceedings must be stayed for delay by virtue of ss.11(b) and
24(1) of the Charter. Stays of proceedings can also take place in the
absence of a Charter violation. For example, the familiar "defence" of
entrapment is neither a true defence nor necessarily a Charter breach. When
entrapment is successfully established, the proceedings are deemed to be an
"abuse of process" for which the remedy is a stay of proceedings. Cases of
abuse of process arise in certain other circumstances, and they can also
can involve Charter breaches, and there is significant overlap.

Finally, ignorance of the law is not a defence. Section 19 of the Criminal
Code specifically prohibits this defence. However, in rare cases ignorance
of a law other than the one under which the accused is charged can be a
defence if knowledge of that law is a relevant circumstance required to be
proved as part of the actus reus and/or mens rea.

Legal proceedings

Information

A person who alleges an offence, generally the police, swear under oath the
facts supporting the charge. A Justice of the Peace at that point shall
issue an Information. This is a document which contains the specific
allegations. Under a private prosecution a hearing may be held and the
Attorney General of the province in which the proceedings are taking place
may intervene. Private prosecutions in Canada are usually restricted to
regulatory offences such as practicing law without a licence and cruelty to
animals.

Bail

Most accused persons are released at the time of arrest on a promise to
appear. Where the police decide to hold the accused, the police must
produce the accused before a Justice of the Peace within 24 hours. At that
point a bail hearing will be held. An accused person generally does not
bear the onus justifying release, subject to a few exceptions, such as if
the accused is charged with murder, trafficking in narcotics, terrorism
offences (see Bail in Canada). An accused may be released or detained
pending the trial and, if found guilty, the passing of sentence.

An order made by a Justice may be appealed to a superior court by either
the Crown or the accused.

Preliminary inquiry

Where the accused is charged with an indictable offence, the Crown must
prove a prima facie case before a judge of a provincial court. This process
must be requested by the defence or the Crown.⁹ The presiding judge must
determine whether there is sufficient evidence for a jury, acting
reasonably and judicially, to convict the accused. The judge may neither
weigh the evidence nor determine whether the evidence is admissible. If the
judge determines there is sufficient evidence for a jury acting reasonably
and judicially to convict the accused, the judge must commit the accused to
stand trial. If not, the judge must discharge the accused and the
proceedings end. However, if at a later date the Crown tenders further
evidence, the Crown may recommence the proceedings. A discharge at a
preliminary inquiry does not constitute double jeopardy.

There is no appeal from an order of a judge. However, either party may seek
leave to review the order in the superior court.

If the accused is charged with an offence punishable by summary conviction
or if the Crown elects to proceed by summary conviction if the accused is
charged with a hybrid offence, the accused is not entitled to a preliminary
inquiry and is immediately committed to trial.

Section 536(4) of the Criminal Code, proclaimed in force in 2004, indicates
a preliminary inquiry is no longer automatic after an accused elects to be
tried in a superior court. The Attorney General may also, in rare cases,
bypass the preliminary inquiry and issue a direct indictment. This may
occur even where the accused has requested a preliminary inquiry, or even
when the accused has been discharged by a preliminary inquiry.¹⁰

Trial

The accused is tried at this stage. Where the accused is charged with an
offence and has elected to be tried in provincial court, the judge may
decide that the matter ought to be dealt with in the superior court and
treat the trial as a preliminary inquiry and demand the accused to stand
trial in the superior court.

At this stage the trial court has all the authority to determine matters
such as bail, preliminary motions, trial matters and the verdict. If the
trial is by judge and jury, the jury has the ultimate authority to render a
verdict but the trial judge has the authority over bail, pretrial motions
and jury instructions.

Sentencing

If the accused is found guilty the trial judge must determine a fit
sentence. See Criminal sentencing in Canada. Where the trial is by judge
alone, the judge will determine all facts which were proven and allow the
parties to adduce additional evidence concerning disputed facts which may
form the basis for finding aggraviting or mitigating circumstance (i.e. the
extent of injuries sustained by a victim). The Crown must prove an
aggravating fact beyond a reasonable doubt while the accused bears a burden
on a balance of probabilities to prove a mitigating fact.

Appeal

The Crown may appeal against a verdict of acquittal on a question of law
alone. The accused may appeal on a question of law, fact or mixed law and
fact. Either party may appeal a sentence unless the sentence is one fixed
by law.

Either party is entitled to a further appeal to the Supreme Court of Canada
against a conviction or acquittal if a judge of the court of appeal
dissented on a question of law or if the court of appeal allowed a Crown
appeal against an acquittal and substituted a conviction. Otherwise either
party may appeal a verdict or sentence with leave of the Supreme Court of
Canada.¹¹

Mental health issues

Mental health issues with a defendant in criminal proceedings are formally
dealt with in two ways: whether the defendant is "fit to stand for trial",
and the verdict of "not criminally responsible on account of mental
disorder". For more information, see Fitness Law in Canada, Insanity
Defence and Mental Disorder Defense.

Informally, mental health can also be dealt with by alternative measures,
through "mental health diversion". Mental health diversion will usually
require a plan of supervision with the assistance of mental health social
workers and professionals.

Young offenders

Criminal law matters relating to young persons (those aged 12 through 17)
are dealt with by the Youth Criminal Justice Act which provides for
different procedures and punishments than those applicable to adults. It
also provides that in some serious cases youths may be treated like adults
for sentencing and other purposes.

See also

- Section 91(27) of the Constitution Act, 1867
- Law enforcement in Canada
- Law of Canada
- Bail (Canada)

References

[1] In constitutional terms, a criminal offence was defined in the
  Margarine Reference
[2] See R. v. Beaver
[3] see R. v. Lifchus for description of the standard
[4] each of which must be proven beyond a reasonable doubt".
[5] see R. v. Ruzic
[6] R. v. Stone
[7] Which affords a partial defence to offences of specific intent (e.g.
  reducing murder to manslaughter). When the accused establishes on a
  balance of probabilities he was intoxicated to the point of being in a
  mental state akin to automatism or a mental disorder, a related rare
  defence of extreme intoxication may fully excuse even a general intent
  offence, although Parliament has attempted to foreclose that defence by
  enacting s.33.1 of the Criminal Code. Whether s.33.1 will survive
  scrutiny under the Charter of Rights is still an open question in Canada.
  Some lower courts have struck it down and others have upheld it, see R.
  v. Daviault
[8] R. v. Perka and R. v. Latimer
[9] s.536.4(1) of the Criminal Code
[10] s. 536(4) of the Criminal Code
[11] "Canadian criminal court system". Association of Commonwealth Criminal
  Lawyers. Retrieved 2010-12-24.

Further reading

- Michelle G. Grossman; Julian V. Roberts (2011). Criminal Justice in
  Canada. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-17-650228-7.
- Aaron Doyle; Dawn Moore (2011). Critical Criminology in Canada: New
  Voices, New Directions. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-1835-3.

External links

- Criminal Code, RSC 1985, c C-46 )
- Criminal Code also available in searchable format through CanLII

Copyright law of Canada

The copyright law of Canada governs the legally enforceable rights to
creative and artistic works under the laws of Canada. Canada passed its
first colonial copyright statute in 1832 but was subject to imperial
copyright law established by Britain until 1921. Current copyright law was
established by the Copyright Act of Canada which was first passed in 1921
and substantially amended in 1988, 1997 and 2012. All powers to legislate
copyright law are in the jurisdiction of the Parliament of Canada by virtue
of section 91(23) of the Constitution Act 1867.

History

Colonial copyright law

It is unclear to what extent British copyright law, or imperial law,
starting with the 1709 Statute of Anne, applied to its colonies (including
Canada),¹ but the House of Lords had ruled in 1774, in Donaldson v Beckett,
that copyright was a creation of statute and could be limited in its
duration. The first Canadian colonial copyright statute was the Copyright
Act, 1832, passed by the Parliament of the Province of Lower Canada,²
granting copyright to residents of the province. The 1832 Act was short,
and declared ambitions to encourage emergence of a literary and artistic
nation and to encourage literature, bookshops and the local press. After
the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada (Ontario and Quebec) were reunified
to form the Province of Canada, the 1832 Act was repealed and with minor
changes enacted as the Copyright Act, 1841.³ ⁴

The 1841 Act only granted copyright in books, maps, charts, musical
compositions, prints, cuts and engravings. Copyright was only awarded if it
was registered and a copy of the work deposited in the office of the
registrar of the province before publication. The author or creator was
required to be resident in the province in order to obtain copyright under
the Act, though the Act was unclear on whether the work needed to have been
first published in the Province. The objective of the colonial copyright
statutes was to encourage the printing of books in Canada, though this was
not made explicit to avoid conflict with imperial copyright law, which was
primarily designed to protect English publishers. Britain forcefully
demanded guarantees that British and Irish subjects were eligible for
protection under Canadian colonial copyright law in the same way residents
of the Canadian colony were.⁵

One year after Canada passed the 1841 Act, the UK Parliament passed the
Copyright Act 1842. The statute explicitly applied to "all Parts of the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Islands of Jersey and
Guernsey, all Parts of the East and West India, and all the Colonies,
Settlements, and Possessions of the Crown which now are or thereafter may
be acquired". Any book published in London would therefore be protected by
copyright law in the entire British Empire, including Canada.⁴ The 1842 Act
had an immediate impact on Canada and became infamous because it
effectively prohibited the importation and sale of reprints of any book
under British copyright printed in other countries. Previously Canada had
mostly imported books from the United States, but it was now unlawful for
Canadian merchants to engage in this trade. Instead merchants were required
to import books under British copyright from printers in Britain, though
British market prices were unaffordable for most residents of Canada. As
British publishers systematically refused to license books for printing to
Canadian printers, the Canadian Government questioned the responsible
self-government arrangement.⁶ In a provocative move Canada passed An Act to
extend the Provincial Copyright Act to Persons Resident in the United
Kingdom in 1847, granting British authors protection only if their works
had been printed and published in the Province of Canada.⁷ The 1841 and
1847 statutes were subject to minor revision in 1859 and the requirement
for the works to be printed in Canada, buried in the text, was later
noticed and denounced by the imperial British Government.⁵

Confederation

Upon Confederation, the British North America Act, 1867 granted the Federal
Government power to legislate on matters such as copyright and patents. In
1868 the Parliament of Canada passed the Copyright Act of 1868,⁸ which
granted protection for "any person resident in Canada, or any person being
a British subject, and resident in Great Britain or Ireland."⁹ It
re-established the publication requirements of the 1847 statute, prompting
demand from the British Government that Canada should revise its laws so as
to respect imperial copyright law.¹⁰ Under Imperial copyright London
printers had a monopoly and attracted most authors from the colonies to
first publish with them because imperial copyright law granted protection
in all colonies. London printers refused Canadian printers the license to
print books first published in London and authors had little incentive to
first publish in Canada, as colonial copyright law only granted protection
in Canada. The Canadian government sought to further strengthen the
Canadian print industry with an 1872 bill that would have introduced a
projected licensing scheme that allowed for a reprinting of books under
foreign copyright in exchange for a fixed royalty. The British Government
opposed the bill and it never received Royal Assent.¹¹

In order to encourage the local printing and publishing industry Canada
made a number of diplomatic and legislative efforts to limit the effects of
the 1842 Imperial Act. In a compromise arrangement Canada passed the
Copyright Act, 1875,¹² which provided for a term of twenty-eight years,
with an option to renew for a further fourteen years, for any "literary,
scientific and artistic works or compositions" published initially or
contemporaneously in Canada, and such protection was available to anyone
domiciled in Canada or any other British possession, or a citizen of any
foreign country having an international copyright treaty with the United
Kingdom, but it was contingent on the work being printed and published (or
reprinted and republished) in Canada.¹³ By registering under the Canadian
Act, British and foreign publishers gained exclusive access to the Canadian
market by excluding American reprints.⁹

In 1877, the Ontario Court of Appeal ruled that the Imperial Act of 1842
continued to have effect in Canada, despite the passage of the Canadian Act
of 1875.¹⁴ This effectively meant that Canadian copyright was a local
scheme, whereas Imperial copyright conferred general protection throughout
the British Empire.¹⁵ The application of Imperial copyright was
strengthened by the earlier decision of the House of Lords in Routledge v
Low,¹⁶ which declared that residence of an author, no matter how temporary,
anywhere in the British dominions while his book was being published in the
United Kingdom, was sufficient to secure it. As the United States was not
then a signatory to an international copyright treaty (thus rendering its
citizens ineligible for Canadian copyright), many Americans took advantage
of this ruling by visiting Canada while their books were being published in
London (and thereby obtaining Imperial copyright).¹⁷

There were other significant differences between the Canadian and Imperial
régimes:⁹

Under the Copyright Act 1911, the Parliament of Canada was granted
authority to either extend its application to Canada or to repeal (subject
to the preservation of all legal rights existing at the time of such
repeal) any or all enactments passed by the Imperial Parliament (including
the Act of 1911) so far as operative within the Dominion. Canada opted to
exercise the latter choice, and, upon passage of the Copyright Act, 1921,
it assumed complete jurisdiction over copyright and Imperial legislation in
the matter ceased to have effect.¹⁸

Copyright Act, 1921

Main article: Copyright Act of Canada

The Copyright Act, 1921 came into force in 1924. Though Canada was no
longer subject to imperial copyright law, it was closely modelled on the UK
Copyright Act 1911:

  + the term of copyright was extended to 50 years after the creator's
    death¹⁹ (but, where a work was not yet published at the time of death,
    its term was extended to 50 years after publication)²⁰
  + sound recordings were protected "as if such contrivances were musical,
    literary or dramatic works"²¹
  + in the case of an engraving, photograph or portrait, the initial owner
    of the copyright was the person who commissioned the plate or other
    original²²
  + any remaining rights (if any) at common law were abolished²³

Following the UK Carwardine case,²⁴ rights in performer's performances were
also held to exist under the Canadian Act (although they were never
enforced). This was abolished in 1971.²⁵

New technological developments and the emergence of computers, photocopiers
and recording devices led to a recognition that copyright law needed to be
updated. Between 1954 and 1960 the Royal Commission on Patents, Copyright,
and Industrial Design, known as the Ilsley Commission, published a series
of reports.²⁶ Its brief was "to enquire as to whether federal legislation
relating in any way to patents of invention, industrial designs, copyright
and trade-marks affords reasonable incentive to invention and research, to
the development of literary and artistic talents, to creativeness, and to
making available to the Canadian public scientific, technical, literary and
artistic creations and other adaptations, applications and uses, in a
manner and on terms adequately safeguarding the paramount public
interest."²⁷ ²⁸

Reform (1988–2012)

See also: Copyright Modernization Act

Between 1977 and 1985, a series of reports and proposals were issued for
the reform of Canadian copyright law.²⁷ ²⁹

Eventually a copyright reform process was initiated in two phases: Phase
one was started in 1988 and saw several amendments to the Copyright Act.
Computer programs were included as works protected under copyright, the
extent of moral rights was clarified, the provision for a compulsory
license for the reproduction of musical works was removed, new licensing
arrangements were established for orphan works in cases where the copyright
owner could not be found, and rules were enacted on the formation of
copyright collecting societies and their supervision by a reformed
Copyright Board of Canada.²⁷

Phase two of the reform took place in 1997 and saw the Copyright Act
amended with a new remuneration right for producers and performers of sound
recordings when their work was broadcast or publicly performed by radio
stations and public places such as bars. A levy was introduced on blank
audio tapes used for private copying and exclusive book distributors were
granted protection in Canada. New copyright exceptions were introduced for
non-profit educational institutions, libraries, museums, broadcasters, and
people with disabilities, allowing them to copy copyrighted works in
specific circumstances without the permission of the copyright owner or the
need to pay royalties. Damages payable for copyright infringement and the
power to grant injunctions were increased, and the 1997 reforms introduced
a mandatory review of the Copyright Act.²⁷ Copyright in unpublished works
was limited to 50 years after the creator's death, but unpublished works by
creators who died after 1948 but before 1999 retain their copyright until
2049.³⁰

After becoming a signatory country of World Intellectual Property
Organization Internet Treaties in 1996, Canada implemented its terms in
2012 with the passage of the Copyright Modernization Act.³¹ The 2012 Act
focuses on anti-circumvention provisions for technical protection measures,
the protection of authors' rights, and the public's rights concerning the
copying of legally obtained materials.³² During consideration of the bill,
many groups publicly stated their opposition to its digital lock
specifications,³³ arguing that such measures infringed on legitimate usage
of copyright holding.³⁴

Extension of copyright for certain sound recordings (2015)

From June 23, 2015, the rules governing copyright protection were modified
to provide that copyright in unpublished sound recordings created on or
after that date would last for 50 years after fixation, but if the sound
recording is published before the copyright expires, the applicable term
would then be the earlier of 70 years from its publication or 100 years
from fixation.³⁵ By implication, this will also extend the copyright for
performer's performances contained in such recordings.³⁵

TPP proposal for extension of copyright term

As part of the Trans-Pacific Partnership trade agreement signed by Canada
in February 2016,³⁶ upon ratification Article 18.63 of its intellectual
property rules provides for an extension of copyright to the following
minimum terms:

- on the basis of the life of a natural person, a term of life plus 70
  years; and otherwise
- 70 years from the first authorized publication, or, if not published
  within 25 years of its creation, 70 years from its creation.

Article 18.64 provides for the application of Article 18 of the Berne
Convention (which provides that extensions of terms will not have the
effect of reviving previously expired copyrights) and of Article 14.6 of
the TRIPs Agreement (which makes similar provision for the rights of
performers and producers in sound recordings).

Rights Conferred

The Act confers several types of rights in works:

  + copyright
  + moral rights
  + neighbouring rights

Copyright includes the right to first publish, reproduce, perform, transmit
and show a work in public. It includes other subsidiary rights such as
abridgment and translation.³⁷

Moral rights were instituted upon Canada's accession to the Berne
Convention, and they possess several key attributes: attribution, integrity
and association. They allow the author of a work to determine how it is
being used and what it is being associated to.³⁷

Neighbouring rights — generally discussed in the music industry (e.g.
performer's rights, recording rights) — are a series of rights relating to
one piece of work, and were established upon Canada's accession to the Rome
Convention. They do not relate to the creative works themselves, but to
their performance, transmission and reproduction.³⁷

Similar protection is extended to copyright holders in countries that are
parties to:

  + the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works,
  + the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of
    Phonograms and Broadcasting Organisations,
  + the WIPO Copyright Treaty, and
  + the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty.

Protected Works

See also: Authorship and ownership in copyright law in Canada

A work must be original and can include literary, dramatic, musical and
artistic works or compilations. Copyright is granted the moment the work is
created and does not distinguish work of a professional or that of an
amateur. There is also no distinction between for profit or commercial use
or for hobby purposes. Literary work includes anything that is written,
such as speeches, essays and books and may be in any form. However, a short
string of words or spontaneous speech is not covered. Dramatic works
include the characters, scenes, choreography, cinematography, relationship
between characters, dialogue and dramatic expression. Artistic works
include sculptures, paintings, photographs, charts and engravings. Musical
works include any musical compositions with or without words. Unexpressed
ideas are not protected work.³⁷

Copyright also extends to incomplete creations such as proposals,
treatments and formats, and infringement can occur when subsequent
audiovisual works use their elements without ever actually literally
copying them.³⁸

It is unclear whether the subjects in interviews have copyright in the
words they utter (and thus be considered to be their authors), as the
courts have not definitively ruled on the issues of originality and
fixation in such cases.³⁹ However, in Gould Estate v Stoddart Publishing Co
Ltd, the Ontario Court of Appeal noted that "offhand comments that [the
interviewee] knew could find their way into the public domain ... [were]
not the kind of disclosure which the Copyright Act intended to protect."⁴⁰

Ownership of a creative work may be assigned to a corporation or other
employer as part of an employment contract. In such a cases, the employer
retains ownership of the creative work even after the contract ends. The
new copyright owner is therefore free to make changes to the finished
product without the creator's consent.⁴¹

A creative employee, meanwhile, may continue to use his or her experience,
expertise, and memory to create a similar product after the conclusion of a
contract. In 2002, the Ontario Court of Appeal upheld a literal
interpretation of the word "copy" and found that a software engineer's
creation of a "similar" product from memory did not constitute infringement
of his former employer's copyright.⁴²

Fair Dealing

See also: Fair dealing in Canadian copyright law

Unauthorized copying of works can be permissible under the fair dealing
exemption. In CCH Canadian Ltd. v. Law Society of Upper Canada,⁴³ the
Supreme Court of Canada made a number of comments regarding fair dealing,
and found that the placement of a photocopier in a law library did not
constitute an invitation to violate copyright. In Alberta (Education) v
Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright), the Court further
clarified this exemption from copyright law in the context of education,
finding that a teacher may photocopy a brief excerpt from a textbook in
circumstances where it would be impractical to purchase a text book for
each student.

Fair dealing is to be examined on a case-by-case basis. The purpose of the
dealing, character of the dealing, amount of the dealing, alternatives of
the dealing, nature of the work and effect of the dealing are factors that
can contribute to fair dealing. Those favouring a broad interpretation of
fair dealing argue there ought to be reasonable unauthorized reproduction
of works because it facilitates creativity and free expression. They also
argue that fair dealing provides reasonable access to existing knowledge.
Those arguing that fair dealing ought to be more restrictive and specific
state that fair dealing will reduce revenue to those creating works. They
also argue the reproduction of works and sends a wrong message to the
public that works are free as long as it falls under this banner. Their
economic argument is that fair dealing should not compensate for the
market's inability to meet the demand for public knowledge.⁴⁴

Public domain

General rule

Subject to other provisions of the Act, a work will fall into the public
domain:⁴⁵

- 50 years after publication, in nearly all cases, if it was subject to
  Crown Copyright.⁴⁶
- 50 years after the death of its creator.
- 50 years after publication where the creator is unknown, or (if not
  published) 75 years after its creation.
- if it is a communications signal, 50 years after the signal is broadcast.

In all cases:

- copyright expires at the end of the calendar year in which the relevant
  date falls.
- in the case of joint authorship of a work, copyright extends from the
  death of the last surviving author.⁴⁷
- in the case of a pseudonymous or anonymous work where one or more of the
  creators have become commonly known, the normal rules governing
  authorship apply.⁴⁸
- where the author is the first owner of the copyright and has subsequently
  assigned it (other than by will), the assignment will only extend to 25
  years after the author's death, after which copyright will revert to the
  author's estate.⁴⁹
- moral rights in a work have the same term as the copyright in it, and
  cannot be assigned (other than by inheritance), but can be waived in
  whole or in part.⁵⁰

Posthumous works

Before the 1999 reform of the Act, works that were published after the
death of the author were protected by copyright for 50 years after
publication, thus granting perpetual copyright to any work not yet
published. This was revised so that protection is limited as follows:

Photographs

The Copyright Modernization Act, which came into force on November 7, 2012,
altered the rules with respect to the term of copyright with respect to
photographs so that the creator holds the copyright and moral rights to
them, and the general rule of life plus 50 years thereafter applies all
such works. However, there are two schools of thought with respect to how
copyright applies to photographs created before that date:

- Some commentators believe that the transitional rules implemented in the
  1999 reform still apply.⁵² ⁵³ ⁵⁴
- Others assert that such rules were ousted when the 2012 Act came into
  force, and that the general rule under s. 6 of the Copyright Act
  governs.⁵⁵ This may also have had the collateral effect of reviving
  copyright in some works that had previously lapsed.⁵⁵

The differences between the two points of view can be summarized as
follows:

There is some controversy as to the legal status of photographs taken
before 1949 in the first scenario, as it can be argued that the current
practice of statutory interpretation in the courts would hold that
copyright protection was moved to the general rule by the 1999 reform to
such photographs that were taken by individuals or creator-controlled
corporations.⁵⁶ In any case, this argument states that the 2012 Act
effectively removed all such special rules that were formerly contained in
s. 10 of the Copyright Act.⁵⁶

There has not yet been any jurisprudence in the matter, but it is suggested
that previous cases, together with the 2012 Act's legislative history, may
favour the second scenario.⁵⁷

Sound recordings and performance rights

Before September 1, 1997, copyright in sound recordings was defined as
being in "records, perforated rolls and other contrivances by means of
which sounds may be mechanically reproduced."⁵⁸ From that date, they are
defined as being "a recording, fixed in any material form, consisting of
sounds, whether or not of a performance of a work, but excludes any
soundtrack of a cinematographic work where it accompanies the
cinematographic work."⁵⁹ Subject to that observation, such recordings will
fall into the public domain:

- for sound recordings created before 1965, 50 years after fixation, but if
  the sound recording is published before the copyright expires, 50 years
  after its publication (but only where copyright expires before 2015).³⁵
- for sound recordings created otherwise, 50 years after fixation, but if
  the sound recording is published before the copyright expires, the
  earlier of 70 years from its publication or 100 years from fixation.³⁵

Performance rights (in their current form) subsisting in sound recordings
did not exist until 1994 (with respect to their producers) or 1996 (with
respect to their performers).⁶⁰ Performer's performances that occurred in a
WTO member country only received protection after 1995.⁶⁰ Effective
September 1, 1997, performance rights were extended to performances
captured on communication signals.⁶¹ Subject to that, such performances
will fall into the public domain:

- for performer's performances before 1962, the earlier of 50 years after
  its first fixation in a sound recording, or 50 years after its
  performance, if not fixed in a sound recording (but only where copyright
  expires before 2012).
- for performer's performances created on or after 1962 but before 2015, 50
  years after the performance occurs, but (a) if the performance is fixed
  in a sound recording, 50 years after its fixation, and (b) if a sound
  recording in which the performance is fixed is published before the
  copyright expires, the earlier of 50 years after publication and 99 years
  after the performance occurs (but only where copyright expires before
  2015).³⁵
- for performer's performances created otherwise, 50 years after the
  performance occurs, but (a) if the performance is fixed in a sound
  recording, 50 years after its fixation, and (b) if a sound recording in
  which the performance is fixed is published before the copyright expires,
  the earlier of 70 years after publication and 100 years from fixation.³⁵

Anti-circumvention

Any circumvention of technical protection measures designed to protect a
copyrighted work is unlawful, even if the action was not for the purpose of
copyright infringement. The marketing and distribution of products meant to
breach technical protection measures is also unlawful. Exceptions exist in
situations when the circumvention is for the purposes of accessibility,
encryption research, privacy and security testing, reverse engineering to
achieve software compatibility (if it is not already possible to do so
without breaching TPMs),⁶² the creation of temporary recordings by
broadcasters, and for law enforcement and national security purposes.⁶³ ⁶⁴

The federal court adopted a wide interpretation of the anti-circumvention
rules in the case of Nintendo of America v. Go Cyber Shopping, asserting
that alongside their use for enabling the use of pirated copies of software
for them, a retailer of modchips for video game consoles could not use the
availability of homebrew software as a defence under the interoperability
provision, because Nintendo offers official manner for developers to create
games for their platforms, thus making it possible to achieve
interoperability without breaching TPMs.⁶²

Administration

See also: Canadian Private Copying Collective; Society of Composers,
Authors and Music Publishers of Canada; and Access Copyright

The Canadian Intellectual Property Office (CIPO), part of Industry Canada,
administers intellectual property laws concerning the registration of
patents, trade-marks, copyrights, industrial designs and integrated circuit
topographies.⁶⁵

Copyright Board

The Copyright Board of Canada is a federal agency that has four primary
functions: (1) establish royalties users must pay for copyrighted works;
(2) establish when the collection of such royalties is to be facilitated by
a "collective-administration society"; (3) oversee agreements between users
and licensing bodies; and (4) grant users licenses for works when the
copyright owner cannot be located.⁶⁶

Collection of royalties and enforcement of copyright is often too costly
and difficult for Individual owners of works. Therefore, collectives are
formed to facilitate the collection of fees.⁶⁷ Collectives may file
proposed tariff with the Copyright Board or enter into agreements with
users.

See also

- Intellectual property law in Canada
- Crown copyright
- Fair dealing
- File sharing in Canada
- Bill C-60 (38th Canadian Parliament, 1st Session)
- Bill C-61 (39th Canadian Parliament, 2nd Session)
- Bill C-32 (40th Canadian Parliament, 3rd Session)
- World Intellectual Property Organization

Further reading

History
- Bannerman, Sara (2013). The Struggle for Canadian Copyright: Imperialism
  to Internationalism, 1842-1971. Vancouver: UBC Press. ISBN
  978-0-7748-2406-4.
- Geist, Michael (2010). From "Radical Extremism" to "Balanced Copyright":
  Canadian Copyright and the Digital Agenda. Toronto: Irwin Law Inc. ISBN
  978-1-55221-204-2.
- Gendreau, Ysolde, ed. (2008). An Emerging Intellectual Property Paradigm:
  Perspectives from Canada. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN
  978-1-84720-597-1.
Pre-1921 doctrine
- Dawson, S.E. (1882). Copyright in books: An inquiry into its origin, and
  an account of the present state of the law in Canada. Montreal: Dawson
  Brothers.
- Mignault, Pierre-Basile (1880). "La propriété littéraire". La Thémis (in
  French). 2: 289. et seq.⁷⁴
Post-1921 doctrine
- Perrault, Antonio (1924). "La propriété des œuvres intellectuelles". La
  Revue du Droit (in French). 3: 49. et seq.⁷⁵
- Fox, Harold G. (1944). The Canadian Law of Copyright. Toronto: University
  of Toronto Press. OCLC 3265423.
Contemporary
- Brown, D. Jeffrey; Campbell, Marisia (2010). "Copyright". In McCormack,
  Stuart C. Intellectual Property Law of Canada (2nd ed.). Huntington, NY:
  Juris Publishing. ISBN 978-1-57823-264-2.
- Vaver, David (2000). Copyright Law. Toronto: Irwin Law Inc. ISBN
  1-55221-034-0.
- Vaver, David (2011). Intellectual Property Law: Copyright, Patents,
  Trade-Marks (2nd ed.). Toronto: Irwin Law Inc. ISBN 978-1-55221-209-7.
- Wilkinson, Margaret Ann; Soltau, Carolyn; Deluzio, Tierney G.B. (2015).
  "Copyright in Photographs in Canada since 2012" (PDF). Open Shelf.
  Ontario Library Association.
- Wilkinson, Margaret Ann; Deluzio, Tierney G.B. (2016). "The Term of
  Copyright Protection in Photographs". Canadian Intellectual Property
  Review. Intellectual Property Institute of Canada. 31: 95–109.

Notes

[1] Gendreau 2008, p. 111.
[2] An Act for the protection of Copy Rights, S.L.C. 1832, c. 53
[3] An Act for the protection of Copy Rights in this Province, S.Prov.C.
  1841, c. 61
[4] Gendreau 2008, pp. 110–111.
[5] Gendreau 2008, pp. 111–112.
[6] Gendreau 2008, p. 108.
[7] An Act extend the Provincial Copy-Right Act to persons resident in the
  United Kingdom, on certain conditions, S.Prov.C. 1847, c. 28
[8] The Copyright Act of 1868, S.C. 1868, c. 54
[9] Bannerman 2013, ch. 3.
[10] Gendreau 2008, pp. 113–114.
[11] Gendreau 2008, p. 114.
[12] The Copyright Act of 1875, S.C. 1875, c. 38
[13] Copyright Act, 1875, ss. 3–5
[14] Smiles v. Belford, 1 O.A.R. 436, held to have been properly decided in
  Durand et Cie v. La Patrie Publishing Co. 1960 CanLII 63 at p. 656,
  [1960] SCR 649 (24 June 1960)
[15] Easton, J.M. (1915). "III: Local Copyright Laws of British Colonies
  and Possessions". The law of copyright, in works of literature, art,
  architecture, photography, music and the drama: Including chapters on
  mechanical contrivances and cinematographs, together with international
  and foreign copyright, with the statutes relating thereto (5th ed.).
  London: Stevens and Haynes. pp. 339–345.
[16] Routledge v. Low, (1868) 3 LTR 100, expanding upon its previous ruling
  in Jefferys v Boosey (1854) 4 HLC 815, 10 ER 681 (1 August 1854)
[17] Dawson 1882, pp. 20–21.
[18] Gendreau 2008, pp. 114–115.
[19] Copyright Act, 1921, s. 5
[20] Copyright Act, 1921, s. 9
[21] Copyright Act, 1921, s. 4(3)
[22] Copyright Act, 1921, s. 11(1)(a)
[23] Copyright Act, 1921, s. 41(3), Schedule
[24] Gramophone Co Ltd v Stephen Carwardine & Co, 1 Ch 450 (1934).
[25] noted in Performance Rights in Sound Recordings. Washington, DC:
  United States House Committee on the Judiciary. 1978. pp. 216–219.
[26] including Report on Copyright (PDF). Ottawa: Royal Commission on
  Patents, Copyright, Trade Marks and Industrial Designs. 1957.
[27] Makarenko, Jay (13 March 2009). "Copyright Law in Canada: An
  Introduction to the Canadian Copyright Act". Judicial System & Legal
  Issues. Mapleleafweb. Retrieved 15 August 2010.
[28] "Patents, Copyright and Industrial Designs, Royal Commission on". The
  Canadian Encyclopedi. Retrieved 15 August 2010.
[29] Keyes, A.A.; Brunet, C. (1977). Copyright in Canada: Proposals for
  Revision of the Law. Ottawa: Consumer and Corporate Affairs Canada., From
  Gutenberg to Telidon: a white paper on copyright. Ottawa: Consumer and
  Corporate Affairs Canada. 1984., and A Charter of Rights for Creators —
  Report of the Subcommittee on the Revision of Copyright. Ottawa: Supply
  and Services Canada. 1985.
[30] Copyright Act, s. 7(3)
[31] Copyright Modernization Act, S.C. 2012, c. 20
[32] Christine Dobby (September 29, 2011). "Canada's copyright overhaul and
  the digital locks controversy". Financial Post.
[33] Copyright Act, ss. 41–41.21, inserted by the Copyright Modernization
  Act
[34] "Responding to Bill C-32: An Act to Amend the Copyright Act" (PDF).
  Canadian Federation for the Humanities and Social Sciences. November
  2010.
[35] Bob Tarantino (June 24, 2015). "The Complexities of Canada's Extension
  of Copyright Protection for Sound Recordings". Entertainment and Media
  Law Signal., discussing the impact of Economic Action Plan 2015 Act, No.
  1, S.C. 2015, c. 36, Part 3, Div. 5
[36] "Chapter 18: Intellectual Property" (PDF). ustr.gov. Office of the
  United States Trade Representative. 2015. pp. 18–36.
[37] Vaver 2011.
[38] Cinar Corporation v. Robinson 2013 SCC 73 (23 December 2013)
[39] Jarvis-Tinus, Jill (1992). "Legal Issues Regarding Oral Histories".
  Oral History Forum. Canadian Oral History Association. 12: 18–24.
  Retrieved October 23, 2015.
[40] Gould Estate v Stoddart Publishing Co Ltd 1998 CanLII 5513, 39 OR (3d)
  545 (6 May 1998), Court of Appeal (Ontario, Canada)
[41] Netupsky et al. v. Dominion Bridge Co. Ltd. 1971 CanLII 172, [1972]
  SCR 368 (5 October 1971)
[42] Delrina Corp. v. Triolet Systems Inc. 2002 CanLII 11389, 58 OR (3d)
  339 (1 March 2002), Court of Appeal (Ontario, Canada)
[43] CCH Canadian Ltd. v. Law Society of Upper Canada 2004 SCC 13, [2004] 1
  SCR 339 (4 March 2004)
[44] Geist 2010, pp. 90–120.
[45] Copyright Act, ss. 6, 9–12, 23
[46] Copyright Act, s.12
[47] Copyright Act, s. 9
[48] Copyright Act, ss. 6.1–6.2
[49] Copyright Act, s. 14
[50] Copyright Act, ss. 14.1–14.2, 17.1–17.2
[51] Copyright Act, s. 7
[52] Vaver 2000, pp. 104–107.
[53] Vaver 2011, pp. 145–147.
[54] Wilkinson, Soltau & Deluzio 2015, fn. 58.
[55] Wilkinson, Soltau & Deluzio 2015, p. 2.
[56] Wilkinson, Soltau & Deluzio 2015, p. 12.
[57] Wilkinson, Soltau & Deluzio 2015, pp. 7–9.
[58] Brown & Campbell 2010, p. 234.
[59] Copyright Act, s. 2
[60] Brown & Campbell 2010, p. 235.
[61] Brown & Campbell 2010, p. 236.
[62] Geist, Michael. "Canadian DMCA in Action: Court Awards Massive Damages
  in First Major Anti-Circumvention Copyright Ruling". Retrieved 3 March
  2017.
[63] "Legislative Summary of Bill C-11: An Act to amend the Copyright Act".
  Parliament of Canada. Retrieved 29 October 2015.
[64] "Caving to Washington? "Canadian DMCA" expected to pass". Ars
  Technica. Retrieved 29 October 2015.
[65] "What is CIPO". Canadian Intellectual Property Office.
[66] "Our Mandate". Copyright Board.
[67] Vaver 2000, pp. 216–221.
[68] "Tariff of Levies to Be Collected by CPCC on the Sale, in Canada, of
  Blank Audio Recording Media". Canada Gazette. 31 August 2013.
[69] "Statement of Royalties to Be Collected by Access Copyright for the
  Reprographic Reproduction, in Canada, of Works in its Repertoire" (PDF).
  Canada Gazette. June 27, 2009.
[70] Geist 2010, pp. 503–540.
[71] Alberta (Education) v. Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access
  Copyright) 2012 SCC 37, [2012] 2 SCR 345 (12 July 2012)
[72] "Statement of Royalties to Be Collected by Access Copyright for the
  Reprographic Reproduction, in Canada, of Works in its Repertoire" (PDF).
  Canada Gazette. January 19, 2013.
[73] "Tariffs proposed by Access Copyright". Copyright Board.
[74] Gendreau 2008, p. 115, fn. 38.
[75] Gendreau 2008, p. 119, fn. 59.

External links

- Copyright Act, R.S.C. 1985, c. C-42

Canadian nationality law

Canadian nationality law determines who is eligible to be a citizen of
Canada. Canadian nationality is typically obtained by birth in Canada, or
birth abroad when at least one parent is a Canadian citizen or by adoption
by at least one Canadian citizen. It can also be granted to a permanent
resident who has lived in Canada for a period of time.

History of British subject into Canadian citizenship

Main article: History of Canadian nationality law

After Canadian Confederation was achieved in 1867, the new Dominion's
"nationality law" initially closely mirrored that of the United Kingdom and
all Canadians were classified as British subjects. Section 91(25) of the
British North America Act, 1867, passed by the British Parliament in London
(now referred to as the Constitution Act, 1867), however, gave the
Parliament of Canada authority over "Naturalization and Aliens". The
Immigration Act, 1910, for example, created the status of "Canadian
citizen".¹ This distinguished those "British subjects" who were born,
naturalized, or domiciled in Canada from those who were not, but was only
applied for the purpose of determining whether someone was free of
immigration controls.² The Naturalization Act, 1914, increased the period
of residence required to qualify for naturalization in Canada as a "British
subject" from three years to five years. A separate additional status of
"Canadian national" was created under the Canadian Nationals Act, 1921, in
order that Canada could participate in international forces or military
expeditions separately from Britain.

Canadian independence from Britain was obtained incrementally between 1867
(confederation and Dominion status within the Empire) and 1982 (patriation
of the Canadian constitution). In 1931, the Statute of Westminster provided
that the United Kingdom would have no legislative authority over Dominions
without the request and consent of that Dominion's government to have a
British law become part of the law of the Dominion. The law also left the
British North America Acts within the purview of the British parliament,
because the federal government and the provinces could not agree on an
amending formula for the Canadian constitution. (Similarly, the
neighbouring Dominion of Newfoundland did not become independent because it
never ratified the Statute.) When, in 1982, the British and Canadian
parliaments produced the mutual Canada Act 1982 (UK) and Constitution Act
1982 (Canada), which included a constitutional amendment process, the UK
ceased to have any legislative authority whatsoever over Canada.

By the 1930s and the outbreak of World War II, Canada's naturalization laws
consisted of a hodgepodge of confusing acts,³ which still retained the term
"British subject" as the designation for "Canadian nationals". This
eventually conflicted with the nationalism that arose following the First
and Second World Wars, and the accompanying desire to have the Dominion of
Canada's sovereign status reflected in distinct national symbols (such as
flags, anthem, seal, etc.).⁴ This, plus the muddled nature of existing
nationality law, prompted the enactment of the Canadian Citizenship Act,
1946, which took effect on 1 January 1947. On that date, "Canadian
citizenship" was conferred on most Canadians previously classified as
"British subjects". Subsequently, on 1 April 1949, Canadian nationality law
was extended to Newfoundland, upon the former British colony joining the
Canadian confederation as the Province of Newfoundland.

Canadian nationality law was substantially revised again on 15 February
1977, when the new Citizenship Act came into force. From that date,
multiple citizenship became legal. However, those who had lost Canadian
citizenship before that date did not automatically have it restored until
17 April 2009, when Bill C-37 became law.⁵ The 2009 act also limited the
issuance of citizenship to children born outside Canada to Canadian
ancestors (jus sanguinis) to one generation abroad.⁶

Birth in Canada

Current legislation

Under paragraph 3(1)(a) of the 1977 Citizenship Act, any person who was
born in Canada after 14 February 1977 acquires Canadian citizenship at
birth. The Interpretation Act states that the term "Canada" not only
includes Canadian soil, but also "the internal waters" and "the territorial
sea" of Canada, with the term "internal waters" being defined as including
"the airspace above".⁷ Hence, Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada
considers all children who were born over Canadian airspace as Canadian
citizens.⁸ In one 2008 case, a girl born to a Ugandan mother aboard a
Northwest Airlines flight from Amsterdam to Boston was deemed a Canadian
citizen because she was born over Canadian airspace.⁹

In addition, the interpretation section of the Citizenship Act states that
any person who was born on an aircraft registered in Canada, or a vessel
registered in Canada, is considered to be born in Canada.

There are only three exceptions to this rule, which are listed below.

Exceptions

Paragraph 3(2) of the Citizenship Act states that Canadian citizenship by
birth in Canada is not granted to a child born in Canada if neither parent
is a Canadian citizen or permanent resident, and either parent had the
following occupation at the time of the child's birth:¹⁰

- an employee of a foreign government in Canada,
- a servant of an employee of the foreign government, and,
- an employee of a foreign organization which enjoys diplomatic immunity in
  Canada, including the United Nations.

In a high-profile 2015 case, Deepan Budlakoti, a stateless man born in
Ottawa, Ontario, was declared not to be a Canadian citizen because his
parents were employed as domestic staffs by the High Commissioner of India
in Canada and their contracts legally ended two months after his birth,
despite the fact that they started to work for a non-diplomat well before
their contracts ended and before Budlakoti was born.¹¹

Proposed abolishment

In 2012, Citizenship and Immigration Minister Jason Kenney proposed to
modify the jus soli birthright citizenship recognized in Canadian law as a
means of discouraging birth tourism. The move had drawn criticism from
experts who said that the proposal was based on overhyped popular beliefs
and nonexistent data.¹² As of 2016, the incumbent Minister John McCallum
said during an interview that there is no plan for the change to end
birthright citizenship.¹³

Retroactive acquisition of Canadian citizenship for persons born in Canada
before 1947

The 2015 amendment (Bill C-24) of the Citizenship Act has retroactively
granted Canadian citizenship for the first time to people who were born in
Canada before 1 January 1947 (or 1 April 1949 if born in Newfoundland and
Labrador), ceased to be British subjects before that day, and never became
a Canadian citizen after 1947 (or 1949). Under previous legislations, most
of these people were never considered to be Canadian citizens because they
have lost their British subject status before the creation of Canadian
citizenship. Persons who had voluntarily renounced British subject status
and had their British subject status revoked are ineligible.¹⁴

Canadian citizenship by descent

Current legislation

Under Bill C-37 which went into force on 17 April 2009, every person born
outside of Canada in the first generation abroad (i.e. born to a parent who
is not a Canadian citizen by descent) after 17 April 2009 is automatically
a Canadian citizen by descent.⁸

The first generation rule applies to those whose citizenship was restored
or who has retroactively acquired citizenship by Bill C-37 and Bill C-24,
so a person who was born on or after 15 February 1977 to a parent who has
their citizenship restored under either Bill C-37 or C-24 is automatically
a Canadian citizen by descent.⁸

The exceptions to the first-generation rule are:⁸

- the parent, who is a Canadian citizen by descent, is employed by the
  federal or provincial government (including Canadian Forces) at the time
  of the child's birth, or,
- the grandparent, who is a Canadian citizen by descent, is employed by the
  federal or provincial government (including Canadian Forces) at the time
  of the child's parent's birth.

Previous provisions

Between 15 February 1977 and 17 April 2009, a child of a Canadian citizen
who was born abroad acquires Canadian citizenship automatically at birth,
regardless of whether the parent was a Canadian citizen by descent.¹⁵

However, a Canadian citizen who was born outside Canada after the first
generation between 15 February 1977 and 16 April 1981 is required to apply
for a retention of Canadian citizenship before their 28th birthday.¹⁵

Prior to Bill C-37 becoming law on 17 April 2009, this only applied to
those people born after 15 February 1977 (those born prior to this date but
who did not have citizenship reacquired it or gained it retroactive to
their date of birth or date citizenship was lost). Every such person whose
Canadian parent or parents were also not born in Canada and obtained their
citizenship at birth by descent (second generation born abroad) must have
successfully applied to maintain their Canadian citizenship before their
28th birthday, that is, if their 28th birthday took place before 17 April
2009. People falling into that category who did not take steps to maintain
their citizenship lost their citizenship on that birthday.

With Bill C-37¹⁶ coming into effect on 17 April 2009, there is no longer a
requirement or any allowance to apply to maintain citizenship.
Additionally, the first generation rule requires at least one parent to be
born in Canada or be a naturalized Canadian citizen in order to pass
citizenship to their children born outside of Canada (government and
Canadian Forces employees are exempt from this rule).

On 4 December 2016 CBC Canada reported that some people born abroad to
Canadian parents between 1977 and 1981 who have not filed an application to
keep their citizenship before turning 28 have lost their Canadian
nationality. An unknown number of individuals have been stripped of
Canadian Nationality. ¹⁷

2009 amendments to the Citizenship Act

An Act to amend the Citizenship Act (S.C. 2008, c. 14) (previously Bill
C-37)¹⁶ came into effect on 17 April 2009¹⁸ and changed the rules for
Canadian citizenship. Individuals born outside of Canada can now become
Canadian citizens by descent if one of their parents is a citizen of Canada
either by having been born in Canada or by naturalization. The new law
limits citizenship by descent to one generation born outside Canada. One of
the changes instituted by the Government of Canada is the "first generation
limitation". Jason Kenney, Minister for Citizenship, Immigration and
Multiculturalism, said the following in the House of Commons of Canada on
10 June 2010: "That's why we must protect the values of Canadian
citizenship and must take steps against those who would cheapen it.... We
will strengthen the new limitation on the ability to acquire citizenship
for the second generation born abroad."¹⁹ The new rules would not confer a
Canadian citizenship on children born outside of Canada to parents who were
themselves Canadian citizens by birth but not born in Canada. Thus the new
rule makes a distinction between Canadian citizens born in Canada and
immigrants granted citizenship on the one hand and citizens by birth who
were born outside Canada on the other who have attenuated rights to pass on
citizenship to their children.

In a scenario, the new rules would apply like this: A child is born in
Brazil in 2005 (before the new rules came in effect) to a Canadian citizen
father, who himself is a born abroad citizen by descent, and a Brazilian
mother who is only a Permanent Resident of Canada. Child automatically
becomes a Canadian citizen at birth. Another child born after 17 April 2009
in the same scenario would not be considered a Canadian citizen. The child
is considered born past "first generation limitation" and the parents (the
father) would have to sponsor the child to Canada to become a Permanent
Resident (a lengthy process which may take from one to four years ). Once
the Permanent Residency is granted, a Canadian parent can apply for
Canadian citizenship on behalf of the child, without the required
three-year-residency rule, however.²⁰

Every person born outside Canada but within one generation of the
native-born or naturalized citizen parent is automatically a Canadian
citizen by descent (retroactive to date of birth or date citizenship was
lost).¹⁶ The second generation born abroad, however, is not a citizen of
Canada at birth. Such an individual might even be stateless if without
claim to any other citizenship. (This situation actually occurred to a
child born in China to a father who is a Canadian citizen born outside
Canada.²¹ ) The second generation born abroad can gain Canadian citizenship
only by immigrating to Canada; this can be done by the Canadian citizen's
parents sponsoring as a dependent child, a category with fewer
requirements, which would also take less time than most other immigration
application categories.

Under new rules, introduced in 2009, foreign nationals being adopted by
Canadian citizens can now acquire Canadian citizenship immediately upon
completion of the adoption, without entering Canada as a permanent resident
as under the previous rules.

Naturalization as a Canadian citizen

A person who is a permanent resident may apply for Canadian citizenship by
naturalization (grant) subject to the following conditions.

The person:

- is aged 18 years or over
- is a permanent resident
- has been physically in Canada for a total of 1460 days (i.e., four years)
  during the six years preceding the application for citizenship and must
  have been physically present in Canada for 183 days in four of the
  calendar years, including a minimum of four years as a permanent resident
- has knowledge of Canada (as demonstrated by taking the Canadian
  Citizenship Test, which is required as part of the application process,
  but only if the applicant is between 14 and 64 years of age)
- files income tax
- declares intention to reside in Canada
- is not a subject to any criminal prohibitions
- is not a war criminal
- is able to speak English or French well enough to communicate with
  people²²

Prior to 2014's Bill C-24, the Strengthening Canadian Citizenship Act, the
requirement for time spent in Canada was 1095 days over four years
including two as a permanent resident. The language and knowledge
requirement is unchanged except it applies to persons aged 14 to 64.²³

Children aged under 18

The naturalization requirements for children under 18 are different from
those for adults.

- the child should be a permanent resident
- a parent of the child should be a Canadian citizen or in the process of
  applying for Canadian citizenship

The residence and other requirements do not normally apply to those aged
under 18.

Citizenship ceremonies

Main article: Oath of Citizenship (Canada)

All applicants for Canadian citizenship aged 14 or over must attend a
citizenship ceremony as the final stage of their application.

Canadian citizenship by adoption

In May 2006 the Canadian government introduced draft legislation, Bill
C-14: An Act to Amend the Citizenship Act (Adoption), which is designed to
allow adopted children the right to apply for immediate citizenship. This
bill received Royal Assent on 22 June 2007.²⁴

Bill C-14 consists of only four clauses. Clause 1 amends section 3 of the
Citizenship Act so that adopted children who attain citizenship without
first obtaining permanent resident status are Canadian citizens. Clause 2
applies to adopted children who are minors and also to those who are at
least 18 years of age; it amends section 5 of the Citizenship Act and
provides that, subject to certain conditions, the Minister shall grant
citizenship to children who are adopted abroad after 14 February 1977.
Clause 2 also has a special provision for adoptions that are under the
jurisdiction of Quebec.

Loss of Canadian citizenship

See also: History of Canadian nationality law

Under the current legislation, there is no provision for involuntary loss
of Canadian citizenship except when naturalized Canadians can have their
citizenship revoked if convicted of fraud in relation to their citizenship
application, or their original admission to Canada as an immigrant.

Similar provisions also exist under the nationality laws of the UK, US,
Israel, Australia, New Zealand and Spain.

However, Bill C-24 has added other conditions under which a Canadian with
dual or multiple citizenship can lose his or her Canadian citizenship,
including but not limited to:

- committing an act of terrorism, or,
- being convicted of an act of terrorism by a foreign court.

Persons with sole Canadian citizenship are not affected.

Only citizens who have citizenship with another nation can renounce their
Canadian citizenship. This is because Canada has agreed to comply with the
UN's 1961 Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness.²⁵

Before 17 April 2009, some Canadians lost their citizenship prior to 15
February 1977 through:¹⁴

- naturalization in another country,
- long residence overseas (prior to 1967),
- naturalization of a parent (only when the person is a minor and receives
  foreign citizenship along with the parent), and,
- failing to retain Canadian citizenship.

Most of these people have their Canadian citizenship automatically restored
when Bill C-37 came into effect in 2009. The only exceptions to the
automatic resumption are when the person acquired Canadian citizenship as
second or subsequent generations born outside Canada and lost it as a
minor, and when the person has lost his or her citizenship on his or her
28th birthday as second generation born abroad.¹⁴

Lost Canadians

In February 2007, the House of Commons Standing Committee on Citizenship
and Immigration held hearings on so-called Lost Canadians,²⁶ who found out
recently, on applying for passports, that for various reasons they may not
be Canadian citizens as they thought.²⁷ Don Chapman, a witness before the
committee, estimated that 700,000 Canadians have either lost their
citizenship or are at risk of having it stripped.²⁷ However, Citizenship
and Immigration Minister Diane Finley said her office has had just 881
calls on the subject. On 19 February 2007, she signed documents granting
citizenship to 33 such individuals. Some of the reasons citizenship may
have been lost is if the individual was born out of wedlock before 1977, or
to a father who took a second citizenship. Another reason is if the child
was born outside Canada, and failed to confirm their citizenship before
turning 24 or 28. Some of the people affected reside in towns near the
southern border, and hence were born in American hospitals.²⁸ Others,
particularly Mennonites, were born to Canadian parents in Mexico or
Paraguay.²⁹ An investigation by the CBC, based on Canadian census data,
concluded that the problem could affect an estimated 10,000 to 20,000
individuals currently residing in Canada.³⁰

On 29 May 2007, Canadian Minister of Citizenship and Immigration Diane
Finley announced her proposal to amend the Citizenship Act. Under the
proposal, anyone naturalized in Canada since 1947 would have citizenship
even if they lost it under the 1947 Act. Also, anyone born since 1947
outside the country to a Canadian mother or father, in or out of wedlock,
would have citizenship if they are the first generation born abroad.³¹
Appearing before the Standing Committee on Citizenship and Immigration,
Finley asserted that as of 24 May 2007, there were only 285 cases of
individuals in Canada whose citizenship status needs to be resolved.³²
Under the proposed legislation, anyone born before 1947 to a Canadian
citizen abroad would be dealt with on a case-by-case basis; such
individuals would have to apply for a ministerial permit.³³

Bill C-37, which received Royal Assent on 17 April 2009, amended the
Citizenship Act to give Canadian citizenship to those who lost or never had
it, due to outdated provisions in existing and former legislation. The law
came into effect on 17 April 2009.

Bill C-24, which came into force on June 11, 2015, further extended
citizenship to additional "Lost Canadians" on that date, who were born
before 1947 and did not become citizens on January 1, 1947 when the first
Canadian Citizenship Act came into effect. The extension also applies to
their first generation children born outside of Canada.

Resumption of Canadian citizenship

Former Canadian citizens who renounced their citizenship are generally
required to obtain landed immigrant (permanent resident) status under
normal rules and live in Canada for one year in order to resume Canadian
citizenship.

The 2009 Act resumed Canadian citizenship to all those who have obtained
Canadian citizenship on or after 1 January 1947 but have subsequently lost
it under the 1947 Act and their first generation descendents born abroad.
The 2015 Act further resumed citizenship for Canadians who have lost
British subject status before 1947 and those who were born to such parents
outside Canada if they are the first generation born abroad.³⁴

On 22 September 1988, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney agreed to a redress
package for Japanese-Canadians deported from Canada between 1941 and 1946
(about 4,000 in total) and their descendants. The package authorized a
special grant of Canadian citizenship for any such person. All descendants
of deported persons were also eligible for the grant of citizenship
provided that they were living on 22 September 1988, regardless of whether
the person actually deported from Canada was still alive.

The Royal Family

Further information: Monarchy of Canada § Canada's royal family and house

Though she resides predominantly in the United Kingdom and it is uncertain
whether a monarch is subject to his or her own citizenship laws,³⁵ the
Queen of Canada is considered Canadian.³⁵ ³⁶ ³⁷ She and those others in the
Royal Family who do not meet the requirements of Canadian citizenship
(there are five Canadian citizens within the Royal Family) are not
classified by either the government or some constitutional experts as
foreigners to Canada;[n 1]⁴⁰ ⁴¹ in the Canadian context, members of the
Royal Family are subjects specifically of the monarch of Canada.⁴² ⁴³
Members of the Royal Family have also, on occasion, declared themselves to
be Canadian and called Canada "home".[n 2]³⁵

Judicial review of provisions of current and previous citizenship acts

There have been a number of court decisions dealing with the subject of
Canadian citizenship. In particular, the interpretation of the 3-year
(1,095-day) residence requirement enacted by the 1977 Citizenship Act,
which does not define the term "residence" and, further, prohibits an
appeal of a Federal Court decision in a citizenship matter to the Federal
Court of Appeal or the Supreme Court, has "led to a great deal of mischief
and agony"⁴⁹ and generated considerable judicial controversy.

Over the years two principal schools of thought with respect to residence
have emerged from the Federal Court.

Early on, in 1978, Associate Chief Justice Arthur L. Thurlow in
Papadogiorgakis (Re), [1978] 2 F.C. 208,⁵⁰ opined that residency entails
more than a mere counting of days. He held that residency is a matter of
the degree to which a person, in mind or fact, settles into or maintains or
centralizes his or her ordinary mode of living, including social relations,
interests and conveniences. The question becomes whether an applicant's
linkages suggest that Canada is his or her home, regardless of any absences
from the country.

In Re Koo,⁵¹ Justice Barbara Reed further elaborated that in residency
cases the question before the Court is whether Canada is the country in
which an applicant has centralized his or her mode of existence. Resolving
such a question involves consideration of several factors:

  - Was the individual physically present in Canada for a long period prior
    to recent absences which occurred immediately before the application
    for citizenship?
  - Where are the applicant's immediate family and dependents (and extended
    family) resident?
  - Does the pattern of physical presence in Canada indicate a returning
    home or merely visiting the country?
  - What is the extent of the physical absences – if an applicant is only a
    few days short of the 1095-day total it is easier to find deemed
    residence than if those absences are extensive?
  - Is the physical absence caused by a clearly temporary situation such as
    employment as a missionary abroad, following a course of study abroad
    as a student, accepting temporary employment abroad, accompanying a
    spouse who has accepted temporary employment abroad?
  - What is the quality of the connection with Canada: is it more
    substantial than that which exists with any other country?

The general principle is that the quality of residence in Canada must be
more substantial than elsewhere.

In contrast, a line of jurisprudence flowing from the decision in Re
Pourghasemi (1993), 62 F.T.R. 122, 19 Imm. L.R. (2d) 259, emphasized how
important it is for a potential new citizen to be immersed in Canadian
society and that a person cannot reside in a place where the person is not
physically present. Thus, it is necessary for a potential citizen to
establish that he or she has been physically present in Canada for the
requisite period of time.

In the words of Justice Francis Muldoon:

  It is clear that the purpose of paragraph 5(1)(c) is to ensure that
  everyone who is granted precious Canadian citizenship has become, or at
  least has been compulsorily presented with the everyday opportunity to
  become "Canadianized." This happens by "rubbing elbows" with Canadians in
  shopping malls, corner stores, libraries, concert halls, auto repair
  shops, pubs, cabarets, elevators, churches, synagogues, mosques and
  temples – in a word wherever one can meet and converse with Canadians –
  during the prescribed three years. One can observe Canadian society for
  all its virtues, decadence, values, dangers and freedoms, just as it is.
  That is little enough time in which to become Canadianized. If a
  citizenship candidate misses that qualifying experience, then Canadian
  citizenship can be conferred, in effect, on a person who is still a
  foreigner in experience, social adaptation, and often in thought and
  outlook... So those who would throw in their lot with Canadians by
  becoming citizens must first throw in their lot with Canadians by
  residing among Canadians, in Canada, during three of the preceding four
  years, in order to Canadianize themselves. It is not something one can do
  while abroad, for Canadian life and society exist only in Canada and
  nowhere else.

The co-existence of such disparate, yet equally valid approaches has led
some judges to comment that the citizenship "law is in a sorry state",⁵²
that "there cannot be two correct interpretations of a statute",⁵³ that "it
does not engender confidence in the system for conferring citizenship if an
applicant is, in the course of a single application, subjected to different
legal tests because of the differing legal views of the Citizenship
Court",⁵⁴ that there's a "scandalous incertitude in the law",⁵⁵ and that
"there is no doubt that a review of the citizenship decisions of this
Court, on that issue, demonstrates that the process of gaining citizenship
in such circumstances is akin to a lottery".⁵⁶

In 2010 it seemed that a relative judicial consensus with respect to
decision-making in residence cases might emerge. In several Federal Court
decisions it was held that the citizenship judge must apply a hybrid
two-test approach by firstly ascertaining whether, on the balance of
probabilities, the applicant has accumulated 1,095 days of physical
presence. If so, the residency requirement is considered to have been met.
If not, then the judge must additionally assess the application under the
"centralized mode of existence" approach, guided by the non-exhaustive
factors set out in Koo (Re).⁵⁷ ⁵⁸ ⁵⁹

However, most recently, this compromise formula was rejected by Federal
Court judges, who continued to plead for legislative intervention as the
means to settle the residency requirement debacle.⁶⁰ ⁶¹ ⁶²

A few of the other major decisions are:

Rights and responsibilities of citizens

According to Citizenship and Immigration Canada, citizens are:

- Entitled to enjoy the rights guaranteed by the Canadian Charter of Rights
  and Freedoms.
- Able to vote in political elections upon reaching the age of 18 (provided
  they are not absent from Canada for more than 5 years and intend to
  resume residency in Canada).
- Able to run for political office upon reaching the age of 18.
- Able to obtain a Canadian passport.
- Able to prevent risk of getting deported from Canada (if the subject was
  born outside Canada, but is naturalized).
- Able to work for the Federal government (where citizenship is usually
  required/preferred).
- Allowed to live outside Canada indefinitely while retaining the right to
  return.
- Able to pass on Canadian citizenship to children born outside Canada (to
  the first generation only).

In addition, only individuals who are Canadian citizens may petition to
receive a grant of armorial bearings.⁶⁶

Citizens are responsible for:⁶⁷

- Obeying Canada's laws.
- Voting in Elections.
- Serving on jury when reaching the age of majority, and if selected.
- Taking responsibility for themselves and their family.
- Helping others in the community.
- Caring for and protecting the Canadian heritage and environment.
- Respecting the rights and freedoms of others.
- Eliminating discrimination and injustice.

Documentary proof of Canadian citizenship

For people who acquired citizenship by birth within Canada on or after 15
February 1977, a birth certificate issued by the province or territory
concerned is adequate proof of the fact. Those born before that date must
take note of the various rules concerning loss of citizenship that were
previously in force, in order to confirm their status.

For people who acquired citizenship by birth outside Canada under the 1947
Act, a certificate of registration of birth abroad or a certificate of
retention of Canadian citizenship issued before 15 February 1977 would also
constitute proof of citizenship.

Otherwise, a certificate of Canadian citizenship (known under previous
legislation as a "certificate of naturalization") is the only legal proof
of such status.⁶⁸ It is issued to permanent residents who have applied for
Canadian citizenship and have sworn the required oath of citizenship. It is
also issued at the request of any other Canadian citizen, but could take
many months to be issued.⁶⁹ It is illegal to be in possession of more than
one certificate of citizenship or naturalization.⁷⁰

A Canadian passport, while more appropriately known as a travel or identity
document, is assumed as proof of Canadian citizenship, but it is issued
only after review of other documentary proof, as noted above. The passport
itself, however, does not constitute the Canadian citizenship of the
holder. Deepan Budlakoti, a stateless man born in Canada, was twice issued
a valid Canadian passport before the Federal Government realized that he is
not a Canadian citizen under Section 3(2) of the Citizenship Act and
revoked his Canadian passport.¹¹

For decades, the Canadian Government issued both a commemorative
certificate of Canadian citizenship and a credit card-sized certificate
commonly called a Canadian Citizenship Card, which featured a photograph of
the Canadian, along with biographical information, such as name, height and
eye colour. Using these cards as photo identification was problematic.
There was no legal requirement to periodically update the cards to take
into account physical changes caused by aging, and the card lacked modern
security features. Many Canadians who obtained citizenship as children
continued to use cards issued to them as children as legal photo
identification well into adulthood. Furthermore, obtaining a replacement
photo card when the original was lost or stolen was time consuming, often
taking many months, which could delay obtaining other forms of photo ID
such as a passport. In 2012, the Government of Canada decided to
discontinue the photo cards.⁷¹ The commemorative certificates have been
redesigned and are now recognized as the legitimate proof of Canadian
citizenship.⁷¹ In making this change, the government asserted that this
change would make the document more secure, and ensure that proof of
Canadian citizenship would no longer be used as an ID or travel document,
and cited the prohibitive cost of replacing card making equipment and
updating the photo ID cards with modern security features.⁷²

Visa requirements

Main article: Visa requirements for Canadian citizens

Visa requirements for Canadian citizens are administrative entry
restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of
Canada. According to the 2016 Visa Restrictions Index, holders of a
Canadian passport can visit 172 countries and territories visa-free or with
visa on arrival, and the score of Canada is currently ranked⁷³ 6th in terms
of travel freedom.⁷⁴

Commonwealth citizenship

Because Canada is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, Canadian
citizens also have the status of "Commonwealth citizen", the functional
meaning of which varies from one member state to another. Under British
law, Canadians are entitled to certain rights in the United Kingdom,
including:

- Access to the British working holiday visa scheme
- The ability to join the British Armed Forces, subject to certain
  residency requirements⁷⁵ ⁷⁶ ⁷⁷
- If resident in the UK with indefinite leave to remain, the ability to
  join the police⁷⁸
- For those with a British born grandparent, access to the UK Ancestry
  Entry Clearance
- For those born before 1983 who meet the requirements, right of abode in
  the United Kingdom
- If resident in the United Kingdom, the right to vote and stand for public
  office there⁷⁹

The following right has also applied in other Commonwealth Realms, though
it may not be current law in all of them:

- While abroad in a country where Canada does not have a consular office,
  Canadians may receive assistance from an Australian consular office under
  the Canada-Australia Consular Services Sharing Agreement. In areas where
  neither country has a diplomatic mission, Canadians may receive
  assistance from a British office. In cases where a Canadian needs an
  emergency travel document and Canada does not maintain a consular office,
  Canadians may obtain, as Commonwealth citizens, a British emergency
  passport.

See also

- History of Canada portal
- Canadian passport
- Canadians of convenience
- Citizenship judge
- Department of Citizenship and Immigration Canada
- Honorary Canadian citizenship
- Immigration to Canada
- Lost Canadians
- Nationality law
- Oath of Citizenship (Canada)
- Passport Canada
- Permanent resident (Canada)
- Visa requirements for Canadian citizens

Notes

[1] The Department of National Defence, in its manual The Honours, Flags
  and Heritage Structure of the Canadian Forces, separates the monarch of
  Canada and Canadian Royal Family from "foreign sovereigns and members of
  reigning foreign families, [and] heads of state of foreign
  countries..."³⁸ Further, in 2013, the constitution of the Order of Canada
  was changed so as to add, along with the preexisting "substantive" (for
  Canadian citizens only) and "honorary" (for foreigners only), a new
  category of "extraordinary" to the order's three grades, available only
  to members of the Royal Family and governors general.³⁹
[2] Princess Elizabeth, Duchess of Edinburgh, said in 1951 that when in
  Canada she was "amongst fellow countrymen".⁴⁴ ⁴⁵ When queen, she, in
  1983, before departing the United States for Canada, said "I'm going home
  to Canada tomorrow" and,⁴⁶ in 2005, said she agreed with the statement
  earlier made by her mother, Queen Elizabeth, that Canada felt like a
  "home away from home."⁴⁷ Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, refused
  honorary appointment to the Order of Canada on the grounds that, as the
  royal consort of the Queen, he was Canadian, and thus entitled to a
  substantive appointment.³⁵ ⁴⁸

References

[1] S.C. 1910, c. 27
[2] Flournoy, Richard W; Hudson, Manley Ottmer (1983) [1930]. A Collection
  of nationality laws of various countries, as contained in ... F.B.
  Rothman. p. 73. ISBN 0837705444. Retrieved 12 October 2010.
[3] "Forging Our Legacy: Canadian Citizenship And Immigration, 1900–1977".
[4] Citizenship and Immigration Canada. "Forging Our Legacy: Canadian
  Citizenship And Immigration, 1900–1977 – The growth of Canadian
  nationalism". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
[5] Citizenship and Immigration Canada (16 April 2008). "Legislation to
  restore citizenship to lost Canadians passes". Ottawa: Queen's Printer
  for Canada. Retrieved 5 June 2009.
[6] http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/citizenship/rules_2009.asp
[7] Interpretation Act (R.S.C., 1985, c. I-21)
[8] Acquision of citizenship
[9] "Baby girl born on US-bound flight". BBC News. 1 January 2009.
[10] http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/c-29/page-2.html#h-3
[11] 'I can't be stateless': Born-in-Canada criminal fighting deportation
  after Ottawa decides citizenship not valid
[12] Tory crackdown on 'birth tourists' will eliminate Canadian passport
  babies
[13] Petition to Parliament calls for end to automatic citizenship to end
  'birth tourism'
[14] Loss of Canadian citizenship and British subject status, and
  acquisition and restoration of Canadian citizenship
[15] Retention of citizenship prior attaining 28 years old
[16] "Learn about the new law".
[17]
  http://www.theprovince.com/news/local+news/university+class+takes+case+woman+stripped+citizenship/12476645/story.html
[18] See the Executive summary of the REGULATIONS AMENDING THE CITIZENSHIP
  REGULATIONS, 1993 (SOR/2009-108). The Act to amend the Citizenship Act
  itself states (sec. 14): "The provisions of this Act, other than section
  13, come into force on a day or days to be fixed by order of the Governor
  in Council, but no later than 365 days after the day on which this Act
  receives royal assent." Royal assent was given on 17 April 2008. No Order
  in Council appears to have been made.
[19]
[20]
[21] Vancouver, The (25 September 2009). "Citizenship Act creates a
  'stateless' child". Canada.com. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
[22] "Becoming a Canadian citizen: Who can apply". Citizenship and
  Immigration Canada. 16 March 2010. Retrieved 2 November 2010.
[23] Strengthening Canadian Citizenship Act Department of Citizenship and
  Immigration Canada' 6 February 2014'
[24] "Bill C-14: An Act to amend the Citizenship Act (adoption) (LS-528E)".
  Parl.gc.ca. Retrieved 27 July 2010.
[25]
  http://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/what-dual-citizens-need-to-know-about-bill-c-24-the-new-citizenship-law-1.2426968
[26] "CIMM – Loss of Canadian Citizenship for the years 1947, 1977 and 2007
  – Committees of the House of Commons". Cmte.parl.gc.ca. Retrieved 25
  January 2011.
[27] http://www.cbc.ca/cp/national/070226/n022659A.html
[28] "Manitoba 'border babies' officially become Canadians". CBC News. 20
  February 2007. Archived from the original on 23 February 2007.
[29] "The hunt for lost Canadians". Macleans.ca – Features. 20 February
  2007. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
[30] "450 'lost Canadians' caught in passport glitch: Finley". CBC News. 19
  February 2007. Archived from the original on 3 April 2007.
[31] "Statement from the Minister of Citizenship and Immigration on
  Proposed Changes to the Citizenship Act" (Press release). CIC Canada. 29
  May 2007. Retrieved 30 May 2007.
[32] Finley, Diane (29 May 2007). "Notes for an Address by The Honourable
  Diane Finley, P.C., M.P. Standing Committee on Citizenship and
  Immigration "Main Estimates and Loss of Citizenship"". Ottawa, Ontario.
  Retrieved 5 June 2009.
[33] CTV.ca News Staff (29 May 2007). "Citizenship limbo to end for war
  bride children". Archived from the original on 18 November 2007.
  Retrieved 30 May 2007.
[34] Changes to citizenship rules
[35] McCreery, Christopher (2005), The Order of Canada: Its Origins,
  History and Development, University of Toronto Press, p. 227, ISBN
  978-0-8020-3940-8
[36] Holloway, Ian (2007). "Constitutional Silliness and the Canadian
  Forces" (PDF). Canadian Monarchist News. Toronto: Monarchist League of
  Canada. Summer 2007 (26): 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 June
  2008. Retrieved 14 June 2009.
[37] Buckner, Phillip (2005). "The Last Great Royal Tour: Queen Elizabeth's
  1959 Tour to Canada". In Buckner, Phillip. Canada and the End of Empire.
  Vancouver: UBC Press. p. 66. ISBN 0-7748-0915-9. Retrieved 24 October
  2009.
[38] Department of National Defence (1 April 1999). "The Honours, Flags and
  Heritage Structure of the Canadian Forces" (PDF). Ottawa: Queen's Printer
  for Canada: 14–3–6, 13–2–1, 13A–1. A-AD-200-000/AG-000. Archived from the
  original (PDF) on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 23 May 2009.
[39] Elizabeth II (2013), The Constitution of the Order of Canada, Queen's
  Printer for Canada, retrieved 2 May 2013
[40] Aralt Mac Giolla Chainnigh v. the Attorney-General of Canada,
  T-1809-06, 14.4 (Federal Court of Canada 21 January 2008).
[41] McCreery, Christopher (22 July 2005), "Christopher McCreery", The
  Globe and Mail, Toronto, retrieved 10 May 2012
[42] Department of National Defence 1999, p. 4-1-7
[43] Noonan, Peter C. (1998). The Crown and Constitutional Law in Canada.
  Calgary: Sripnoon Publications. ISBN 978-0-9683534-0-0.
[44] MacLeod, Kevin S. (2008). A Crown of Maples (PDF) (1 ed.). Ottawa:
  Queen's Printer for Canada. ISBN 978-0-662-46012-1. Retrieved 21 June
  2009.
[45] Bousfield, Arthur; Toffoli, Gary (2002). Fifty Years the Queen.
  Toronto: Dundurn Press. ISBN 1-55002-360-8.
[46] "Monarchy > Elizabeth II, Queen of Canada". Canadian Royal Heritage
  Trust. Archived from the original on 18 April 2008. Retrieved 10 May
  2012.
[47] MacLeod 2008, p. 11
[48] Valpy, Michael (28 September 2002). "The Fresh Prince". The Globe and
  Mail. Toronto. Archived from the original on 2 December 2005.
[49] "Imran v. Canada". Federal Court of Canada. 14 June 2012. Retrieved 10
  August 2010.
[50] "In re Citizenship Act and in re Antonios E. Papadogiorgakis". Federal
  Court of Canada. 30 June 1978. Retrieved 14 December 2012.
[51] Koo (Re) 1992 CanLII 2417, [1993] 1 FC 286 (3 December 1992), Federal
  Court (Canada)
[52] "Mann v. Canada". Federal Court of Canada. 16 December 2003. Retrieved
  11 November 2010.
[53] "Chen v. Canada". Federal Court of Canada. 29 December 2001. Retrieved
  11 November 2010.
[54] "Collier v. Canada". Federal Court of Canada. 30 November 2006.
  Retrieved 11 November 2010.
[55] "Harry (Re) (1998), 1998 CanLII 7442 (FC), 144 F.T.R. 141, 77 A.C.W.S.
  (3d) 933". Federal Court of Canada. 13 February 1998. Retrieved 19 March
  2012.
[56] "CP – 5 Residence" (PDF). Citizenship and Immigration Canada. 11 June
  2010. Retrieved 11 November 2010.
[57] "Canada v. Salim". Federal Court of Canada. 29 September 2010.
  Retrieved 11 November 2010.
[58] "Canada v. Elzubair". Federal Court of Canada. 16 March 2010.
  Retrieved 11 November 2010.
[59] "Dedaj v. Canada". Federal Court of Canada. 26 July 2010. Retrieved 11
  November 2010.
[60] "Sarvarian v. Canada". Federal Court of Canada. 17 November 2010.
  Retrieved 9 February 2011.
[61] "Ghaedi v. Canada". Federal Court of Canada. 25 January 2011.
  Retrieved 9 February 2011.
[62] "Hao v. Canada". Federal Court of Canada. 28 January 2011. Retrieved 9
  February 2011.
[63] Glynos Decision
[64] Taylor v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) 2006 FC (1
  September 2006), Supreme Court (Canada)
[65] Who is Joe Taylor ?
[66] Governor General of Canada (2014-08-19). "Applying for Armorial
  Bearings". Heraldry. Retrieved 2016-04-24. All Canadian citizens […] may
  petition to receive a grant of armorial bearings.
[67]
[68] "Proof of Canadian citizenship". Passport Canada. Retrieved 15 March
  2012.
[69] "Processing Times for Citizenship Certificates". Cic.gc.ca. 22
  December 2010. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
[70] "Application for Citizenship Certificate" (PDF). Retrieved 25 January
  2011.
[71] http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/citizenship/proof.asp
[72]
  http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/information/faq/citizenship/index.asp#proof
[73] Using dense ranking.
[74] "Global Ranking - Visa Restriction Index 2016" (PDF). Henley &
  Partners. Retrieved 27 February 2016.
[75] http://www.army.mod.uk/join/How-to-join.aspx
[76]
  http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/careers/how-to-join/eligibility#nationality-and-residency
[77] https://www.raf.mod.uk/recruitment/how-to-apply/eligibility-check/
[78]
  http://www.policecouldyou.co.uk/police-officer/am-i-eligible/index.html
[79]

Further reading

- Kelley, Ninette; Trebilcock, Michael J. (2010), The Making of the Mosaic:
  A History of Canadian Immigration Policy (2nd ed.), University of Toronto
  Press, ISBN 978-0-8020-9536-7
- DeRocco David, John F. Chabot (2008) From Sea to Sea to Sea: A Newcomer's
  Guide to Canada Full Blast Productions, ISBN 978-0-9784738-4-6
- Noorani, Nick; Noorani, Sabrina (2008), Arrival Survival Canada: A
  Handbook for New Immigrants, Oxford University Press, ISBN
  978-0-19-542891-9
- Stanford Frances, (2003) Citizenship and Immigration : Becoming a
  Canadian S&S Learning Materials, ISBN 1-55035-746-8

External links

- How to become a citizen
- Full text of the Citizenship Act
- CIC Citizenship Policy Manuals

Law enforcement

Law enforcement in Canada

Law enforcement in Canada are public-sector police forces that are
associated with and commissioned to the three levels of government:
municipal (both lower and upper-tier), provincial, and federal. Most urban
areas have been given the authority by the provinces to maintain their own
police force. Some, such as the Toronto Police Service and the Service de
police de la Ville de Montréal are commissioned to one particular city,
Toronto and Montreal, respectively, while the Niagara Regional Police
services all cities comprising the Regional Municipality of Niagara. All
but two of Canada's provinces in turn, contract out their provincial
law-enforcement responsibilities to the RCMP/GRC (Royal Canadian Mounted
Police/Gendarmerie Royale du Canada; popularly known in English-speaking
areas as the Mounties), the national police force, which is commissioned to
the federal level of government. In addition, many First Nations Reserves
have their own police forces established through agreements between the
governing native band, province and the federal government.

Police services

Ontario, Quebec, and Newfoundland and Labrador maintain their own
provincial police forces—the Ontario Provincial Police, Sûreté du Québec
(Quebec Provincial Police) and Royal Newfoundland Constabulary. Smaller
municipalities often contract police service from the provincial policing
authority, while larger ones maintain their own forces. Newfoundland's
provincial police force is only responsible for the province's larger urban
areas (St. John's, Corner Brook and Labrador West); the province has
contracted the RCMP/GRC to patrol the rest of the province. The other seven
provinces and the three territories contract police services to the
RCMP/GRC. It also serves as the local police in all areas outside of
Ontario and Quebec that do not have an established local police force,
mostly in rural areas. Thus, the RCMP/GRC is the only police force of any
sort in some areas of the country.

There are also a few private police forces with some of the powers usually
reserved for governmental forces (as it relates to company property). The
Canadian National Railway, Canadian Pacific Railway and Via Rail each have
their own police force (CN Police, Canadian Pacific Police Service, and Via
Rail Police¹ ² respectively). Any railway in Canada, under Federal
jurisdiction, can request that a Superior Court judge appoint police
officers under the Railway Safety Act.³ The duties of private railway
police are to prevent crimes against the company and protection of goods,
materials, and public rail transit being moved on their rail systems. They
work to protect the public, rail personnel, and property owned or
administered by the railways. The regular public police maintain authority
and jurisdiction for all criminal offences, regardless of whether the
offence occurs on public or private property. Some hospitals, universities,
transit commissions, power authorities and other agencies employ special
constables. The local police chief has statutory and Common Law authority
and responsibility for the jurisdiction policed. The duties of private
special constables are determined by their employers and have authorities
limited by statutes under which they operate. All persons and companies
have access to public police.

Canadian Forces Military Police

The Canadian Forces Military Police (CFMP) contribute to the effectiveness
and readiness of the Canadian Forces (CF) and the Department of National
Defence (DND) through the provision of professional police, security and
operational support services worldwide.⁴

CFMP are classified as Peace Officers in the Criminal Code,⁵ which gives
them powers similar to civilian law enforcement personnel to enforce some
Acts of Parliament on or in relation to DND property or assets anywhere in
the world. The National Defence Act does not bestow the authority to the
Minister of Defence to appoint Police Officers. Section 156(1) of the
National Defence Act does allow the Minister to confer Peace Officer Status
to Specially Appointed Military Police Members. They have the power to
arrest anyone who is subject to the Code of Service Discipline (CSD),
regardless of position or rank under the National Defence Act (NDA). MP
have the power to arrest and charge non-CSD bound civilians only in cases
where a crime is committed on or in relation to DND property or assets, or
at the request of the Minister of Public Safety, Commissioner of the
Correctional Service of Canada or Commissioner of the Royal Canadian
Mounted Police. Although MP jurisdiction is only on DND property across
Canada and throughout the world, any civilian accessing these areas falls
under MP jurisdiction and are dealt with in the same manner as any civilian
policing agency. If in fact a crime is committed on or in relation to DND
property or assets, MP has the power to arrest and charge the offender,
military or civilian, under the Criminal Code. It is important to note
though that the purpose of the CFMP is not to replace the job of a civilian
police officer, but rather to support the Canadian Forces through security
and internal policing services.⁶ ⁷ MP also have the power to enforce the
Provincial Highway Traffic Act on military bases in Canada.

Strength

In 2011, there were 69,438 active/sworn police officers in Canada. This
number was expected to exceed 70,000 by the end of 2012. Canadian police
strength reached a peak in 1975, when there were 206 officers per 100,000
people. Although the current number reflects a significant rise in the
total police strength in the country (the highest in twelve years after
steady declines in the 1980s and 1990s), Canada still utilizes fewer police
than Wales (262/ 100,000).

Provincially, Saskatchewan had the highest number at 207 officers per
100,000, and the province has also held the national record for the highest
crime rate since 1997. The lowest numbers were in Prince Edward Island,
Newfoundland and Labrador and Alberta.⁹ The three territories, while having
far fewer police officers in absolute terms, have around twice as many
police officers per capita as do the provinces.

The city of Toronto has been known as one of the safest major cities in
North America, due to its low crime rate and homicide rate. Toronto's
robbery rate also ranks low, with 207.1 robberies per 100,000 people,
compared with Los Angeles (348.5), Vancouver (266.2), New York City
(265.9), and Montreal (235.3).

Police service ranks

The Chief of Police is the title of the head of most Canadian police forces
except for the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (Commissioner), Ontario
Provincial Police (Commissioner), South Coast British Columbia
Transportation Authority Police Service (Chief Officer), Vancouver Police
Department (Chief Constable), West Vancouver Police Department (Chief
Constable), and the Sûreté du Québec (Director General). Other typical
ranks include:

- Deputy Chief of Police
- Chief Superintendent
- Staff Superintendent (and Senior Staff Superintendent)
- Superintendent
- Staff Inspector
- Inspector
- Sergeant Major
- Staff Sergeant
- Sergeant (and Detective Sergeant)
- Corporal (and Detective Corporal)
- Senior Constable
- Police Constable (and Detective Constable)
  + ranking also exists (i.e. 1st Class Constable, 2nd Class Constable,
    etc...)
- Special Constable
- Cadet/Recruit

Use of force options

In the 1990s, the majority of law enforcement agencies of Canada began
wearing bulletproof vests and municipal police agencies started carrying
semi-automatic handguns in the .40 S&W calibre cartridge. In terms of
numbers of officers, and due to its use by the Royal Canadian Mounted
Police, the most widely used weapon is the Smith & Wesson Model 5946 with
hollow-point 9mm calibre ammunition. A large number of other agencies issue
either a Glock or SIG Sauer handgun (most commonly in the law-enforcement
popular .40 S&W caliber).

These firearms replaced the aging .38 Special revolver. A police cruiser
might carry a carbine rifle; or a shotgun capable of firing a variety of
shotgun shells, including the less-lethal flexible baton round and rubber
bullets.

Other less-lethal weapons carried include conducted energy weapons, such as
Tasers, pepper spray, and an expandable baton. In addition, the personal
equipment of police officers typically includes: handcuffs, flashlight,
portable radio, notebook, pens, a pair of disposable gloves and Kevlar
gloves.

See also

- Canadian Association of Police Boards
- List of law enforcement agencies in Canada
- Crime in Canada
- Terrorism in Canada
- Law enforcement by country

Notes

[1] Rail Policing Security
[2] VIAP Police Job Description
[3] Railway Safety Act, RSC 1985, c 32 (4th Supp), s 44.
[4] http://www.vcds-vcemd.forces.gc.ca/cfpm-gpfc/apm-agp/mv-eng.asp
[5] Military Police and Reports on Persons in Custodydead
[6] GOVERNANCE OF THE CANADIAN FORCES MILITARY POLICE (P.32)
[7] Military Police Powers
[8] "Police officers by level of policing, by province and territory, 2012"
  (PDF). Statistics Canada. Retrieved 2014-03-03.
[9] "Police personnel and expenditures". Statistics Canada. Retrieved
  2008-03-26.

Military and foreign relations

Military history of Canada

The military history of Canada comprises hundreds of years of armed actions
in the territory encompassing modern Canada, and interventions by the
Canadian military in conflicts and peacekeeping worldwide. For thousands of
years, the area that would become Canada was the site of sporadic
intertribal conflicts among Aboriginal peoples. Beginning in the 17th and
18th centuries, Canada was the site of four colonial wars and two
additional wars in Nova Scotia and Acadia between New France and New
England; the conflicts spanned almost seventy years, as each allied with
various First Nation groups.

In 1763, after the final colonial war—the Seven Years' War—the British
emerged victorious and the French civilians, whom the British hoped to
assimilate, were declared "British Subjects". After the passing of the
Quebec Act in 1774, giving the Canadians their first charter of rights
under the new regime, the northern colonies chose not to join the American
Revolution and remained loyal to the British crown. The Americans launched
invasions in 1775 and 1812. On both occasions, the Americans were rebuffed
by Canadian forces; however, this threat would remain well into the 19th
century and partially facilitated Canadian Confederation in 1867.

After Confederation, and amid much controversy, a full-fledged Canadian
military was created. Canada, however, remained a British dominion, and
Canadian forces joined their British counterparts in the Second Boer War
and the First World War. While independence followed the Statute of
Westminster, Canada's links to Britain remained strong, and the British
once again had the support of Canadians during the Second World War. Since
then, Canada has been committed to multilateralism and has gone to war
within large multinational coalitions such as in the Korean War, the Gulf
War, the Kosovo War, and the Afghan war. Canada has also played an
important role in United Nations peacekeeping operations worldwide and has
cumulatively committed more troops than any other country.

Aboriginals

The causes of aboriginal warfare tended to be over tribal independence,
resources, and personal and tribal honour—revenge for perceived wrongs
committed against oneself or tribe.¹ Before European colonization,
aboriginal warfare tended to be formal and ritualistic, and entailed
relatively few casualties.² There is also some evidence of much more
violent warfare, even the complete genocide of some First Nations groups by
others, such as the total displacement of the Dorset culture of
Newfoundland by the Beothuk.³ Warfare was also common among indigenous
peoples of the Subarctic with sufficient population density.⁴ Inuit groups
of the northern Arctic extremes generally did not engage in direct warfare,
primarily because of their small populations, relying instead on
traditional law to resolve conflicts.⁵

Those captured in fights were not always killed; tribes often adopted
captives to replace warriors lost during raids and battles,⁶ and captives
were also used for prisoner exchanges.⁷ ⁸ Slavery was hereditary, the
slaves being prisoners of war and their descendants.⁸ Slave-owning tribes
of the fishing societies, such as the Tlingit and Haida, lived along the
coast from what is now Alaska to California.⁹ Among indigenous peoples of
the Pacific Northwest Coast, about a quarter of the population were
slaves.⁸

The first conflicts between Europeans and aboriginal peoples may have
occurred around 1000 CE, when parties of Norsemen attempted to establish
permanent settlements along the northeastern coast of North America (see
L'Anse aux Meadows).¹⁰ According to Norse sagas, the skraelings of Vinland
responded so ferociously that the newcomers eventually withdrew and gave up
their plans to settle the area.¹¹

Prior to French settlements in the St. Lawrence River valley, the local
Iroquoian peoples were almost completely displaced, probably because of
warfare with their neighbours the Algonquin.¹² The Iroquois League was
established prior to major European contact. Most archaeologists and
anthropologists believe that the League was formed sometime between 1450
and 1600.¹³ Existing aboriginal alliances would become important to the
colonial powers in the struggle for North American hegemony during the 17th
and 18th centuries.¹⁴

After European arrival, fighting between aboriginal groups tended to be
bloodier and more decisive, especially as tribes became caught up in the
economic and military rivalries of the European settlers. By the end of the
17th century, First Nations from the northeastern woodlands, eastern
subarctic and the Métis (a people of joint First Nations and European
descent¹⁵ ) had rapidly adopted the use of firearms, supplanting the
traditional bow.¹⁶ The adoption of firearms significantly increased the
number of fatalities.¹⁷ The bloodshed during conflicts was also
dramatically increased by the uneven distribution of firearms and horses
among competing aboriginal groups.¹⁸

17th century

Two years after the French founded Port Royal (see also Port-Royal (Acadia)
and Annapolis Royal) in 1605, the English began their first settlement, at
Jamestown, Virginia, to the south.¹⁹ By 1706, the French population was
around 16,000 and grew slowly due to a multitude of factors.²⁰ ²¹ ²² This
lack of immigration resulted in New France having one-tenth of the British
population of the Thirteen Colonies by the mid 1700s.²³

La Salle's explorations had given France a claim to the Mississippi River
valley, where fur trappers and a few colonists set up scattered
settlements.²⁴ The colonies of New France: Acadia on the Bay of Fundy and
Canada on the St. Lawrence River were based primarily on the fur trade and
had only lukewarm support from the French monarchy.²⁵ The colonies of New
France grew slowly given the difficult geographical and climatic
circumstances.²⁶ The more favourably located New England Colonies to the
south developed a diversified economy and flourished from immigration.²⁷
From 1670, through the Hudson's Bay Company, the English also laid claim to
Hudson Bay and its drainage basin (known as Rupert's Land), and operated
fishing settlements in Newfoundland.²⁸

The early military of New France consisted of a mix of regular soldiers
from the French Army (Carignan-Salières Regiment) and French Navy (Troupes
de la marine and Compagnies Franches de la Marine) supported by small local
volunteer militia units (Colonial militia).²⁹ Most early troops were sent
from France, but localization after the growth of the colony meant that, by
the 1690s, many were volunteers from the settlers of New France, and by the
1750s most troops were descendants of the original French inhabitants.³⁰
Additionally, many of the early troops and officers who were born in France
remained in the colony after their service ended, contributing to
generational service and a military elite.³⁰ ³¹ The French built a series
of forts from Newfoundland to Louisiana and others captured from the
British during the 1600s to the late 1700s.³² Some were a mix of military
post and trading forts.³²

French and Iroquois Wars

Main article: Beaver Wars

The Beaver Wars (also known as the French and Iroquois Wars) continued
intermittently for nearly a century, ending with the Great Peace of
Montreal in 1701.³³ The French under Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons founded
settlements at Port Royal and Samuel de Champlain three years later at
Quebec City, quickly joining pre-existing aboriginal alliances that brought
them into conflict with other indigenous inhabitants.³⁴ Champlain joined a
Huron-Algonquin alliance against the Iroquois Confederacy (Five/Six
Nations).³⁵ In the first battle, superior French firepower rapidly
dispersed a massed groups of aboriginals. The Iroquois changed tactics by
integrating their hunting skills and intimate knowledge of the terrain with
their use of firearms obtained from the Dutch;³⁶ they developed a highly
effective form of guerrilla warfare, and were soon a significant threat to
all but the handful of fortified cities. Furthermore, the French gave few
guns to their aboriginal allies.³⁷

For the first century of the colony's existence, the chief threat to the
inhabitants of New France came from the Iroquois Confederacy, and
particularly from the eastern-most Mohawks.³⁸ While the majority of tribes
in the region were allies of the French, the tribes of the Iroquois
confederacy were aligned first with the Dutch colonizers, then the
British.³⁹ In response to the Iroquois threat, the French government
dispatched the Carignan-Salières Regiment, the first group of uniformed
professional soldiers to set foot on what is today Canadian soil.⁴⁰ After
peace was attained, this regiment was disbanded in Canada. The soldiers
settled in the St. Lawrence valley and, in the late 17th century, formed
the core of the Compagnies Franches de la Marine, the local militia. Later
militias were developed on the larger seigneuries land systems.⁴¹

Civil War in Acadia

Main article: Acadian Civil War

In the mid-17th century, Acadia was plunged into what some historians have
described as a civil war.⁴² The war was between Port Royal, where Governor
of Acadia Charles de Menou d'Aulnay de Charnisay was stationed, and
present-day Saint John, New Brunswick, home of Governor Charles de
Saint-Étienne de la Tour.⁴³ During the conflict, there were four major
battles. La Tour attacked d'Aulnay at Port Royal in 1640.⁴⁴ In response to
the attack, d'Aulnay sailed out of Port Royal to establish a five-month
blockade of La Tour's fort at Saint John, which La Tour eventually defeated
in 1643.⁴⁵ La Tour attacked d'Aulnay again at Port Royal in 1643;⁴⁵
d'Aulnay and Port Royal ultimately won the war against La Tour with the
1645 siege of Saint John.⁴⁶ However, after d'Aulnay died in 1650, La Tour
re-established himself in Acadia.⁴⁵

King William's War

Main article: King William's War

During King William's War (1689–1697), the next most serious threat to
Quebec in the 17th century came in 1690 when, alarmed by the attacks of the
petite guerre,⁴⁷ the New England colonies sent an armed expedition north,
under Sir William Phips, to capture Quebec itself.⁴⁸ This expedition was
poorly organized and had little time to achieve its objective, having
arrived in mid-October, shortly before the St. Lawrence would freeze
over.⁴⁸ The expedition was responsible for eliciting one of the most famous
pronouncements in Canadian military history. When called on by Phips to
surrender, the aged Governor Frontenac replied, "I will answer ... only
with the mouths of my cannon and the shots of my muskets."⁴⁹ After a single
abortive landing on the Beauport shore to the east of Quebec City, the
English force withdrew down the icy waters of the St. Lawrence.⁵⁰

During the war, the military conflicts in Acadia included: Battle at
Chedabucto (Guysborough); Battle of Port Royal (1690); a naval battle in
the Bay of Fundy (Action of 14 July 1696); Raid on Chignecto (1696) and
Siege of Fort Nashwaak (1696).⁵¹ The Maliseet from their headquarters at
Meductic on the Saint John River participated in numerous raids and battles
against New England during the war.⁵²

In 1695, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville was called upon to attack the English
stations along the Atlantic coast of Newfoundland in the Avalon Peninsula
Campaign.⁵³ Iberville sailed with his three vessels to Placentia
(Plaisance), the French capital of Newfoundland. Both English and French
fishermen exploited the Grand Banks fishery from their respective
settlements on Newfoundland under the sanction of a 1687 treaty, but the
purpose of the new French expedition of 1696 was nevertheless to expel the
English from Newfoundland.⁵⁴ After setting fire to St John's, Iberville's
Canadians almost totally destroyed the English fisheries along the eastern
shore of Newfoundland.⁵⁵ Small raiding parties attacked the hamlets in
remote bays and inlets, burning, looting, and taking prisoners.⁵⁵ By the
end of March 1697, only Bonavista and Carbonear remained in English hands.
In four months of raids, Iberville was responsible for the destruction of
36 settlements.⁵⁶ At the end of the war England returned the territory to
France in the Treaty of Ryswick.⁵⁷

18th century

During the 18th century, the British–French struggle in Canada intensified
as the rivalry worsened in Europe.⁵⁸ The French government poured more and
more military spending into its North American colonies. Expensive
garrisons were maintained at distant fur trading posts, the fortifications
of Quebec City were improved and augmented, and a new fortified town was
built on the east coast of Île Royale, or Cape Breton Island—the fortress
of Louisbourg, called "Gibraltar of the North" or the "Dunkirk of
America."⁵⁹

New France and New England were at war with one another three times during
the 18th century .⁵⁸ The second and third colonial wars, Queen Anne's War
and King George's War, were local offshoots of larger European
conflicts—the War of the Spanish Succession (1702–13), the War of the
Austrian Succession (1744–48). The last, the French and Indian War (Seven
Years' War), started in the Ohio Valley. The petite guerre of the Canadiens
devastated the northern towns and villages of New England, sometimes
reaching as far south as Virginia.⁶⁰ The war also spread to the forts along
the Hudson Bay shore.⁶¹

Queen Anne's War

Main article: Queen Anne's War

During Queen Anne's War (1702–1713), the British conquered Acadia when a
British force managed to capture Port-Royal (see also Annapolis Royal), the
capital of Acadia in present-day Nova Scotia, in 1710.⁶² As a result,
France was forced to cede control of mainland Nova Scotia to Britain in the
Treaty of Utrecht (1713), leaving present-day New Brunswick as disputed
territory and Île-St. Jean (Prince Edward Island), and Île-Royale (present
day Cape Breton Island) in the hands of the French. British possession of
Hudson Bay was guaranteed by the same treaty.⁶³ During Queen Anne's War,
military conflicts in Nova Scotia included the Raid on Grand Pre, the Siege
of Port Royal (1707), the Siege of Port Royal (1710) and the Battle of
Bloody Creek (1711).⁶⁴

Father Rale's War

Main article: Father Rale's War

During the escalation that preceded Father Rale's War (also known as
Dummer's War), the Mi'kmaq raided the new fort at Canso (1720). Under
potential siege, in May 1722 Lieutenant Governor John Doucett took 22
Mi'kmaq hostage at Annapolis Royal to prevent the capital from being
attacked.⁶⁵ In July 1722, the Abenaki and Mi'kmaq created a blockade of
Annapolis Royal with the intent of starving the capital.⁶⁶ The Mi'kmaq
captured 18 fishing vessels and prisoners in the area stretching from
present-day Yarmouth to Canso.⁶⁷

As a result of the escalating conflict, Massachusetts Governor Samuel Shute
officially declared war on the Abenaki on July 22, 1722.⁶⁸ Early operations
of Father Rale's War happened in the Nova Scotia theatre.⁶⁹ ⁷⁰ In July
1724, a group of sixty Mi'kmaq and Maliseets raided Annapolis Royal.⁷¹ The
treaty that ended the war marked a significant shift in European relations
with the Mi'kmaq and Maliseet. For the first time, a European empire
formally acknowledged that its dominion over Nova Scotia would have to be
negotiated with the region's indigenous inhabitants. The treaty was invoked
as recently as 1999 in the Donald Marshall case.⁷²

King George's War

Main article: King George's War

During King George's War, also called the War of the Austrian Succession
(1744–1748), a force of New England militia under William Pepperell and
Commodore Peter Warren of the Royal Navy succeeded in capturing Louisbourg
in 1745.⁷³ By the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle that ended the war in 1748,
France resumed control of Louisbourg in exchange for some of its conquests
in the Netherlands and India. The New Englanders were outraged, and as a
counterweight to the continuing French strength at Louisbourg, the British
founded the military settlement of Halifax in 1749.⁷⁴ During King George's
War, military conflicts in Nova Scotia included: Raid on Canso; Siege of
Annapolis Royal (1744); the Siege of Louisbourg (1745); the Duc d'Anville
Expedition and the Battle of Grand Pré.⁷⁵

Father Le Loutre's War

Main article: Father Le Loutre's War

Father Le Loutre's War (1749–1755) was fought in Acadia and Nova Scotia by
the British and New Englanders, primarily under the leadership of the New
England Ranger John Gorham and the British officer Charles Lawrence,⁷⁶
against the Mi'kmaq and Acadians, who were led by French priest Jean-Louis
Le Loutre.⁷⁷ The war began with the British unilaterally establishing
Halifax, which was a violation of an earlier treaty with the Mi'kmaq
(1726), which was signed after Father Rale's War. As a result, Acadians and
Mi'kmaqs orchestrated attacks at Chignecto, Grand-Pré, Dartmouth, Canso,
Halifax and Country Harbour.⁷⁸ The French erected forts at present-day
Saint John, Chignecto and Fort Gaspareaux. The British responded by
attacking the Mi'kmaq and Acadians at Mirligueche (later known as
Lunenburg), Chignecto and St. Croix.⁷⁹ The British also unilaterally
established communities in Lunenburg and Lawrencetown. Finally, the British
erected forts in Acadian communities at Windsor, Grand-Pré and Chignecto.⁸⁰

Throughout the war, the Mi'kmaq and Acadians attacked the British
fortifications of Nova Scotia and the newly established Protestant
settlements. They wanted to retard British settlement and buy time for
France to implement its Acadian resettlement scheme.⁸¹ The war ended after
six years with the defeat of the Mi'kmaq, Acadians and French in the Battle
of Fort Beauséjour.⁸⁰ During this war, Atlantic Canada witnessed more
population movements, more fortification construction, and more troop
allocations than ever before in the region.⁷⁷ The Acadians and Mi'kmaq left
Nova Scotia during the Acadian Exodus for the French colonies of Île
Saint-Jean (Prince Edward Island) and Île Royale (Cape Breton Island).⁸²

French and Indian War

  Main article: French and Indian War, the name given to the fourth
  conflict of the "French and Indian Wars"

The fourth and final colonial war of the 18th century was the French and
Indian War (1754–1763). The British sought to neutralize any potential
military threat and to interrupt the vital supply lines to Louisbourg by
deporting the Acadians.⁸³ The British began the Expulsion of the Acadians
with the Bay of Fundy Campaign (1755). During the next nine years, over
12,000 Acadians were removed from Nova Scotia.⁸⁴ In the maritime theatre,
conflicts included: Battle of Fort Beauséjour; Bay of Fundy Campaign
(1755); the Battle of Petitcodiac; the Raid on Lunenburg (1756); the
Louisbourg Expedition (1757); Battle of Bloody Creek (1757); Siege of
Louisbourg (1758), Petitcodiac River Campaign, Gulf of St. Lawrence
Campaign (1758), St. John River Campaign, and Battle of Restigouche.⁸⁵

In the St. Lawrence and Mohawk theatres of the conflict, the French had
begun to challenge the claims of Anglo-American traders and land
speculators for supremacy in the Ohio Country to the west of the
Appalachian Mountains—land that was claimed by some of the British colonies
in their royal charters. In 1753, the French started the military
occupation of the Ohio Country by building a series of forts.⁸⁶ In 1755,
the British sent two regiments to North America to drive the French from
these forts, but these were destroyed by French Canadians and First Nations
as they approached Fort Duquesne.⁸⁷ War was formally declared in 1756, and
six French regiments of troupes de terre, or line infantry, came under the
command of a newly arrived general, 44-year-old Marquis de Montcalm.⁸⁸

Under their new commander, the French at first achieved a number of
startling victories over the British, first at Fort William Henry to the
south of Lake Champlain.⁸⁹ The following year saw an even greater victory
when the British army—numbering about 15,000 under Major General James
Abercrombie—was defeated in its attack on a French fortification at the
Carillon.⁹⁰ In June 1758, a British force of 13,000 regulars under Major
General Jeffrey Amherst, with James Wolfe as one of his brigadiers, landed
and permanently captured the Fortress of Louisbourg.⁹¹

Wolfe decided the next year to attempt the capture of Quebec City. After
several botched landing attempts, including particularly bloody defeats at
the Battle of Beauport and the Battle of Montmorency Camp, Wolfe succeeded
in getting his army ashore, forming ranks on the Plains of Abraham on
September 12.⁹² Montcalm, against the better judgment of his officers, came
out with a numerically inferior force to meet the British. In the ensuing
battle, Wolfe was killed, Montcalm mortally wounded, and 658 British and
644 French became casualties.⁹³ However, in the spring of 1760, the last
French General, François Gaston de Lévis, marched back to Quebec from
Montreal and defeated the British at the Battle of Sainte-Foy in a battle
similar to that of the previous year; now the situation was reversed, with
the French laying siege to the Quebec fortifications behind which the
British retreated.⁹⁴ However, the French were finally forced to concede,
losing almost all of their North American possessions.⁹⁵ The French
formally withdrew from much of North America in 1763 when they signed the
Treaty of Paris.

American Revolutionary War

Main article: Invasion of Canada (1775)

With the French threat eliminated, Britain's American colonies became
increasingly restive; they resented paying taxes to support a large
military establishment when there was no obvious enemy.⁹⁶ This resentment
was augmented by further suspicions of British motives when the Ohio Valley
and other western territories previously claimed by France were not annexed
to the existing British colonies, especially Pennsylvania and Virginia,
which had long-standing claims to the region. Instead, under the Quebec
Act, this territory was set aside for the First Nations. The American
Revolutionary War (1776–1783) saw the revolutionaries use force to break
free from British rule and claim these western lands.⁹⁷ American forces
took Montreal and the chain of forts in the Richelieu Valley, but attempts
by the revolutionaries to take Quebec City were repelled.⁹⁸ During this
time, most French Canadians stayed neutral.⁹⁹

Throughout the war, American privateers devastated the maritime economy by
raiding many of the coastal communities.¹⁰⁰ There were constant attacks by
American and French privateers, such as the Raid on Lunenburg (1782),
numerous raids on Liverpool, Nova Scotia (October 1776, March 1777,
September 1777, May 1778, September 1780) and a raid on Annapolis Royal,
Nova Scotia (1781).¹⁰¹ Privateers also raided Canso in 1775, returning in
1779 to destroy the fisheries.¹⁰² To guard against such attacks, the 84th
Regiment of Foot (Royal Highland Emigrants) was garrisoned at forts around
Atlantic Canada. Fort Edward (Nova Scotia) in Windsor became the
headquarters to prevent a possible American land assault on Halifax from
the Bay of Fundy. There was an American attack on Nova Scotia by land, the
Battle of Fort Cumberland followed by the Siege of Saint John (1777).¹⁰³

During the war, American privateers captured 225 vessels either leaving or
arriving at Nova Scotia ports.¹⁰⁴ In 1781, for example, as a result of the
Franco-American alliance against Great Britain, there was a naval
engagement with a French fleet at Sydney, Nova Scotia, near Spanish River,
Cape Breton.¹⁰⁵ The British captured numerous American privateers,
particularly in the naval battle off Halifax. The Royal Navy used Halifax
as a base from which to launch attacks on New England, such as the Battle
of Machias (1777).¹⁰⁶

The revolutionaries' failure to achieve success in what is now Canada, and
the continuing allegiance to Britain of some colonists, resulted in the
split of Britain's North American empire.¹⁰⁷ Many Americans who remained
loyal to the Crown, known as the United Empire Loyalists, moved north,
greatly expanding the English-speaking population of what became known as
British North America.¹⁰⁸ ¹⁰⁹ The independent republic of the United States
emerged to the south.¹⁰⁸

19th century

War of 1812

Main articles: War of 1812 and Canadian Units of the War of 1812

After the cessation of hostilities at the end of the American Revolution,
animosity and suspicion continued between the United States and the United
Kingdom,¹¹⁰ erupting in 1812 when the Americans declared war on the
British. Among the reasons for the war was British harassment of US ships
(including impressment of American seamen into the Royal Navy), a byproduct
of British involvement in the ongoing Napoleonic Wars. The Americans did
not possess a navy capable of challenging the Royal Navy, and so an
invasion of Canada was proposed as the only feasible means of attacking the
British Empire.¹¹⁰ Americans on the western frontier also hoped an invasion
would not only bring an end to British support of aboriginal resistance to
the westward expansion of the United States, but also finalize their claim
to the western territories.¹¹⁰

After the Americans launched an invasion in July 1812,¹¹⁰ the war raged
back and forth along the border of Upper Canada, on land as well as on the
waters of the Great Lakes. The British succeeded in capturing Detroit in
July, and again in October. On July 12, US General William Hull invaded
Canada at Sandwich (later known as Windsor).¹¹¹ The invasion was quickly
halted and Hull withdrew, giving General Isaac Brock the excuse he needed
to abandon his previous orders and advance on Detroit, securing Shawnee
chief Tecumseh's aid to do so.¹¹² At this point, even with his aboriginal
allies, Brock was outnumbered approximately two to one.¹¹³ However, Brock
had gauged Hull as a timid man, and particularly as being afraid of
Tecumseh's confederacy; he was thus able to convince Hull to surrender.¹¹⁴
The defeat of Detroit was utter and complete.¹¹⁵ A major American thrust
across the Niagara frontier was defeated at the Battle of Queenston
Heights, where Sir Isaac Brock lost his life.¹¹⁶

In 1813, the US retook Detroit and had a string of successes along the
western end of Lake Erie, culminating in the Battle of Lake Erie (September
10) and the Battle of Moraviantown or Battle of the Thames on October 5.¹¹⁸
The naval battle secured US dominance of lakes Erie and Huron. At
Moraviantown, the British lost one of their key commanders, Tecumseh.¹¹⁹
Further east, the Americans succeeded in capturing and burning York (later
Toronto) and taking Fort George at Niagara, which they held until the end
of the year. However, in the same year, two American thrusts against
Montreal were defeated—one by a force of mostly British regulars at the
Battle of Crysler's Farm southwest of the city on the St. Lawrence; the
other, by a force of mostly French Canadian regular and militia units under
the command of Charles de Salaberry, to the south of the city at the Battle
of Châteauguay.¹²⁰

After the capture of Washington, DC, in September at the Battle of
Bladensburg,¹²¹ the British troops burned down the White House and other
government buildings, only to be repulsed as they moved north for the
Battle of Baltimore, while the forces attacking during the Battle of New
Orleans were routed after suffering severe casualties.¹²²

During the War of 1812, Nova Scotia's contribution to the war effort was
made by communities either purchasing or building various privateer ships
to lay siege to American vessels.¹²³ Three members of the community of
Lunenburg, Nova Scotia purchased a privateer schooner and named it
Lunenburg on August 8, 1814.¹²⁴ The vessel captured seven American vessels.
The Liverpool Packet from Liverpool, Nova Scotia, another privateer vessel,
is credited with having captured fifty ships during the conflict.¹²⁵
Perhaps the most dramatic moment in the war for Nova Scotia was HMS
Shannon's leading the captured American frigate USS Chesapeake into Halifax
Harbour (1813).¹²⁶ Many of the captives were imprisoned and died at
Deadman's Island, Halifax.¹²⁷

In December 1814, the two opponents signed a peace treaty; it was ratified
and went into effect in February 1815. The treaty restored the borders that
had existed before the war.

Sir Isaac Brock became a martyred Canadian hero despite his British
roots.¹²⁸ The successful defence of Canada relied on Canadian militia,
British regular troops (including "Fencible" units recruited within North
America), the Royal Navy and aboriginal allies.¹²⁹ Neither side of the war
can claim total victory.¹³⁰

Historians agree that the Native Americans were the main losers of the war.
The British dropped plans to create a neutral Indian state in the Midwest,
and the coalition that Tecumseh had built fell apart with his death in
1813. The Natives no longer represented a major threat to westward
expansion of the American frontier.¹³¹

Construction of Defences

The fear that the Americans might again attempt to conquer Canada remained
a serious concern for at least the next half century, and was the chief
reason for the retention of a large British garrison in the colony.¹³² From
the 1820s to the 1840s, there was extensive construction of fortifications,
as the British attempted to create strong points around which defending
forces might centre in the event of an American invasion; these include the
Citadels at Quebec City and Halifax, and Fort Henry in Kingston.¹³² The
Rideau Canal was built to allow ships in wartime to travel a more northerly
route from Montreal to Kingston;¹³³ the customary peacetime route was the
St. Lawrence River, which constituted the northern edge of the American
border, and thus was vulnerable to enemy attack and interference.¹³³

1837 Rebellions

One of the most important actions by the British forces and Canadian
Militia during this period was the putting down of the Rebellions of
1837.¹³⁴ The Upper Canada Rebellion was quickly and decisively defeated by
the British forces and Canadian Militia.¹³⁵ Attacks the next year by
Hunters' Lodges, US irregulars who expected to be paid in Canadian land,
were crushed in 1838 in the Battle of Pelee Island and the Battle of the
Windmill. The Lower Canada Rebellion was a greater threat to the British,
and the rebels were victorious at the Battle of St. Denis on November 23,
1837.¹³⁶ Two days later, the rebels were defeated at the Battle of
Saint-Charles, and on December 14, they were finally routed at the Battle
of Saint-Eustache.¹³⁷

British withdrawal

By the 1850s, fears of an American invasion had begun to diminish, and the
British felt able to start reducing the size of their garrison. The
Reciprocity Treaty, negotiated between Canada and the United States in
1854, further helped to alleviate concerns.¹³⁸ However, tensions picked up
again during the American Civil War (1861–65), reaching a peak with the
Trent Affair of late 1861 and early 1862,¹³⁹ touched off when the captain
of a US gunboat stopped the RMS Trent and removed two Confederate officials
who were bound for Britain. The British government was outraged and, with
war appearing imminent, took steps to reinforce its North American
garrison, increasing it from a strength of 4,000 to 18,000.¹³⁹ However, war
was averted and the sense of crisis subsided. This incident proved to be
the final major episode of Anglo-American military confrontation in North
America, as both sides increasingly became persuaded of the benefits of
amicable relations. At the same time, many Canadians went south to fight in
the Civil War, with most joining the Union side, although some were
sympathetic toward the Confederacy.¹⁴⁰

Britain was at that time becoming concerned with military threats closer to
home and disgruntled at paying to maintain a garrison in colonies that,
after 1867, were united in the self-governing Dominion of Canada.¹⁴¹
Consequently, in 1871, the troops of the British garrison were withdrawn
from Canada completely, save for Halifax and Esquimalt, where British
garrisons remained in place purely for reasons of imperial strategy.¹⁴²

Crimean War

Nova Scotians fought in the Crimean War. The Welsford-Parker Monument in
Halifax is the second oldest war monument in Canada (1860) (the
Montcalm-Woffe Monument in Quebec City was erected in 1828) and the only
Crimean War monument in North America.¹⁴³ It commemorates the Siege of
Sevastopol (1854–1855). The first Canadian Victoria Cross recipient,
Alexander Roberts Dunn, served in the war.¹⁴⁴

Indian Rebellion

During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, William Nelson Hall, a descendant of
former American slaves from Maryland, was the first black Canadian and
first black Nova Scotian, to receive the Victoria Cross.¹⁴⁵ He received the
medal for his actions in the Siege of Lucknow.¹⁴⁶

Fenian raids

Main article: Fenian raids

It was during the period of re-examination of the British military presence
in Canada and its ultimate withdrawal that the last invasion of Canada
occurred. It was not carried out by any official US government force, but
by an organization called the Fenians.¹⁴⁷ The Fenian raids (1866–1871) were
carried out by groups of Irish Americans, mostly Union Army veterans from
the American Civil War who believed that by seizing Canada, concessions
could be wrung from the British government regarding their policy in
Ireland.¹⁴⁷ The Fenians had also incorrectly assumed that Irish Canadians,
who were quite numerous in Canada, would support their invasive efforts
both politically and militarily. However, most Irish settlers in Upper
Canada at that time were Protestant, and for the most part loyal to the
British Crown.¹⁴⁷

After the events of the Civil War, anti-British sentiment was high in the
United States.¹⁴⁸ British-built Confederate warships had wreaked havoc on
US commerce during the war. Irish-Americans were a large and politically
important constituency, particularly in parts of the Northeastern States,
and a large number of Irish American regiments had participated in the war.
Thus, while deeply concerned about the Fenians, the US government, led by
Secretary of State William H. Seward,¹⁴⁹ generally ignored their efforts:
the Fenians were allowed to openly organize and arm themselves, and were
even able to recruit in Union Army camps.¹⁵⁰ The Americans were not
prepared to risk war with Britain and intervened when the Fenians
threatened to endanger American neutrality.¹⁵¹ The Fenians were a serious
threat to Canada, as being veterans of the Union Army they were
well-armed.¹⁵² Despite failures, the raids had some impact on Canadian
politicians who were then locked in negotiations leading up to the
Confederation agreement of 1867.¹⁵³

Canadian militia

See also: Canadian Militia

With Confederation in place and the British garrison gone, Canada assumed
full responsibility for its own defence; it passed the Militia Act in 1868,
though Britain undertook to send aid in the event of a serious emergency
and the Royal Navy continued to provide maritime defence.¹⁵⁴ Small
professional batteries of artillery were established at Quebec City and
Kingston.¹⁵⁵ In 1883, a third battery of artillery was added, and small
cavalry and infantry schools were created.¹⁵⁵ These were intended to
provide the professional backbone of the Permanent Active Militia that was
to form the bulk of the Canadian defence effort. In theory, every
able-bodied man between the ages of 18 and 60 was liable to be conscripted
for service in the permanent militia, but in practice, the defence of the
country rested on the services of volunteers who made up the Non-Permanent
Active Militia.¹⁵⁶ ¹⁵⁷

The most important early tests of the militia were expeditions against the
rebel forces of Louis Riel in the Canadian west. The Wolseley Expedition,
containing a mix of British and militia forces, restored order after the
Red River Rebellion in 1870.¹⁵⁸ The North-West Rebellion in 1885 saw the
largest military effort undertaken on Canadian soil since the end of the
War of 1812:¹⁵⁹ a series of battles between the Métis and their First
Nations allies on one side against the Militia and North-West Mounted
Police on the other.¹⁵⁹ The government forces ultimately emerged victorious
despite having suffered a number of early defeats and reversals at the
Battle of Duck Lake, the Battle of Fish Creek and the Battle of Cut Knife
Hill.¹⁶⁰ Outnumbered and out of ammunition, the Métis portion of the
North-West Rebellion collapsed with the siege and Battle of Batoche.¹⁶¹ The
Battle of Loon Lake, which ended this conflict, is notable as the last
battle to have been fought on Canadian soil. Government losses during the
North-West Rebellion amounted to 58 killed and 93 wounded.¹⁶²

In 1884, Britain for the first time asked Canada for aid in defending the
empire, requesting experienced boatmen to help rescue Major-General Charles
Gordon from the Mahdi uprising in the Sudan.¹⁶³ However, the government was
reluctant to comply, and eventually Governor General Lord Lansdowne
recruited a private force of 386 Voyageurs who were placed under the
command of Canadian Militia officers.¹⁶⁴ This force, known as the Nile
Voyageurs, served in the Sudan and became the first Canadian force to serve
abroad.¹⁶⁵ Sixteen Voyageurs died during the campaign.¹⁶⁵

20th century

Boer War

The issue of Canadian military assistance for Britain arose again during
the Second Boer War (1899–1902) in South Africa.¹⁶⁶ The British asked for
Canadian help in the conflict, and the Conservative Party was adamantly in
favour of raising 8,000 troops for service in South Africa.¹⁶⁷ English
Canadian opinion was also overwhelmingly in favour of active Canadian
participation in the war.¹⁶⁸ However, French Canadians almost universally
opposed the war, as did several other groups.¹⁶⁸ This split the governing
Liberal Party deeply, as it relied on both pro-imperial Anglo-Canadians and
anti-imperial Franco-Canadians for support. Prime Minister Sir Wilfrid
Laurier initially sent 1,000 soldiers of the 2nd (Special Service)
Battalion of the Royal Canadian Regiment of Infantry.¹⁶⁹ Later, other
contingents were sent, including the privately raised Strathcona's
Horse.¹⁷⁰

The Canadian forces missed the early period of the war and the great
British defeats of Black Week. The Canadians in South Africa won much
acclaim for leading the charge at the Second Battle of Paardeberg, one of
the first decisive victories of the war.¹⁷¹ At the Battle of Leliefontein
on November 7, 1900, three Canadians, Lieutenant Turner, Lieutenant
Cockburn, Sergeant Holland and Arthur Richardson of the Royal Canadian
Dragoons were awarded the Victoria Cross for protecting the rear of a
retreating force.¹⁷² Ultimately, over 8,600 Canadians volunteered to
fight.¹⁷³ Lieutenant Harold Lothrop Borden, however, became the most famous
Canadian casualty of the Second Boer War.¹⁷⁴ About 7,400 Canadians,¹⁷⁵
including many female nurses, served in South Africa.¹⁷⁶ Of these, 224
died, 252 were wounded, and several were decorated with the Victoria
Cross.¹⁷⁷ Canadian forces also participated in the British-led
concentration camp programs that resulted in the deaths of thousands of
Boer civilians.¹⁷⁸

Creation of a Canadian army

Main article: History of the Canadian Army

From 1763 to prior to the Confederation of Canada in 1867, the British Army
provided the main defence of Canada, although many Canadians served with
the British in various conflicts.¹⁷⁹ As British troops began to leave
Canada in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the importance of the
Militia (comprising various cavalry, artillery, infantry and engineer
units) became more pronounced. Shortly after Canada entered the Second Boer
War, a debate developed over whether or not Canada should have its own
army.¹⁸⁰ As a result, the last Officer Commanding the Forces (Canada), Lord
Dundonald, instituted a series of reforms in which Canada gained its own
technical and support branches.¹⁸¹ In 1904, the Officer Commanding the
Forces was replaced with a Canadian Chief of the General Staff. The new
various "corps" included the Engineer Corps (1903), Signalling Corps
(1903), Service Corps (1903), Ordnance Stores Corps (1903), Corps of Guides
(1903), Medical Corps (1904), Staff Clerks (1905), and Army Pay Corps
(1906).¹⁸² Additional corps would be created in the years before and during
the First World War, including the first separate military dental corps.¹⁸³

Creation of a Canadian navy

Main article: History of the Royal Canadian Navy

Canada had long had a small fishing protection force attached to the
Department of Marine and Fisheries, but relied on Britain for maritime
protection. Britain was increasingly engaged in an arms race with Germany,
and in 1908, asked the colonies for help with the navy.¹⁸⁴ The Conservative
Party argued that Canada should merely contribute money to the purchase and
upkeep of some British Royal Navy vessels.¹⁸⁴ Some French-Canadian
nationalists felt that no aid should be sent; others advocated an
independent Canadian navy that could aid the British in times of need.¹⁸⁴

Eventually, Prime Minister Laurier decided to follow this compromise
position, and the Canadian Naval Service was created in 1910 and designated
as the Royal Canadian Navy in August 1911.¹⁸⁵ To appease imperialists, the
Naval Service Act included a provision that in case of emergency, the fleet
could be turned over to the British.¹⁸⁶ This provision led to the strenuous
opposition to the bill by Quebec nationalist Henri Bourassa.¹⁸⁷ The bill
set a goal of building a navy composed of five cruisers and six
destroyers.¹⁸⁷ The first two ships were Niobe and Rainbow, somewhat aged
and outdated vessels purchased from the British.¹⁸⁸ With the election of
the Conservatives in 1911, in part because the Liberals had lost support in
Quebec, the navy was starved for funds, but it was greatly expanded during
the First World War.¹⁸⁹

First World War

Main article: Military history of Canada during World War I

On August 4, 1914, Britain entered the First World War (1914–1918) by
declaring war on Germany. The British declaration of war automatically
brought Canada into the war, because of Canada's legal status as
subservient to Britain.¹⁹⁰ However, the Canadian government had the freedom
to determine the country's level of involvement in the war.¹⁹⁰ The Militia
was not mobilized and instead an independent Canadian Expeditionary Force
was raised.¹⁹¹ The highpoints of Canadian military achievement during the
First World War came during the Somme, Vimy, and Passchendaele battles and
what later became known as "Canada's Hundred Days".¹⁹²

The Canadian Corps was formed from the Canadian Expeditionary Force in
September 1915 after the arrival of the 2nd Canadian Division in France.¹⁹³
The corps was expanded by the addition of the 3rd Canadian Division in
December 1915 and the 4th Canadian Division in August 1916.¹⁹³ The
organization of a 5th Canadian Division began in February 1917, but it was
still not fully formed when it was broken up in February 1918 and its men
used to reinforce the other four divisions.¹⁹³ Although the corps was under
the command of the British Army, there was considerable pressure among
Canadian leaders, especially following the Battle of the Somme, for the
corps to fight as a single unit rather than spreading the divisions.¹⁹³
Plans for a second Canadian corps and two additional divisions were
scrapped, and a divisive national dialogue on conscription for overseas
service was begun.¹⁹⁴

Most of the other major combatants had introduced conscription to replace
the massive casualties they were suffering. Spearheaded by Sir Robert
Borden, who wished to maintain the continuity of Canada's military
contribution, and with a burgeoning pressure to introduce and enforce
conscription, the Military Service Act was ratified.¹⁹⁵ Although reaction
to conscription was favourable in English Canada the idea was deeply
unpopular in Quebec.¹⁹⁶ The Conscription Crisis of 1917 did much to
highlight the divisions between French and English-speaking Canadians in
Canada.¹⁹⁷ In June 1918, HMHS Llandovery Castle was sunk by a U-boat. In
terms of the number of dead, the sinking was the most significant Canadian
naval disaster of the war.¹⁹⁸ In the later stages of the war, the Canadian
Corps were among the most effective and respected of the military
formations on the Western Front.¹⁸⁰

For a nation of eight million people, Canada's war effort was widely
regarded as remarkable. A total of 619,636 men and women served in the
Canadian forces in the First World War, and of these 59,544 were killed and
another 154,361 were wounded.¹⁸⁰ Canadian sacrifices are commemorated at
eight memorials in France and Belgium.¹⁹⁹ Two of the eight are unique in
design: the giant white Vimy Memorial and the distinctive brooding soldier
at the Saint Julien Memorial. The other six follow a standard pattern of
granite monuments surrounded by a circular path: the Hill 62 Memorial and
Passchendaele Memorial in Belgium, and the Bourlon Wood Memorial,
Courcelette Memorial, Dury Memorial, and Le Quesnel Memorial in France.
There are also separate war memorials to commemorate the actions of the
soldiers of Newfoundland (which did not join Confederation until 1949) in
the Great War. The largest are the Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial and
the National War Memorial in St. John's.²⁰⁰

In 1919, Canada sent an expeditionary force to Siberia to aid the White
Russians in the Russian Civil War.²⁰¹ The vast majority of these troops
were based in Vladivostok and saw little combat before they withdrew, along
with other foreign forces.²⁰²

Creation of a Canadian air force

Main article: History of the Royal Canadian Air Force

The First World War was the catalyst for the formation of Canada's air
force. At the outbreak of war, there was no independent Canadian air force,
although many Canadians flew with the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal
Naval Air Service.²⁰³ In 1914 the Canadian government authorized the
formation of the Canadian Aviation Corps.²⁰⁴ The corps was to accompany the
Canadian Expeditionary Force to Europe and consisted of one aircraft, a
Burgess-Dunne, that was never used.²⁰⁵ The Canadian Aviation Corps was
disbanded in 1915.²⁰⁶ A second attempt at forming a Canadian air force was
made in 1918 when two Canadian squadrons (one bomber and one fighter) were
formed by the British Air Ministry in Europe. The Canadian government took
control of the two squadrons by forming the Canadian Air Force.²⁰⁷ This air
force, however, never saw service and was completely disbanded by 1921.²⁰⁷

During the 1920s the British government encouraged Canada to institute a
peacetime air force by providing several surplus aircraft. In 1920 a new
Canadian Air Force (CAF) directed by the Air Board was formed as a
part-time or militia service providing flying refresher training.²⁰⁸ After
a reorganization the CAF became responsible for all flying operations in
Canada, including civil aviation. Air Board and CAF civil flying
responsibilities were handled by the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) after
its creation in April 1924.²⁰⁴ The Second World War would see the RCAF
become a truly military service.²⁰⁴

Spanish Civil War

Main article: Mackenzie–Papineau Battalion

The Mackenzie–Papineau Battalion (a volunteer unit not authorized or
supported by the Canadian government) fought on the Republican side in the
Spanish Civil War (1936–1939).²⁰⁹ The first Canadians in the conflict were
dispatched mainly with the US Abraham Lincoln Battalion and later the North
American George Washington Battalion, with about forty Canadians serving in
each group. By the summer of 1937 some 1,200 Canadians were involved in the
conflict.²¹⁰ They first engaged the fascists at the Battle of Jarama near
Madrid, between February and June 1937, followed by the Battle of Brunete
in July.²¹¹ Over the next year, Canadians fought in three major battles:
the Battle of Teruel, the Aragon Offensive, and the Battle of the Ebro.²¹¹
In the battles in which they fought, as well as due to atrocities committed
upon them when taken prisoner, 721 of the 1,546 Canadians known to have
fought in Spain were killed.²¹² According to a speech given by Michaëlle
Jean while unveiling the MacKenzie-Papineau Battalion Monument, "No other
country gave a greater proportion of its population as volunteers in Spain
than Canada".²¹³

Second World War

Main article: Military history of Canada during World War II

The Second World War (1939–1945) began following Nazi Germany's invasion of
Poland on September 1, 1939. Canada's parliament supported the government's
decision to declare war on Germany on September 10, one week after the
United Kingdom and France.²¹⁴ Canadian airmen played a small but
significant role in the Battle of Britain,²¹⁵ and the Royal Canadian Navy
and Canadian merchant marine played a crucial role in the Battle of the
Atlantic.²¹⁶ C Force, two Canadian infantry battalions,²¹⁷ were involved in
the failed defence of Hong Kong.²¹⁸ Troops of the 2nd Canadian Infantry
Division also played a leading role in the disastrous Dieppe Raid in August
1942.²¹⁹ The 1st Canadian Infantry Division and tanks of the independent
1st Canadian Armoured Brigade landed on Sicily in July 1943 and after a
38-day campaign took part in the successful Allied invasion of Italy.²²⁰
Canadian forces played an important role in the long advance north through
Italy, eventually coming under their own corps headquarters in early 1944
after the costly battles on the Moro River and at Ortona.²²¹

On June 6, 1944, the 3rd Canadian Division (supported by tanks of the
independent 2nd Canadian Armoured Brigade) landed on Juno Beach in the
Battle of Normandy.²²² Canadian airborne troops had also landed earlier in
the day behind the beaches.²²³ By day's end, the Canadians had made the
deepest penetrations inland of any of the five seaborne invasion forces.
Canada went on to play an important role in the subsequent fighting in
Normandy, with the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division coming ashore in July and
the 4th Canadian Armoured Division in August. Both a corps headquarters (II
Canadian Corps) and eventually an army headquarters—for the first time in
Canadian military history—were activated. In the Battle of the Scheldt, the
First Canadian Army defeated an entrenched German force at great cost to
help open Antwerp to Allied shipping.²²⁴ The First Canadian Army fought in
two more large campaigns; the Rhineland in February and March 1945,
clearing a path to the Rhine River in anticipation of the assault crossing,
and the subsequent battles on the far side of the Rhine in the last weeks
of the war.²²⁵ The I Canadian Corps returned to northwest Europe from Italy
in early 1945, and as part of a reunited First Canadian Army assisted in
the liberation of The Netherlands (including the rescue of many Dutch from
near-starvation conditions) and the invasion of Germany.²²⁶

RCAF airmen served with RAF fighter and bomber squadrons, and played key
roles in the Battle of Britain, antisubmarine warfare during the Battle of
the Atlantic, and the bombing campaigns against Germany.²²⁷ Even though
many RCAF personnel served with the RAF, No. 6 Group RAF Bomber Command was
formed entirely of RCAF squadrons. Canadian air force personnel also
provided close support to Allied forces during the Battle of Normandy and
subsequent land campaigns in Europe. To free up male RCAF personnel who
were needed on active operational or training duties, the RCAF Women's
Division was formed in 1941. By the end of the war, the RCAF would be the
fourth largest allied air force.²²⁸ In line with other Commonwealth
countries, a women's corps entitled the Canadian Women's Army Corps,
similar to the RCAF Women's Division, was established to release men for
front-line duties. The corps existed from 1941 to 1946, was re-raised in
1948 and finally disbanded in 1964 (see Canadian women during the World
Wars).²²⁹

In addition to the army and air units, many thousands of Canadians also
served with the Canadian Merchant Navy.²³⁰ Of a population of approximately
11.5 million, 1.1 million Canadians served in the armed forces during the
Second World War. In all, more than 45,000 died, and another 55,000 were
wounded.²³¹ The Conscription Crisis of 1944 greatly affected unity between
French and English-speaking Canadians on the home front, however it was not
as politically intrusive as the conscription crisis of the First World
War.²³² Canada operated a benefits program similar to the American G.I.
Bill for its Second World War veterans, with a strong economic impact
similar to the American case.²³³

Cold War years

Main article: Canada in the Cold War
See also: Structure of the Canadian Armed Forces in 1989

Soon after the end of the Second World War, the Cold War (1946–1991) began.
The formal onset of the Cold War, is usually credited to the 1945 defection
of a Soviet cipher clerk working in Ottawa, Igor Gouzenko.²³⁴ This was the
first event that led to "PROFUNC", a Government of Canada top secret plan
to identify and detain communist sympathizers during the height of the Cold
War.²³⁵ As a founding member of NATO and a signatory to the NORAD treaty
with the US, Canada committed itself to the alliance against the Communist
bloc.²³⁶ Canadian troops were stationed in Germany throughout the Cold War,
and Canada joined with the Americans to erect defences against Soviet
attack, such as the DEW Line.²³⁷ As a middle power, Canadian policy makers
realized that Canada could do little militarily on its own, and thus a
policy of multilateralism was adopted whereby Canada's international
military efforts would be a part of a larger coalition.²³⁸ This led to
Canada choosing to stay out of several wars despite the participation of
close allies, most notably the Vietnam War and the Second Iraq War,
although Canada lent indirect support and Canadian citizens served in
foreign armies in both conflicts.²³⁹ ²⁴⁰

Forces in Europe

Main article: Canadian Forces Europe

Canada maintained a mechanized infantry brigade in West Germany from the
1950s (originally the 27th Canadian Infantry Brigade, later named 4 Combat
Group and 4 Canadian Mechanized Brigade) to the 1990s as part of Canada's
NATO commitments.²⁴¹ This brigade was maintained at close to full strength
and was equipped with Canada's most advanced vehicles and weapons systems
as it was anticipated the brigade might have to move quickly in the event
of a Warsaw Pact invasion of the west. The Royal Canadian Air Force
established No. 1 Air Division in the early 1950s to meet Canada's NATO air
defence commitments in Europe.²⁴²

Korean War

Main article: Canada in the Korean War

After the Second World War, Canada rapidly demobilized.²⁴³ When the Korean
War (1950–1953) broke out, Canada needed several months to bring its
military forces up to strength, and eventually formed part of British
Commonwealth Forces Korea.²⁴⁴ Canadian land forces thus missed most of the
early back-and-forth campaigns because they did not arrive until 1951, when
the attrition phase of the war had largely started.²⁴⁵ Canadian troops
fought as part of the 1st Commonwealth Division, and distinguished
themselves at the Battle of Kapyong and in other land engagements. HMCS
Haida and other ships of the Royal Canadian Navy were in active service in
the Korean War. Although the Royal Canadian Air force did not have a combat
role in Korea, twenty-two RCAF fighter pilots flew on exchange duty with
the USAF in Korea.²⁴⁶ The RCAF was also involved with the transportation of
personnel and supplies in support of the Korean War.²⁴⁷

Canada sent 26,791 troops to fight in Korea.²⁴⁸ There were 1,558 Canadian
casualties, including 516 dead.²⁴⁹ Korea has often been described as "The
Forgotten War", because for most Canadians it is overshadowed by the
Canadian contributions to the two world wars.²⁵⁰ Canada is a signatory to
the original 1953 armistice, but did not keep a garrison in South Korea
after 1955.²⁵¹

Unification

Main article: Unification of the Canadian Forces

In 1964 the Canadian government decided to merge the Royal Canadian Air
Force, the Royal Canadian Navy and the Canadian Army to form the Canadian
Armed Forces. The aim of the merger was to reduce costs and increase
operating efficiency.²⁵² Minister of National Defence Paul Hellyer argued
in 1966 that "the amalgamation...will provide the flexibility to enable
Canada to meet in the most effective manner the military requirements of
the future. It will also establish Canada as an unquestionable leader in
the field of military organization."²⁵³ On February 1, 1968, unification
was completed.²⁵²

October Crisis

Main article: October Crisis

The October Crisis was a series of events triggered by two kidnappings of
government officials by members of the Front de libération du Québec (FLQ)
during October 1970 in the province of Quebec, mainly in the Montreal
metropolitan area. During the domestic terrorist crisis Prime Minister
Pierre Trudeau, when asked how far he was willing to go to resolving the
problem, responded "Just watch me", a phrase that has become famous in
Canadian lore.²⁵⁴ Three days later, on October 16, the circumstances
ultimately culminated in the only peacetime use of the War Measures Act in
Canada's history.²⁵⁵ The invocation of the act resulted in widespread
deployment of 12,500 Canadian Forces troops throughout Quebec, with 7,500
troops stationed within the Montreal area.²⁵⁶ ²⁵⁷

Vietnam War

Main article: Canada and the Vietnam War

Canada did not fight in the Vietnam War (1955–1975) and officially had the
status of a "non-belligerent".²⁵⁸ Canadian Forces involvement was limited
to a small contingent in 1973 to help enforce the Paris Peace Accords.²⁵⁹
The war nevertheless had a considerable impact on Canadians.²⁵⁸ In a
counter-current to the movement of American draft-dodgers and deserters to
Canada, about 30,000 Canadians volunteered to fight in southeast Asia.²⁶⁰
Among the volunteers were fifty Mohawks from the Kahnawake reserve near
Montreal.²⁶¹ 110 Canadians died in Vietnam, and seven remain listed as
Missing in Action.²⁶²

Post–Cold War era

Oka Crisis

Main article: Oka Crisis

The Oka Crisis was a land dispute between a group of Mohawk people and the
town of Oka in southern Quebec, which began on July 11, 1990, and lasted
until September 26, 1990. On August 8, Quebec premier Robert Bourassa had
announced at a press conference that he had invoked Section 275 of the
National Defence Act to requisition military support in "aid of the civil
power".²⁶³ A right available to provincial governments that was enacted
after one police officer and two Mohawk were killed during the conflict.²⁶⁴
The Chief of the Defence Staff, General John de Chastelain placed Federal,
Quebec-based troops in support of the provincial authorities. During
Operation Salon some 2,500 regular and reserve troops were mobilized.²⁶⁵
Troops and mechanized equipment mobilized at staging areas around Oka and
Montreal, while reconnaissance aircraft staged air photo missions over
Mohawk territory to gather intelligence.²⁶⁴ Despite high tensions between
military and First Nations forces, no shots were exchanged. On September 1,
1990, freelance photographer Shaney Komulainen took a photograph of men
staring each other down, dubbed by the media Face to Face, it has become
one of Canada's most famous images.²⁶⁶

Gulf War

Main article: Operation Friction

Canada was one of the first nations to condemn Iraq's invasion of Kuwait,
and quickly agreed to join the US-led coalition. In August 1990, Prime
Minister Brian Mulroney committed the Canadian Forces to deploy a Naval
Task Group.²⁶⁷ The destroyers HMCS Terra Nova and HMCS Athabaskan joined
the maritime interdiction force supported by the supply ship HMCS
Protecteur. The Canadian Task Group led the coalition maritime logistics
forces in the Persian Gulf. A fourth ship, HMCS Huron, arrived in-theatre
after hostilities had ceased and was the first allied ship to visit
Kuwait.²⁶⁸

Following the UN authorized use of force against Iraq, the Canadian Forces
deployed a CF-18 Hornet and Sikorsky CH-124 Sea King squadron with support
personnel, as well as a field hospital to deal with casualties from the
ground war.²⁶⁹ When the air war began, Canada's CF-18s were integrated into
the coalition force and were tasked with providing air cover and attacking
ground targets. This was the first time since the Korean War that the
Canadian military had participated in offensive combat operations.²⁷⁰ The
only CF-18 Hornet to record an official victory during the conflict was an
aircraft involved in the beginning of the Battle of Bubiyan against the
Iraqi Navy.²⁷⁰ A Canadian combat engineer regiment was investigated
following the release of 1991 photographs which showed members posing with
the dismembered bodies in a Kuwaiti minefield.²⁷¹

Yugoslav wars

Further information: Operation Medak Pocket

Canada's forces were part of UNPROFOR, a UN peacekeeping force in Croatia
and Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Yugoslav wars in the 1990s.²⁷²
Operation Medak pocket during that conflict was the largest battle fought
by Canadian forces since the Korean War.²⁷³ The Canadian government claims
that Canadian forces within the UN contingent clashed with the Croatian
Army, where 27 Croatian soldiers were reported to have been killed.²⁷⁴ In
2002, the 2nd Battalion Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry Battle
Group were awarded the Commander-in-Chief Unit Commendation "for a heroic
and professional mission during the Medak Pocket Operation".²⁷⁵

Somali civil war

During the Somali Civil War, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney committed Canada
to UNOSOM I after United Nations Security Council Resolution 751.²⁷⁶ UNOSOM
I was the first part of the UN's response effort to provide security and
humanitarian relief in Somalia, while monitoring UN-brokered ceasefires.²⁷⁷
Canadian forces, under the name Operation Deliverance, participated in the
American-led Operation Restore Hope. In May 1993 the operation came under
UN command and was renamed UNOSOM II.²⁷⁸ By its end, the mission had turned
into a political disaster for the Canadian Forces.²⁷⁹ During the
humanitarian mission Canadian soldiers tortured a Somali teenager to death,
leading to the Somalia Affair.²⁸⁰ Following an inquiry, the elite Canadian
Airborne Regiment was disbanded and the reputation of the Canadian Forces
suffered within Canada.²⁸¹

Red River Flood

Main article: 1997 Red River Flood

The 1997 Red River Flood was the most severe flood of the Red River of the
North since 1826, affecting North Dakota and Manitoba. A "public welfare
emergency" was declared in the flood zone. During what was termed the
"flood of the century", over 8,500 military personnel were sent to Manitoba
to help with evacuation, building dikes, and other flood-fighting efforts,
the largest single Canadian troop deployment since the Korean War.²⁸²
Operation Assistance was termed a "public relations bonanza" for the
military: when a military convoy departed through Winnipeg in mid-May,
thousands of civilians lined the streets to cheer for them.²⁸³ ²⁸⁴ ²⁸⁵

North American ice storm

Main article: North American ice storm of 1998

"Operation Recuperation" was in response to the North American ice storm of
1998, a massive combination of successive ice storms which combined to
strike a relatively narrow swath of land from Lake Huron to southern Quebec
to Nova Scotia, and bordering areas from northern New York to central Maine
in the United States. Roads were impassable due to heavy snowfall or fallen
trees, broken power lines and coated with a heavy layer of ice, emergency
vehicles could hardly move. On January 7, the provinces of New Brunswick,
Ontario, and Quebec requested aid from the Canadian Forces, and Operation
Recuperation began on January 8 with 16,000 troops deployed.²⁸⁶ It was the
largest deployment of troops ever to serve on Canadian soil in response to
a natural disaster,²⁸⁴ and the largest operational deployment of Canadian
military personnel since the Korean War.²⁸⁷

21st century

Afghanistan War

Main article: Canada's role in the Afghanistan War

Canada joined a US-led coalition in the 2001 attack on Afghanistan. The war
was a response to the 9/11 terrorist attacks, and was intended to defeat
the Taliban government and rout Al-Qaeda. Canada sent special forces and
ground troops to the conflict. In this war, a Canadian sniper set the world
record for the longest-distance kill.²⁸⁸ In early 2002, Canadian JTF2
troops were photographed handing shackled Taliban prisoners over to U.S.
forces, sparking a debate of the Geneva Convention.²⁸⁹ In November 2005,
Canadian military participation shifted from ISAF in Kabul to Operation
Archer, a part of Operation Enduring Freedom in and around Kandahar.²⁹⁰ On
May 17, 2006, Captain Nichola Goddard of the Royal Canadian Horse Artillery
became Canada's first female combat casualty.²⁹¹

One of the most notable operations of the Canadian Forces in Afghanistan
thus far was the Canadian-led Operation Medusa, during which the second
Battle of Panjwaii was fought.²⁹² At the end of 2006, the Canadian soldier
was selected by the Canadian Press as the Canadian Newsmaker of the Year
because of the war in Afghanistan.²⁹³ On November 27, 2010, the 1st
Battalion of the Royal 22e Régiment took over operations in Kandahar,
marking the final rotation before Canada's withdrawal from Afghanistan.²⁹⁴
In July 2011, a small contingent of Canadian troops was transferred to the
NATO Training Mission-Afghanistan to continue the training of the Afghan
National Army and Afghan National Police, until 2014.²⁹⁵

British Columbia forest fires

Main article: Operation Peregrine

"Operation Peregrine" was a domestic military operation that took place
between August 3 and September 16, 2003.²⁹⁶ In early August 2003, British
Columbia was overwhelmed by over 800 separate forest fires.²⁹⁶ Provincial
fire services were stretched to the breaking point, and tens of thousands
of people were forced to evacuate their homes. The provincial government
requested federal aid, and within days, over 2,200 Canadian Forces
personnel had been mobilized. The operation lasted 45 days, and at its
height more than 2,600 military personnel were in action.²⁹⁶ It was the
Canadian Forces third-largest recent domestic deployment, after "Operation
Recuperation" in response to the 1998 ice storm, and "Operation Assistance"
in response to the 1997 Red River flood.²⁹⁶

Iraq War

Main article: Canada and the Iraq War

The Iraq War (2003–2011) began with the invasion of Iraq on March 20, 2003.
The government of Canada did not at any time officially declare war against
Iraq. Nevertheless, the country's participation and relationship with the
US was redefined at various points in that war.²⁹⁷ The Canadian Forces were
involved in ship escort duties, and expanded their participation in Task
Force 151 to free up American naval assets.²⁹⁸ About a hundred Canadian
exchange officers, on exchange to American units, participated in the
invasion of Iraq.²⁹⁹ There were numerous protests and counter-protests
related to the conflict in Canada,³⁰⁰ and some United States Military
members sought refuge in the country after deserting their posts to avoid
deployment to Iraq.³⁰¹

Libyan civil war

Main article: Operation Mobile

On March 19, 2011, a multi-state coalition began a military intervention in
Libya to implement United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973³⁰² in
response to the 2011 Libyan civil war.³⁰³ Canada's contribution included
the deployment of a number of naval and air assets, which were grouped
together as part of Operation Mobile.³⁰⁴ NATO assumed control of military
actions on March 25, with RCAF Lieutenant General, Charles Bouchard in
command.³⁰⁵ A no-fly zone was put into effect during the civil war to
prevent government forces loyal to Muammar Gaddafi from carrying out air
attacks on anti-Gaddafi forces and civilians.³⁰³ The military intervention
was enforced by NATO's Operation Unified Protector and included an arms
embargo, a no-fly zone and a mandate to use all means necessary, short of
foreign occupation, to protect Libyan civilians and civilian-populated
areas.³⁰² ³⁰⁶ On October 28, 2011, Prime Minister Stephen Harper announced
that the NATO military mission had ended successfully.³⁰⁷

Mali conflict

Main article: Mali conflict

Starting in early 2012 several insurgent groups in Mali started to take
over the country. In January 2013 Mali asked for assistance from France to
aid in ridding the country of the rebel insurgents. In December, the UN
authorized an African intervention with the approval of the Economic
Community of West African States. France then proceeded to ask its NATO
allies to get involved, with Canada joining the effort by helping with the
transportation of troops with a C-17 Globemaster.³⁰⁸ This was followed by
twenty four Joint Task Force 2 members who entered the country to secure
the Canadian embassy in the capital Bamako.³⁰⁹ A ceasefire agreement was
signed on February 19, 2015 in Algiers, Algeria but sporadic terrorist
attacks still occur.³¹⁰

Military intervention against ISIL

Main article: Operation Impact

Operation Impact is the name of Canada's contribution to the military
intervention against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant that began in
September 2014.³¹¹ The first Canadian airstrike against an Islamic State
target occurred on 2 November. It was reported that CF-18s successfully
destroyed heavy engineering equipment used to divert the Euphrates River
near the city of Fallujah.³¹² In October, then Prime Minister designate
Justin Trudeau informed President Barack Obama that Canada intended to
withdraw its fighter aircraft, while keeping its ground forces in Iraq and
Syria.³¹³

Recent expenditures

See also: Future Canadian Forces projects

The Constitution of Canada gives the federal government exclusive
responsibility for national defence, and expenditures are thus outlined in
the federal budget. For the 2007–2010 fiscal year, the amount allocated for
defence spending was C$6.15 billion which is 1.4 percent of the country's
GDP.³¹⁴ ³¹⁵ This regular funding was augmented in 2005 with an additional
C$12.5 billion over five years, as well as a commitment to increasing
regular force troop levels by 5,000 persons, and the primary reserve by
4,500 over the same period.³¹⁶ In 2010, a further C$5.3 billion over five
years was provided to allow for 13,000 more regular force members, and
10,000 more primary reserve personnel, as well as C$17.1 billion for the
purchase of new trucks for the Canadian Army, transport aircraft and
helicopters for the Royal Canadian Air Force, and joint support ships for
the Royal Canadian Navy.³¹⁷ In July 2010, the largest purchase in Canadian
military history, totalling C$9 billion for the acquisition of 65 F-35
fighters, was announced by the federal government.³¹⁸ Canada is one of
several nations that assisted in the development of the F-35 and has
invested over C$168 million in the program.³¹⁹ In 2010, Canada's military
expenditure totaled approximately C$122.5 billion.³²⁰

Canadian Crown and the Forces

Main article: The Canadian Crown and the Canadian Forces

The Canadian Forces have derived many of their traditions and symbols from
the military, navy and air force of the United Kingdom, including those
with royal elements. Contemporary icons and rituals, however, have evolved
to include elements reflective of Canada and the Canadian monarchy. Members
of the country's Royal Family also continue their two-century-old practice
of maintaining personal relationships with the forces' divisions and
regiments, around which the military has developed complex protocols.³²¹
³²² The role of the Canadian Crown in the Canadian Forces is established
through both constitutional and statutory law; the National Defence Act
states that "the Canadian Forces are the armed forces of Her Majesty raised
by Canada,"³²³ and the Constitution Act, 1867 vests Command-in-Chief of
those forces in the sovereign.³²⁴ ³²⁵ ³²⁶

All honours in Canada emanate from the country's monarch,³²⁷ who is
regarded as the fount of honour.³²⁸ ³²⁹ A complex system of orders,
decorations, and medals by which Canadians are honoured has evolved.³³⁰ The
Victoria Cross, Order of Military Merit, Cross of Valour, Star of Courage,
Medal of Bravery are some of the military awards that have been created for
Canadians serving in a military capacity.³³¹ The Victoria Cross has been
presented to 94 Canadians and 2 Newfoundlanders³³² between its creation in
1856 and 1993, when the Canadian Victoria Cross was instituted.³³¹ However,
no Canadian has received either honour since 1945.³³³

During unification of the forces in the 1960s, a renaming of the branches
took place, resulting in the "royal designations" of the navy and air force
being abandoned.²⁵² On August 16, 2011, the Government of Canada announced
that the name "Air Command" was re-assuming the air force's original
historic name, Royal Canadian Air Force, "Land Command" was re-assuming the
name Canadian Army, and "Maritime Command" was re-assuming the name Royal
Canadian Navy.³³⁴ The change was made to better reflect Canada's military
heritage and align Canada with other key Commonwealth of Nations whose
militaries use the royal designation.³³⁴

Peacekeeping

See also: List of Canadian Peacekeeping Missions

Closely related to Canada's commitment to multi-lateralism has been its
strong support for peacekeeping efforts.³³⁵ Canada's peacekeeping role
during the 20th and 21st centuries has played a major part in its global
image.³³⁶ Prior to Canada's role in the Suez Crisis, Canada was viewed by
many as insignificant in global issues. Canada's successful role in the
conflict gave Canada credibility and established it as a nation fighting
for the "common good" of all nations.³³⁷ Canada participated in every UN
peacekeeping effort from its inception until 1989.³³⁸ Since 1995, however,
Canadian direct participation in UN peacekeeping efforts has greatly
declined.³³⁸ In July 2006, for instance, Canada ranked 51st on the list of
UN peacekeepers, contributing 130 peacekeepers out of a total UN deployment
of over 70,000.³³⁹ Where in November 1990 Canada had 1,002 troops out of a
total UN deployment of 10,304,³⁴⁰ that number decreased largely because
Canada began to direct its participation to UN-sanctioned military
operations through NATO, rather than directly to the UN.³⁴¹

Canadian Nobel Peace Prize laureate Lester B. Pearson is considered to be
the father of modern peacekeeping.³⁴² Pearson had become a very prominent
figure in the United Nations during its infancy, and found himself in a
peculiar position in 1956 during the Suez Crisis:³⁴³ Pearson and Canada
found themselves stuck between a conflict of their closest allies, being
looked upon to find a solution.³⁴⁴ During United Nations meetings Lester B.
Pearson proposed to the security council that a United Nations police force
be established to prevent further conflict in the region, allowing the
countries involved an opportunity to sort out a resolution.³⁴⁵ Pearson's
proposal and offer to dedicate 1,000 Canadian soldiers to that cause was
seen as a brilliant political move that prevented another war.³⁴⁴

The first Canadian peacekeeping mission, even before the creation of the
formal UN system, was a 1948 mission to the second Kashmir conflict.³⁴⁶
Other important missions include those in Cyprus, Congo, Somalia, Yugoslav,
and observation missions in the Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights.³⁴⁷ The
loss of nine Canadian peacekeepers when their Buffalo 461 was shot down
over Syria in 1974 remains the largest single loss of life in Canadian
peacekeeping history.³⁴⁸ In 1988, the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to
United Nations peacekeepers, inspiring the creation of the Canadian
Peacekeeping Service Medal to recognize Canadians, including serving and
former members of the Canadian Forces, members of the Royal Canadian
Mounted Police, other police services, and civilians, who contributed to
peace on certain missions.³⁴⁹

See also

Military installations
- Canadian Forces base
- List of French forts in North America
- List of Royal Canadian Air Force stations
- List of Royal Canadian Navy stations
Memorials and Museums
- Canadian war memorials
- Canadian War Museum
- Maritime Command Museum
Lists
- List of Canadian military victories
- List of Canadian Peacekeeping Missions
- List of Canadian Victoria Cross recipients
- List of conflicts in Canada

References

[1] Walter Echo-Hawk (2011). In the Courts of the Conqueror. Fulcrum. pp.
  220–. ISBN 978-1-4596-0276-2.
[2] Bruce E. Johansen; Barry Pritzker (2008). Encyclopedia of American
  Indian history. ABC-CLIO. p. 1066. ISBN 978-1-85109-817-0.
[3] Christian F. Feest (1999). Indians and Europe: an interdisciplinary
  collection of essays. University of Nebraska Press. p. 64. ISBN
  978-0-8032-6897-5.
[4] Richard J. Chacon; Rubén G. Mendoza (2007). North American Indigenous
  Warfare and Ritual Violence. University of Arizona Press. p. 55. ISBN
  978-0-8165-2532-4.
[5] Roberto J. González (2010). Militarizing Culture: Essays on the Warfare
  State. Left Coast Press. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-59874-560-3.
[6] Alfred A. Cave (2004). The French and Indian war. Greenwood Publishing
  Group. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-313-32168-9.
[7] Dorothy Schneider; Carl J. Schneider (2006). Slavery in America.
  Infobase Publishing. p. 216. ISBN 978-0-8160-6241-6.
[8] Robert James Muckle (2007). The First Nations of British Columbia: An
  Anthropological Survey. UBC Press. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-7748-4010-1.
[9] David F. Arnold (2009). The Fishermen's Frontier: people and salmon in
  Southeast Alaska. University of Washington Press. p. 31. ISBN
  978-0-295-98975-4.
[10] Alvin M. Josephy (1991). The Indian heritage of America. Houghton
  Mifflin Harcourt. p. 295. ISBN 978-0-395-57320-4.
[11] Wendy S. Wilson; Lloyd M. Thompson (1997). Native Americans: A
  Thematic Unit on Converging Cultures. Walch Publishing. p. 14. ISBN
  978-0-8251-3332-9.
[12] Daniel P. Barr (2006). Unconquered: the Iroquois League at War in
  Colonial America. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 24. ISBN
  978-0-275-98466-3.
[13] Timothy J. Shannon (2009). Iroquois Diplomacy on the Early American
  Frontier. Penguin. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-14-311529-8.
[14] Britannica Educational (2010). Native American History. The Rosen
  Publishing Group. p. 182. ISBN 978-1-61530-265-9.
[15] Paul R. Magocsi; Multicultural History Society of Ontario (1999).
  Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples. University of Toronto Press. p. 71.
  ISBN 978-0-8020-2938-6.
[16] Armstrong Starkey (1998). European and Native American warfare,
  1675–1815. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-8061-3075-0.
[17] Brian James Given (1994). A most pernicious thing: gun trading and
  native warfare in the early contact period. McGill-Queen's Press (MQUP).
  p. 107. ISBN 978-0-88629-223-2.
[18] William C. Sturtevant (1988). Handbook of North American Indians:
  History of Indian-White relations. Government Printing Office. p. 357.
  ISBN 978-0-16-004583-7.
[19] Kevin Schultz (2009). America Unbound: A U.S. History Primer. Cengage
  Learning. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-495-00527-8.
[20] "Estimated population of Canada, 1605 to present". Statistics Canada.
  2009. Retrieved 2010-08-26.
[21] Ronald J. Dale (2004). The Fall of New France: How the French Lost a
  North American Empire 1754–1763. James Lorimer & Company. p. 2. ISBN
  978-1-55028-840-7.
[22] John E. Findling; Frank W. Thackeray (2011). What Happened?: An
  Encyclopedia of Events that Changed America Forever. ABC-CLIO. p. 38.
  ISBN 978-1-59884-621-8.
[23] Adam Hart-Davis (2012). History: From the Dawn of Civilization to the
  Present Day. DK Publishing. p. 483. ISBN 978-0-7566-9858-4.
[24] "Our History: People". Hudson's Bay Company. Retrieved November 14,
  2007.
[25] William John Eccles (1983). The Canadian frontier, 1534–1760. UNM
  Press. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-8263-0706-4.
[26] Paul S. Boyer; Clifford E. Clark, Jr.; Joseph F. Kett; Neal Salisbury;
  Harvard Sitkoff (2008). The enduring vision: a history of the American
  people. Cengage Learning. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-547-05211-3.
[27] Richard Middleton; Anne Lombard (2011). Colonial America: A History to
  1763. John Wiley & Sons. p. 88. ISBN 978-1-4443-9628-7.
[28] Andrew Neil Porter (1994). Atlas of British overseas expansion.
  Routledge. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-415-06347-0.
[29] Leslie CHOQUETTE; Leslie Choquette (2009). Frenchmen into Peasants:
  Modernity and Tradition in the Peopling of French Canada. Harvard
  University Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-674-02954-5.
[30] "Canadian Military Heritage". Canadian Military History Gateway. 2011.
  Retrieved 2014-02-27.
[31] Gerard J. Brault (1986). The French-Canadian Heritage in New England.
  UPNE. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-87451-359-2.
[32] Rene Chartrand (2013). French Fortresses in North America 1535–1763:
  Quebec, Montreal, Louisbourg and New Orleans. Osprey Publishing. pp. 3–5.
  ISBN 978-1-4728-0317-7.
[33] Kurt A. Raaflaub (2007). War and peace in the ancient world.
  Wiley-Blackwell. p. 359. ISBN 978-1-4051-4526-8.
[34] Richard Cole Harris; Geoffrey J. Matthews (1993). Historical atlas of
  Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 82. ISBN 978-0-8020-2495-4.
[35] Spencer C. Tucker; James Arnold; Roberta Wiener (2011). The
  Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political,
  Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-85109-697-8.
[36] Bruce Alden Cox (1987). Native people, native lands: Canadian Indians,
  Inuit and Métis. McGill-Queen's Press (MQUP). p. 7. ISBN
  978-0-88629-062-7.
[37] José António Brandão (2000). Your Fyre Shall Burn No More: Iroquois
  Policy Toward New France and Its Native Allies to 1701. University of
  Nebraska Press. p. 100. ISBN 978-0-8032-6177-8.
[38] Michael Johnson; Jonathan Smith (2003). Tribes of the Iroquois
  Confederacy. Osprey Publishing. pp. 3–17. ISBN 978-1-84176-490-0.
[39] George T. Hunt (1967). The wars of the Iroquois: a study in
  intertribal trade relations. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 69. ISBN
  978-0-299-00164-3.
[40] John M. Murrin; Paul E. Johnson; James M. McPherson; Alice Fahs; Gary
  Gerstle (2011). Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American
  People, Volume 1: To 1877. Cengage Learning. p. 85. ISBN
  978-0-495-91587-4.
[41] Bernd Horn (2011). Battle cries in the wilderness: the struggle for
  North America in the Seven Years' War. Dundurn Press. p. 39. ISBN
  978-1-4597-0077-2.
[42] J. M. S. Careless (2011). Canada: A Story of Challenge. Cambridge
  University Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-107-67581-0.
[43] Carl A. Brasseaux (1997). The founding of New Acadia: the beginnings
  of Acadian life in Louisiana, 1765–1803. LSU Press. pp. 7–9. ISBN
  978-0-8071-2099-6.
[44] Canada, the Empire of the North. Forgotten Books. p. 65. ISBN
  978-1-4510-0695-7.
[45] Derek Hayes (2008). Canada: an illustrated history. Douglas &
  McIntyre. p. 29. ISBN 978-1-55365-259-5.
[46] Dean Jobb (2005). The Acadians: a people's story of exile and triumph.
  John Wiley & Sons. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-470-83610-1.
[47] Robert Marshall Utley; Wilcomb E. Washburn (2001). Indian wars.
  Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-618-15464-7.
[48] Steven Eames (2011). Rustic Warriors: Warfare and the Provincial
  Soldier on the New England Frontier, 1689–1748. NYU Press. p. 3. ISBN
  978-0-8147-2270-1.
[49] Desmond Morton (2007). A Military History of Canada. Random House
  Digital. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-7710-6481-4.
[50] Spencer C. Tucker; James Arnold; Roberta Wiener (2011). The
  Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political,
  Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-85109-697-8.
[51] Spencer C. Tucker; James Arnold; Roberta Wiener (2011). The
  Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political,
  Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. p. 306. ISBN 978-1-85109-697-8.
[52] Wilson D. Wallis; Ruth Sawtell Wallis (1955). The Micmac Indians of
  Eastern Canada. University of Minnesota Press. p. 203. ISBN
  978-0-8166-6014-8.
[53] Bill Marshall (2005). France and the Americas: culture, politics, and
  history: a multidisciplinary encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 593. ISBN
  978-1-85109-411-0.
[54] John Frost (1852). Indian wars of the United States, from the
  discovery to the present time: With accounts of the origin, manners,
  superstitions, &c., of the aborigines. From the best authorities. W. A.
  Leary. p. 151.
[55] Stephen Schneider (2009). Iced: The Story of Organized Crime in
  Canada. John Wiley & Sons. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-470-83500-5.
[56] Jennifer Crump (2010). Canada Under Attack. Dundurn Press. p. 23. ISBN
  978-1-55488-731-6.
[57] Serge Courville; Richard Howard (2009). Quebec: A Historical
  Geography. UBC Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-7748-1426-3.
[58] Geoffrey J. Matthews; Byron Moldofsky (1998). Concise historical atlas
  of Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-8020-4203-3.
[59] Fred Anderson (2000). Crucible of war: the Seven Years' War and the
  fate of empire in British North America, 1754–1766. Random House Digital.
  p. 250. ISBN 978-0-375-70636-3.
[60] J. L. Granatstein (2011). Canada's Army: Waging War and Keeping the
  Peace. University of Toronto Press. pp. 28–52. ISBN 978-1-4426-1178-8.
[61] Rene Chartrand (2012). Tomahawk and Musket – French and Indian Raids
  in the Ohio Valley 1758. Osprey Publishing. p. 10. ISBN
  978-1-84908-564-9.
[62] John G. Reid (2004). The "conquest" of Acadia, 1710: imperial,
  colonial, and aboriginal constructions. University of Toronto Press. p.
  22. ISBN 978-0-8020-8538-2.
[63] R. D. Francis; Donald B. Smith; Richard Jones (2009). Journeys: A
  History of Canada. Cengage Learning. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-17-644244-6.
[64] Howard H. Peckham (1965). The colonial wars, 1689–1762. University of
  Chicago Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-226-65314-3.
[65] John Grenier (2008). The far reaches of empire: war in Nova Scotia,
  1710–1760. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-8061-3876-3.
[66] Beamish Murdoch (1865). A history of Nova-Scotia, or Acadie. J.
  Barnes. p. 339.
[67] James Rodger Miller (1991). Sweet promises: a reader on Indian-white
  relations in Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 55. ISBN
  978-0-8020-6818-7.
[68] Spencer C. Tucker. The encyclopedia of North American Indian wars,
  1607–1890. ABC-CLIO. p. 559. ISBN 978-1-85109-603-9.
[69] John Grenier (2008). The far reaches of empire: war in Nova Scotia,
  1710–1760. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-8061-3876-3.
[70] John Grenier (2008). The far reaches of empire: war in Nova Scotia,
  1710–1760. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-8061-3876-3.
[71] John Mack Faragher (2006). A great and noble scheme: the tragic story
  of the expulsion of the French Acadians from their American Homeland. W.W
  Norton. pp. 164–165. ISBN 978-0-393-32827-1.
[72] William Wicken (2002). Mi'kmaq treaties on trial: history, land and
  Donald Marshall Junior. University of Toronto Press. p. 21. ISBN
  978-0-8020-7665-6.
[73] William R. Nester (2000). The first global war: Britain, France, and
  the fate of North America, 1756–1775. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 48.
  ISBN 978-0-275-96771-0.
[74] Richard Cole Harris; Geoffrey J. Matthews (1993). Historical atlas of
  Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-8020-2495-4.
[75] David Lea; Colette Milward; Annamarie Rowe (2001). A political
  chronology of the Americas. Psychology Press. p. 49. ISBN
  978-1-85743-118-6.
[76] John Grenier (2008). The far reaches of empire: war in Nova Scotia,
  1710–1760. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 139. ISBN 978-0-8061-3876-3.
[77] Geoffrey Plank (2003). An Unsettled Conquest: The British Campaign
  Against the Peoples of Acadia. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 99.
  ISBN 978-0-8122-1869-5.
[78] William Wicken (2002). Mi'kmaq treaties on trial: history, land and
  Donald Marshall Junior. University of Toronto Press. p. 131. ISBN
  978-0-8020-7665-6.
[79] Lance Q. Zedric; Michael F. Dilley (1996). Elite Warriors: 300 Years
  of America's Best Fighting Troops. Pathfinder Publishing. p. 31. ISBN
  978-0-934793-60-5.
[80] Jean-Denis G.G. Lepage (2009). French Fortifications, 1715–1815: An
  Illustrated History. McFarland. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-7864-4477-9.
[81] Acadiensis. University of New Brunswick Department of History. 1993.
  p. 47.
[82] Andrew John Bayly Johnston (2008). Endgame 1758: the promise, the
  glory, and the despair of Louisbourg's last decade. University of
  Nebraska Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-8032-6009-2.
[83] Stephen E. Patterson (1998). "Indian-White Relations in Nova Scotia,
  1749–61: A Study in Political Interaction". In P. Buckner; G. Campbell;
  D. Frank. The Acadiensis Reader. 1: Atlantic Canada Before Confederation.
  pp. 105–106.
[84] Bill Marshall (2005). France and the Americas: culture, politics, and
  history : a multidisciplinary encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 51. ISBN
  978-1-85109-411-0.
[85] David Marley (1998). Wars of the Americas: a chronology of armed
  conflict in the New World, 1492 to the present. ABC-CLIO. pp. 275–278.
  ISBN 978-0-87436-837-6.
[86] Joseph L. Peyser (1996). Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre: officer,
  gentleman, entrepreneur. Michigan State University Press. pp. 201–207.
  ISBN 978-0-87013-418-0.
[87] Center of Military History (2004). American Military History.
  Kessinger Publishing. p. 40. ISBN 978-1-4191-0001-7.
[88] William Fowler (2006). Empires at War: The Seven Years' War and the
  Struggle for North America, 1754–1763. D&M Publishers. p. 207. ISBN
  978-1-55365-181-9.
[89] John Stewart Bowman (2003). Chronology of Wars. Infobase Publishing.
  p. 27. ISBN 978-0-8160-4941-7.
[90] Roger E. Riendeau (2007). A brief history of Canada. Infobase
  Publishing. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-8160-6335-2.
[91] Jeremy Black (1999). Britain as a military power, 1688–1815.
  Psychology Press. p. 140. ISBN 978-1-85728-772-1.
[92] D. Peter McLeod (2010). Northern Armageddon: The Battle of the Plains
  of Abraham. Renouf Publishing Company. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-55365-315-8.
[93] Spencer Tucker (2010). Battles That Changed History: An Encyclopedia
  of World Conflict. ABC-CLIO. p. 240. ISBN 978-1-59884-429-0.
[94] Spencer Tucker (2009). A global chronology of conflict: from the
  ancient world to the modern Middle East. ABC-CLIO. p. 786. ISBN
  978-1-85109-667-1.
[95] Daniel Marston (2002). The French-Indian War, 1754–1760. Osprey
  Publishing. p. 84. ISBN 978-1-84176-456-6.
[96] James L. Stokesbury (1993). A short history of the American
  revolution. HarperCollins. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-688-12304-8.
[97] Houman A. Sadri; Madelyn Flammia (2011). Intercultural Communication:
  A New Approach to International Relations and Global Challenges.
  Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-4411-0309-3.
[98] Theodore P. Savas; J. David Dameron (2010). A Guide to the Battles of
  the American Revolution. Casemate Publishers. p. 36. ISBN
  978-1-932714-94-4.
[99] Lester D. Langley (2010). America and the Americas: the United States
  in the Western Hemisphere (2nd ed.). University of Georgia Press. p. 8.
  ISBN 978-0-8203-2888-1.
[100] James S. Leamon (1995). Revolution Downeast: The War for American
  Independence in Maine. University of Massachusetts Press. p. 102. ISBN
  978-0-87023-959-5.
[101] Richard Cole Harris; Geoffrey J. Matthews (1993). Historical atlas of
  Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-8020-2495-4.
[102] Harold Horwood; Ed Butts (1988). Bandits and Privateers: Canada in
  the Age of Gunpowder. Formac Publishing Company. p. 39. ISBN
  978-0-88780-157-0.
[103] Terry M. Mays (2009). Historical dictionary of the American
  Revolution. Scarecrow Press. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-8108-6066-7.
[104] Julian Gwyn (2003). Frigates and foremasts: the North American
  Squadron in Nova Scotia waters, 1745–1815. UBC Press. p. 56. ISBN
  978-0-7748-0911-5.
[105] Thomas B. Akins (2010). History of Halifax City. Nabu Press. p. 82.
  ISBN 978-1-177-66568-1.
[106] Julian Gwyn (2003). Frigates and foremasts the North American
  Squadron in Nova Scotia waters, 1745–1815. UBC Press. pp. 56–65. ISBN
  978-0-7748-0911-5.
[107] Andrew Jackson O'Shaughnessy (2000). An empire divided: the American
  Revolution and the British Caribbean. University of Pennsylvania Press.
  p. 12. ISBN 978-0-8122-1732-2.
[108] Richard Cole Harris; Geoffrey J. Matthews (1993). Historical atlas of
  Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-8020-2495-4.
[109] Donald Lee Fixico (2008). Treaties with American Indians: an
  encyclopedia of rights, conflicts, and sovereignty. ABC-CLIO. p. 212.
  ISBN 978-1-57607-880-8.
[110] Ronald J. Dale (2001). The invasion of Canada: battles of the War of
  1812. James Lorimer & Company. pp. 12–17. ISBN 978-1-55028-738-7.
[111] Patrick Richard Carstens; Timothy L Sanford (2011). Searching for the
  Forgotten War – 1812 Canada. Xlibris Corporation. p. 24. ISBN
  978-1-4535-8890-1.
[112] J. E. Kaufmann; H. W. Kaufmann (2004). Fortress America: the forts
  that defended America, 1600 to the present. Da Capo Press. p. 157. ISBN
  978-0-306-81294-1.
[113] John K. Mahon (1991). The War of 1812. Da Capo Press. p. 52. ISBN
  978-0-306-80429-8.
[114] Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People. Cengage
  Learning. p. 211. ISBN 978-0-495-91038-1.
[115] David Stephen Heidler; Jeanne T. Heidler (2004). Encyclopedia of the
  War of 1812. Naval Institute Press. p. 534. ISBN 978-1-59114-362-8.
[116] Robert Malcomson (2003). A very brilliant affair: the battle of
  Queenston Heights, 1812. Naval Institute Press. p. 294. ISBN
  978-1-59114-022-1.
[117] Wesley B. Turner (2011). The Astonishing General: The Life and Legacy
  of Sir Isaac Brock. Dundurn Press. p. 184. ISBN 978-1-55488-777-4.
[118] James C. Bradford (2003). Atlas of American military history. Oxford
  University Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-19-521661-5.
[119] Robert Malcomson (2006). Historical dictionary of the War of 1812.
  Scarecrow Press. p. 452. ISBN 978-0-8108-5499-4.
[120] Derek Hayes (2006). Historical atlas of the United States, with
  original maps. Douglas & McIntyre. p. 132. ISBN 978-1-55365-205-2.
[121] Anthony S. Pitch (2000). The burning of Washington: the British
  invasion of 1814. Naval Institute Press. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-55750-425-8.
[122] Robert Vincent Remini (1999). The Battle of New Orleans. Penguin. p.
  147. ISBN 978-0-14-100179-1.
[123] John Boileau (2005). Half-Hearted Enemies: Nova Scotia, New England
  and the War of 1812. Formac Publishing Company. p. 53. ISBN
  978-0-88780-657-5.
[124] Charles Henry Jeremiah Snider (1928). Under the red jack: privateers
  of the maritime provinces of Canada in the war of 1812. M. Hopkinson &
  Company.
[125] James H. Ellis (2009). A ruinous and unhappy war: New England and the
  War of 1812. Algora Publishing. p. 97. ISBN 978-0-87586-691-8.
[126] David Stephen Heidler; Jeanne T. Heidler (2004). Encyclopedia of the
  War of 1812. Naval Institute Press. p. 64. ISBN 978-1-59114-362-8.
[127] George C. Daughan (2011). 1812: The Navy's War. Basic Books. p. 401.
  ISBN 978-0-465-02046-1.
[128] David Hanna (2012). Knights of the Sea: The True Story of the Boxer
  and the Enterprise and the War of 1812. Penguin. p. 124. ISBN
  978-1-101-55947-5.
[129] Barry M. Gough (2006). Through water, ice & fire: schooner Nancy of
  the War of 1812. Dundurn Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-1-55002-569-9.
[130] Wesley B. Turner (2000). The War of 1812: the war that both sides
  won. Dundurn Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-55002-336-7.
[131] Robert S. Allen (1992). His Majesty's Indian Allies: British Indian
  Policy in the Defence of Canada, 1774–1815. Dundurn Press. p. 146. ISBN
  978-1-55002-175-2.
[132] Shannon Ricketts; Leslie Maitland; Jacqueline Hucker (2004). A guide
  to Canadian architectural styles. University of Toronto Press. p. 22.
  ISBN 978-1-55111-546-7.
[133] Peter Conroy (2002). Our canal: the Rideau Canal in Ottawa. General
  Store Publishing House. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-1-894263-63-4.
[134] Frank Murray Greenwood; Barry Wright; Osgoode Society for Canadian
  Legal History (2003). Canadian State Trials: Rebellion and invasion in
  the Canadas, 1837–1839. University of Toronto Press. p. 33. ISBN
  978-0-8020-3748-0.
[135] John Charles Dent (1885). The story of the Upper Canadian rebellion:
  largely derived from original sources and documents. C.B. Robinson. p.
  296.
[136] Marianne Vardalos (2009). Engaging Terror: A Critical and
  Interdisciplinary Approach. Universal-Publishers. p. 292. ISBN
  978-1-59942-453-8.
[137] R. G. Grant; Robert Doughty (2011). 1001 Battles That Changed the
  Course of World History. Random House Digital. p. 575. ISBN
  978-0-7893-2233-3.
[138] Anne-Marie Mooney Cotter (2008). Just a number: an international
  legal analysis on age discrimination. Ashgate Publishing. p. 194. ISBN
  978-0-7546-7206-7.
[139] Kenneth Bourne (1967). Britain and the Balance of Power in North
  America, 1815–1908. University of California Press. pp. 206, 259.
  GGKEY:3L4SN26UB05.
[140] Jason Andrew Kaufman (2009). The origins of Canadian and American
  political differences. Harvard University Press. p. 182. ISBN
  978-0-674-03136-4.
[141] Steven Kendall Holloway (2006). Canadian foreign policy: defining the
  national interest. University of Toronto Press. p. 120. ISBN
  978-1-55111-816-1.
[142] Robert Laird Borden (2005). Canadian constitutional studies: the
  Marfleet lectures, University of Toronto, October 1921. The Lawbook
  Exchange. p. 97. ISBN 978-1-58477-586-7.
[143] James Cornall (1998). Halifax: South End. Arcadia Publishing. p. 53.
  ISBN 978-0-7385-7272-7.
[144] Dave Birrell (2000). 50 Roadside Panoramas in the Canadian Rockies.
  Rocky Mountain Books. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-921102-65-6.
[145] Paul R. Magocsi; Multicultural History Society of Ontario (1999).
  Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples. University of Toronto Press. p. 165.
  ISBN 978-0-8020-2938-6.
[146] The London Gazette: no. 22225. p. 414. 1 February 1859. Retrieved 26
  September 2009.
[147] Hereward Senior (1991). The last invasion of Canada: the Fenian
  raids, 1866–1870. Dundurn Press. pp. 131–134. ISBN 978-1-55002-085-4.
[148] Cole Harris (2009). The Reluctant Land: Society, Space, and
  Environment in Canada Before Confederation. UBC Press. p. 450. ISBN
  978-0-7748-1450-8.
[149] Jackie G. Smith; Jackie Smith; Hank Johnston (2002). Globalization
  and resistance: transnational dimensions of social movements. Rowman &
  Littlefield. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-7425-1990-9.
[150] Mitchell Snay (2007). Fenians, freedmen, and southern Whites: race
  and nationality in the era of Reconstruction. LSU Press. p. 65. ISBN
  978-0-8071-3273-9.
[151] Brian Jenkins (2008). The Fenian problem: insurgency and terrorism in
  a liberal state, 1858–1874. McGill-Queen's University Press (MQUP). pp.
  62–64. ISBN 978-0-7735-3426-1.
[152] J. L. Granatstein (2011). Canada's Army: Waging War and Keeping the
  Peace. University of Toronto Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-4426-1178-8.
[153] Christopher Moore (2011). 1867: How the Fathers Made a Deal. Random
  House Digital. p. 161. ISBN 978-1-55199-483-3.
[154] Eugene R. Fidell; Dwight Hall Sullivan (2002). Evolving military
  justice. Naval Institute Press. p. 234. ISBN 978-1-55750-292-6.
[155] J. L. Granatstein (2011). Canada's Army: Waging War and Keeping the
  Peace. University of Toronto Press. p. 26. ISBN 978-1-4426-1178-8.
[156] George Sydenham Clarke. Imperial Defence. Elibron.com. p. 190. ISBN
  978-1-4021-6979-3.
[157] Elisée Reclus (1890). The earth and its inhabitants, North America.
  D. Appleton. p. 445.
[158] C. P. Stacey (1940). "The Military Aspect of Canada's Winning of the
  West 1870–1885". Canadian Historical Review. 21 (1): 1–24.
  doi:10.3138/CHR-021-01-01.
[159] David J. Wishart (2004). Encyclopedia of the Great Plains. University
  of Nebraska Press. p. 557. ISBN 978-0-8032-4787-1.
[160] Alan Daniel McMillan; Eldon Yellowhorn (2004). First peoples in
  Canada. Douglas & McIntyre. p. 309. ISBN 978-1-55365-053-9.
[161] R. G. Grant; Robert Doughty (2011). 1001 Battles That Changed the
  Course of World History. Random House Digital. p. 670. ISBN
  978-0-7893-2233-3.
[162] Joseph Kinsey Howard (1994). Strange empire: a narrative of the
  Northwest. Minnesota Historical Society Press. p. 500. ISBN
  978-0-87351-298-5.
[163] Roy MacLaren (1978). Canadians on the Nile, 1882–1898: being the
  adventures of the voyageurs on the Khartoum Relief Expedition and other
  exploits. UBC Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-7748-0094-5.
[164] Desmond Morton (2007). A Military History of Canada. Random House
  Digital. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-7710-6481-4.
[165] Roy MacLaren (1978). Canadians on the Nile, 1882–1898: being the
  adventures of the voyageurs on the Khartoum Relief Expedition and other
  exploits. UBC Press. p. 125. ISBN 978-0-7748-0094-5.
[166] Bruce Vandervort (1998). Wars of imperial conquest in Africa,
  1830–1914. Taylor & Francis. p. 39. ISBN 978-1-85728-487-4.
[167] Bernd Horn (2006). The Canadian way of war: serving the national
  interest. Dundurn Press. p. 137. ISBN 978-1-55002-612-2.
[168] Carman Miller (1998). Painting the map red: Canada and the South
  African War, 1899–1902. McGill-Queen's Press (MQUP). p. 27. ISBN
  978-0-7735-1750-9.
[169] James Laxer; Robert M. Laxer (1977). The Liberal idea of Canada:
  Pierre Trudeau and the question of Canada's survival. James Lorimer &
  Company. p. 158. ISBN 978-0-88862-124-5.
[170] Stephen Badsey (2008). Doctrine and reform in the British cavalry
  1880–1918. Ashgate Publishing. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-7546-6467-3.
[171] Phillip Alfred Buckner (2008). Canada and the British Empire. Oxford
  University Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-19-927164-1.
[172] Doug Lennox (2009). Now You Know Canada's Heroes. Dundurn Press. p.
  20. ISBN 978-1-55488-444-5.
[173] Canadian War Museum (2008). "Canada and The South African War,
  1899–1902". Canadian War Museum. Retrieved May 10, 2008.
[174] "Herold Borden". Canadian Biography Online. Biographi.ca. October 18,
  2007. Retrieved January 5, 2012.
[175] Frederick William Perry (1988). The Commonwealth armies: manpower and
  organisation in two world wars. Manchester University Press ND. p. 126.
  ISBN 978-0-7190-2595-2.
[176] Christina Bates; Dianne Elizabeth Dodd; Nicole Rousseau; Canadian
  Museum of Civilization (2005). On all frontiers: four centuries of
  Canadian nursing. University of Ottawa Press. p. 156. ISBN
  978-0-7766-0591-3.
[177] Bernd Horn (2008). Establishing a Legacy: The History of the Royal
  Canadian Regiment 1883–1953. Dundurn Press. p. 338. ISBN
  978-1-55002-817-1.
[178] William Roger Louis; Andrew Porter; Alaine Low (2001). The Oxford
  History of the British Empire: The nineteenth century. Oxford University
  Press. p. 618. ISBN 978-0-19-924678-6.
[179] Martin Brook Taylor; Doug Owram (1994). Canadian History: Beginnings
  to Confederation. University of Toronto Press. p. 399. ISBN
  978-0-8020-6826-2.
[180] Andrew Godefroy (2006). "Canadian Military Effectiveness in the First
  World War". In Bernd Horn. The Canadian Way of War: Serving the National
  Interest. Dundurn Press. pp. 169–194. ISBN 978-1-55002-612-2.
[181] Richard Arthur Preston (1991). To serve Canada: a history of the
  Royal Military College since the Second World War. University of Ottawa
  Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-7766-0327-8.
[182] Bernier Serge; Jean Pariseau. French Canadians and Bilingualism in
  the Canadian Forces. Department of National Defence, Directorate of
  History. p. 64. ISBN 0-660-13616-3.
[183] Paramjit Singh (2004). Military Dentistary. Jaypee Brothers
  Publishers. p. 31. ISBN 978-81-8061-418-7.
[184] Marc Milner (2010). Canada's Navy: The First Century. University of
  Toronto Press. pp. 14–16. ISBN 978-0-8020-9604-3.
[185] Ken Cox (2011). A Call to the Colours: Tracing Your Canadian Military
  Ancestors. Dundurn Press. p. 286. GGKEY:SZEF160DUZ8.
[186] Marc Milner (2010). Canada's Navy: The First Century. University of
  Toronto Press. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-8020-9604-3.
[187] R. D. Francis; Donald B. Smith; Richard Jones (2009). Journeys: A
  History of Canada. Cengage Learning. p. 320. ISBN 978-0-17-644244-6.
[188] Phillip Alfred Buckner (2005). Canada and the end of empire. UBC
  Press. p. 273. ISBN 978-0-7748-0916-0.
[189] Brian Lavery (2006). Churchill's navy: the ships, men and
  organisation, 1939–1945. Naval Institute Press. p. 55. ISBN
  978-1-84486-035-7.
[190] James Ciment; Thaddeus Russell (2007). The home front encyclopedia:
  United States, Britain, and Canada in World Wars I and II. ABC-CLIO. p.
  423. ISBN 978-1-57607-849-5.
[191] Russell Hart (2001). Clash of arms: how the allies won in Normandy.
  Lynne Rienner Publishers. p. 39. ISBN 978-1-55587-947-1.
[192] Tim Cook (1999). "'A Proper Slaughter': The March 1917 Gas Raid at
  Vimy" (PDF). Canadian Military History. 8 (2): 7–24. Retrieved April 10,
  2010.
[193] G. W. L. Nicholson (1964). Canadian Expeditionary Force 1914–1919:
  Official History of the Canadian Army in the First World War (PDF).
  Queen's Printer. pp. 101–111, 165, 207–210.
[194] Desmond Morton (1994). When Your Number's Up: The Canadian Soldier in
  the First World War. Random House of Canada. p. 64. ISBN
  978-0-394-22388-9.
[195] Ninette Kelley; Michael J. Trebilcock (2010). The making of the
  mosaic: a history of Canadian immigration policy. University of Toronto
  Press. p. 176. ISBN 978-0-8020-9536-7.
[196] John Ashley Soames Grenville (2005). A history of the world from the
  20th to the 21st century. Routledge. p. 375. ISBN 978-0-415-28954-2.
[197] Elizabeth Armstrong (1974). The Crisis of Quebec, 1914–1918.
  McGill-Queen's Press (MQUP). p. 152. ISBN 978-0-7710-9774-4.
[198] Brian Tennyson (2013). The Canadian Experience of the Great War: A
  Guide to Memoirs. Scarecrow Press. p. 481. ISBN 978-0-8108-8680-3.
[199] Geoffrey Hayes; Michael Bechthold; Laurier Centre for Military,
  Strategic and Disarmament Studies (2007). Vimy Ridge: a Canadian
  reassessment. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. p. 280. ISBN
  978-0-88920-508-6.
[200] Briton Cooper Busch; Western Front Association (2003). Canada and the
  Great War: Western Front Association papers. McGill-Queen's Press (MQUP).
  p. 150. ISBN 978-0-7735-2570-2.
[201] Clifford Kinvig (2007). Churchill's Crusade: The British Invasion of
  Russia, 1918–1920. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 63. ISBN
  978-1-84725-021-6.
[202] Benjamin Isitt (2010). "From Victoria to Vladivostok: Canada's
  Siberian Expedition, 1917–19" (PDF). UBC Press.
[203] Jeffrey Grey (2008). A military history of Australia. Cambridge
  University Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-521-87523-3.
[204] Walter J. Boyne (2002). Air Warfare: an International Encyclopedia:
  M–Z. ABC-CLIO. p. 116. ISBN 978-1-57607-345-2.
[205] Dan McCaffery (2000). Canada's Warplanes: Unique Aircraft in Canada's
  Aviation Museums. James Lorimer & Company. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-55028-699-1.
[206] Larry Gray (2000). We are the Dead. General Store Publishing House.
  p. 198. ISBN 978-1-894263-24-5.
[207] World War I: A–D. ABC-CLIO. 2005. p. 255. ISBN 978-1-85109-420-2.
[208] William Alexander Binny Douglas; Brereton Greenhous (1995). Out of
  the shadows: Canada in the Second World War. Dundurn Press. p. 34. ISBN
  978-1-55002-151-6.
[209] Michael Petrou (2008). Renegades: Canadians in the Spanish Civil War.
  UBC Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-7748-1418-8.
[210] John Virtue (2008). Fred Taylor: brother in the shadows.
  McGill-Queen's Press (MQUP). p. 70. ISBN 978-0-7735-3359-2.
[211] William Rayner (2011). Canada on the Doorstep: 1939. Dundurn Press.
  p. 44. ISBN 978-1-55488-993-8.
[212] Barry M. Gough (2010). Historical Dictionary of Canada. Scarecrow
  Press. p. 261. ISBN 978-0-8108-5496-3.
[213] Michaëlle Jean (October 20, 2001). "Speech on the Occasion of the
  Unveiling of the MacKenzie-Papineau Battalion Monument". Office of the
  Governor General of Canada. Retrieved January 1, 2012.
[214] Charles D. Kipp (2005). Because We Are Canadians: A Battlefield
  Memoir. Douglas & McIntyre. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-55365-112-3.
[215] Edmund Cosgrove; Brick Billing (2003). Canada's Fighting Pilots.
  Dundurn Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-919614-97-0.
[216] Christopher M. Bell; Bruce A. Elleman (2003). Naval mutinies of the
  twentieth century: an international perspective. Frank Cass. p. 246. ISBN
  978-0-7146-5460-7.
[217] In reality, a small brigade numbering 1,973 soldiers and two civilian
  supervisors of the Auxiliary Services, commanded by a brigadier. See
  Stacey, C.P., and Volume I of the Official History of the Canadian Army
  in the Second World War.
[218] David Jay Bercuson; Sydney F. Wise (1994). The Valour and the horror
  revisited. McGill-Queen's Press (MQUP). p. 110. ISBN 978-0-7735-1271-9.
[219] John Alan English (1991). The Canadian Army and the Normandy
  campaign: a study of failure in high command. Greenwood Publishing Group.
  p. 75. ISBN 978-0-275-93019-6.
[220] Lance Goddard (2007). Hell & high water: Canada and the Italian
  campaign. Dundurn Press. p. 61. ISBN 978-1-55002-728-0.
[221] Mark Zuehlke (2004). Ortona: Canada's Epic World War II Battle.
  Douglas & McIntyre. p. 4. ISBN 978-1-55054-557-9.
[222] Tim Saunders (2004). Juno Beach: 3rd Canadian & 79th armoured
  divisions. McGill-Queen's Press (MQUP). p. 8. ISBN 978-0-7735-2792-8.
[223] Anthony Hall; Tony Hall (2004). D-Day: Operation Overlord Day by Day.
  Zenith Imprint. p. 126. ISBN 978-0-7603-1607-8.
[224] Lance Goddard (2005). Canada and the liberation of the Netherlands,
  May 1945. Dundurn Press. p. 105. ISBN 978-1-55002-547-7.
[225] Douglas E. Delaney (2012). Corps Commanders: Five British and
  Canadian Generals at War, 1939–45. UBC Press. p. 167. ISBN
  978-0-7748-2090-5.
[226] Lance Goddard (2005). Canada and the liberation of the Netherlands,
  May 1945. Dundurn Press. pp. 130–131. ISBN 978-1-55002-547-7.
[227] J. T. Copp; Richard Nielsen (1996). No price too high: Canadians and
  the Second World War. McGraw-Hill Ryerson. p. 103. ISBN
  978-0-07-552713-8.
[228] Christopher McCreery (2007). The Maple Leaf and the White Cross: A
  History of St. John Ambulance and the Most Venerable Order of the
  Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem in Canada. Dundurn Press. p. 109. ISBN
  978-1-55002-740-2.
[229] D. Collett Wadge (1946). Women in uniform. Imperial War Museum. p.
  257. ISBN 978-1-901623-61-1.
[230] Mac Johnston (2008). Corvettes Canada: convoy veterans of WWII tell
  their true stories. John Wiley & Sons. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-470-15429-8.
[231] Stanley Sandler (2002). Ground warfare: an international
  encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 159. ISBN 978-1-57607-344-5.
[232] R. D. Francis; Donald B. Smith; Richard Jones; Donald B. Smith
  (2009). Journeys: A History of Canada. Cengage Learning. p. 428. ISBN
  978-0-17-644244-6.
[233] Thomas Lemieux, and David Card. "Education, earnings, and the
  'Canadian GI Bill," Canadian Journal of Economics/Revue canadienne
  d'économique (2001) 34#2 pp: 313–344. online
[234] Amy Knight (2007). How the Cold War Began. Basic Books. p. 15. ISBN
  978-0-7867-1938-9.
[235] Franca Iacovetta; Roberto Perin; Angelo Principe (2000). Enemies
  within: Italian and other internees in Canada and abroad. University of
  Toronto Press. p. 142. ISBN 978-0-8020-8235-0.
[236] Robert Bothwell (2007). Alliance and illusion: Canada and the world,
  1945–1984. UBC Press. p. 214. ISBN 978-0-7748-1368-6.
[237] David J. Bercuson (2002). Blood on the Hills: The Canadian Army in
  the Korean War. University of Toronto Press. p. 48. ISBN
  978-0-8020-8516-0.
[238] Patrick James; Mark J. Kasoff (2008). Canadian studies in the new
  millennium. University of Toronto Press. p. 265. ISBN 978-0-8020-9468-1.
[239] Fred Gaffen (1995). Cross-border warriors: Canadians in American
  forces, Americans in Canadian forces: from the Civil War to the Gulf.
  Dundurn Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-55002-225-4.
[240] Rodney P. Carlisle (2007). Iraq War. Infobase Publishing. p. 74. ISBN
  978-0-8160-7129-6.
[241] Bernd Horn; Tony Balasevicius (2007). Casting light on the shadows:
  Canadian perspectives on special operations forces. Dundurn Press. p.
  190. ISBN 978-1-55002-694-8.
[242] Peter Pigott (2002). Wings across Canada: an illustrated history of
  Canadian aviation. Dundurn Press. p. 126. ISBN 978-1-55002-412-8.
[243] Stanley Sandler (2002). Ground warfare: an international
  encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 149. ISBN 978-1-57607-344-5.
[244] Andrew Cohen (2011). While Canada Slept: How We Lost Our Place in the
  World. Random House Digital. p. 31. ISBN 978-1-55199-587-8.
[245] John E. Jessup (1998). An encyclopedic dictionary of conflict and
  conflict resolution, 1945–1996. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 405. ISBN
  978-0-313-28112-9.
[246] John Melady (2012). Korea: Canada's Forgotten War. Dundurn Press. p.
  178. ISBN 978-1-4597-0132-8.
[247] Maurice Isserman; John Stewart Bowman (2003). Korean War. Infobase
  Publishing. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-8160-4939-4.
[248] Gordon L. Rottman (2002). Korean War order of battle: United States,
  United Nations, and Communist Ground, Naval, and Air Forces, 1950–1953.
  Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 126. ISBN 978-0-275-97835-8.
[249] Andrew Cohen (2008). Extraordinary Canadians: Lester B. Pearson.
  Penguin Canada. p. 99. ISBN 978-0-14-317269-7.
[250] John Melady. Korea: Canada's forgotten war (2nd ed.). Dundurn Press.
  pp. 9–13. ISBN 978-1-4597-0132-8.
[251] David J. Bercuson (2002). Blood on the Hills: The Canadian Army in
  the Korean War. University of Toronto Press. p. 221. ISBN
  978-0-8020-8516-0.
[252] Douglas J. Murray; Paul R. Viotti (1994). The defense policies of
  nations: a comparative study. JHU Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-8018-4794-3.
[253] Larry Milberry (1984). Sixty years: the RCAF and CF Air Command
  1924–1984. CANAV Books. p. 367. ISBN 978-0-9690703-4-4.
[254] Andrew Cohen; J. L. Granatstein (2011). Trudeau's Shadow: The Life
  and Legacy of Pierre Elliott Trudeau. Random House Digital. p. 380. ISBN
  978-0-307-36385-5.
[255] Reingard M. Nischik (2008). History of literature in Canada:
  English-Canadian and French-Canadian. Camden House. p. 287. ISBN
  978-1-57113-359-5.
[256] Andrew Cohen (2011). While Canada Slept: How We Lost Our Place in the
  World. Random House Digital. p. 32. ISBN 978-1-55199-587-8.
[257] J. L. Granatstein (2011). Canada's Army: Waging War and Keeping the
  Peace. University of Toronto Press. p. 366. ISBN 978-1-4426-1178-8.
[258] Sydney Percival Smith; David Scott Smith (2010). Lifting the Silence:
  A World War II RCAF Bomber Pilot Reunites with His Past. Dundurn Press.
  p. 208. ISBN 978-1-55488-774-3.
[259] Thomas Park (March 21, 2007). "Why Canada Must Go To Iraq". The
  Harvard Citizen. Retrieved November 18, 2009.
[260] "Canada's Secret War: Vietnam". CBC. Retrieved April 7, 2007.
[261] Wilbur H. Morrison (2001). The Elephant and the Tiger. Hellgate
  Press. p. 597. ISBN 978-1-55571-612-7.
[262] Kathleen Malley-Morrison (2009). State Violence and the Right to
  Peace: Western Europe and North America. ABC-CLIO. p. 167. ISBN
  978-0-275-99651-2.
[263] Barry Scott Zellen (2009). On thin ice: the Inuit, the state, and the
  challenge of Arctic sovereignty. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 197. ISBN
  978-0-7391-3278-4.
[264] Michael Riordon (2005). An unauthorized biography of the world: oral
  history on the front lines. Between The Lines. p. 10. ISBN
  978-1-896357-93-5.
[265] Harry Swain (2011). Oka: a political crisis and its legacy. Douglas &
  McIntyre. p. 134. ISBN 978-1-55365-429-2.
[266] Rima, Wilkes; Michael, Kehl (13 March 2014). "One image, multiple
  nationalisms: Face to Face and the Siege at Kanehsatà:ke". Nations and
  Nationalism. 20 (3): 481–502. doi:10.1111/nana.12067. Retrieved 22
  December 2015.
[267] Michael L. Hadley; Robert Neil Huebert; Fred W. Crickard (1996). A
  nation's navy: in quest of Canadian naval identity. McGill-Queen's Press
  (MQUP). p. 13. ISBN 978-0-7735-1506-2.
[268] Jean H. Morin; Richard Howard Gimblett (1997). Operation Friction,
  1990–1991: the Canadian forces in the Persian Gulf. Dundurn Press. p.
  253. ISBN 978-1-55002-257-5.
[269] "Canada and Multilateral Operations in Support of Peace and
  Stability". National Defence. 2010. Retrieved April 15, 2010.
[270] Jean H. Morin; Richard Howard Gimblett (1997). Operation Friction,
  1990–1991: the Canadian forces in the Persian Gulf. Dundurn Press. pp.
  168–170. ISBN 978-1-55002-257-5.
[271] "War photos being probed in Canada". Atlanta Journal. October 11,
  1996. p. A8. Retrieved July 31, 2012.
[272] Bernd Horn (2009). Fortune favours the brave: tales of courage and
  tenacity in Canadian military history. Dundurn Press. p. 339. ISBN
  978-1-55002-841-6.
[273] Lee Windsor; David Charters; Brent Wilson (2010). Kandahar tour: the
  turning point in Canada's Afghan mission. John Wiley & Sons. p. 14. ISBN
  978-0-470-15761-9.
[274] "SCONDVA – Transcripts – Monday, April 27, 1998". National Defence.
  Retrieved August 1, 2012.
[275] Bernd Horn (2009). Fortune favours the brave: tales of courage and
  tenacity in Canadian military history. Dundurn Press. p. 334. ISBN
  978-1-55002-841-6.
[276] Kim Richard Nossal (2002). Diplomatic Departures: Conservative Era in
  Canadian Foreign Policy. UBC Press. p. 120. ISBN 978-0-7748-0865-1.
[277] Nina M. Serafino (2005). Peacekeeping and related stability
  operations. Nova Publishers. p. 68. ISBN 978-1-59454-231-2.
[278] Ken Rutherford (2008). Humanitarianism under fire: the US and UN
  intervention in Somalia. Kumarian Press. p. 109. ISBN 978-1-56549-260-8.
[279] Grant Dawson (2007). "Here is hell": Canada's engagement in Somalia.
  UBC Press. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-7748-1297-9.
[280] Sherene Razack (2004). Dark threats and white knights: the Somalia
  Affair, peacekeeping, and the new imperialism. University of Toronto
  Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-8020-8663-1.
[281] Howard Coombs (2008). The Insubordinate and the Noncompliant: Case
  Studies of Canadian Mutiny and Disobedience, 1920 to Present. Dundurn
  Press. p. 397. ISBN 978-1-55002-764-8.
[282] "Canadian military rush to Manitoba flood zone". CBC. Retrieved
  August 2, 2012.
[283] Lauri Seidlitz (2000). Canada through the Decades: the 1990s. Weigl
  Educational Publishers. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-896990-38-5.
[284] Michael Head; Scott Mann (2009). Domestic deployment of the armed
  forces: military powers, law and human rights. Ashgate Publishing. p. 72.
  ISBN 978-0-7546-7346-0.
[285] Kevin Rolleson; Catherine Mitchell (May 14, 1997). "Thank-you!".
  Winnipeg Free Press. p. A1.
[286] Penny Draper (2011). Ice Storm. Coteau Books. p. 192. ISBN
  978-1-55050-451-4.
[287] James F. Miskel (2008). Disaster Response and Homeland Security: What
  Works, What Doesn't. Stanford University Press. p. 39. ISBN
  978-0-8047-5972-4.
[288] Martin Pegler (2006). Out of Nowhere: A History of the Military
  Sniper. Osprey Publishing. p. 324. ISBN 978-1-84603-140-3.
[289] "MP says U.S. treatment of Afghan prisoners coming back to haunt it".
  CBC. March 24, 2003. Retrieved July 23, 2008.
[290] Centre for International Governance Innovation (2007). Exporting good
  governance: temptations and challenges in Canada's aid program. Wilfrid
  Laurier University Press. p. 152. ISBN 978-1-55458-029-3.
[291] Saskatoon Women's Calendar Collective. Her story: the Canadian
  women's calendar. Coteau Books. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-55050-427-9.
[292] Bernd Horn; R. J. Hillier (2010). No Lack of Courage: Operation
  Medusa, Afghanistan. Dundurn Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-1-55488-766-8.
[293] Bill Graveland (December 25, 2006). "Canadian Soldier chosen as
  Newsmaker of 2006". CTV. Canadian Press. Retrieved January 2, 2007.
[294] "Canadian troops mark final combat rotation". CBC. November 27, 2010.
  Retrieved August 1, 2012.
[295] "Canada announces new role in Afghanistan". Canadian Forces. 2009.
  Retrieved February 19, 2011.
[296] "Operation Peregrine: Canadian Forces Personnel Fighting B.C. Forest
  Fires". Land Force Western Area. 2009. Retrieved February 19, 2011.
[297] Patrick Lennox (2009). At home and abroad: the Canada-US relationship
  and Canada's place in the world. UBC Press. p. 108. ISBN
  978-0-7748-1705-9.
[298] Frank P. Harvey (2004). Smoke and mirrors: globalized terrorism and
  the illusion of multilateral security. University of Toronto Press. p.
  235. ISBN 978-0-8020-8948-9.
[299] Mark Gollom (October 9, 2008). "Our own voice on Iraq?". CBC.
  Retrieved January 12, 2009.
[300] Wayne S. Cox; Bruno Charbonneau (2010). Locating global order:
  American power and Canadian security after 9/11. UBC Press. p. 120. ISBN
  978-0-7748-1831-5.
[301] Peter Laufer; Norman Solomon (2006). Mission Rejected: U.S. Soldiers
  Who Say No to Iraq. Chelsea Green Publishing. p. 16. ISBN
  978-1-933392-04-2.
[302] "Resolution 1973 (2011)" (PDF). United Nations Security Council
  Resolution. 1973. Retrieved January 1, 2012.
[303] Kenneth M. Pollack; Akram Al-Turk; Michael S. Doran; Daniel L. Byman;
  Pavel Baev (2011). The Arab Awakening: America and the Transformation of
  the Middle East. Brookings Institution Press. p. 121. ISBN
  978-0-8157-2226-7.
[304] "Operation MOBILE". Canadian Forces. 2011. Retrieved January 1, 2012.
[305] "NATO's Libya mission to be led by Canadian". CBCNews. CBC. March 25,
  2011. Retrieved March 25, 2011.
[306] "NATO No-Fly Zone over Libya Operation UNIFIED PROTECTOR" (PDF).
  NATO. March 25, 2011. Retrieved January 1, 2012.
[307] "Statement by the Prime Minister of Canada On the End of NATO-led
  Libyan Mission". Canada News Centre (Government of Canada). October 28,
  2011. Retrieved January 1, 2012.
[308] "Canada sending C-17 transport plane to help allies in Mali".
  www.cbcnews.ca. 14 January 2013. Retrieved 14 January 2013.
[309] "Canadian special forces on the ground in Mali". National Post. 28
  January 2013. Retrieved 28 January 2013.
[310] "Deploring ongoing violence, UN rights expert urges Malian parties to
  work together towards lasting peace". United Nations News Center.
  Retrieved 2015-03-12.
[311] "Operation IMPACT".
[312] "National Defence – Canadian Armed Forces – Video – Operation IMPACT
  – Technical briefing".
[313] Barton, Rosemary (26 November 2015). "Justin Trudeau to pull fighter
  jets, keep other military planes in ISIS fight". CBC News. Retrieved 27
  November 2015.
[314] "Science and Technology Support for National Security: An
  International Review" (PDF). Defence Science and Technology Organisation.
  2007. Retrieved January 25, 2012.
[315] Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat. "Departmental Planned Spending
  and Full-Time Equivalents". Queen's Printer. Retrieved February 2, 2008.
[316] Department of Finance (2005). The Budget Speech 2005 (PDF). Canada in
  the World. Queen's Printer. p. 20. Retrieved February 2, 2009.
[317] Department of National Defence. "'Canada First' National Defence
  Procurement". Queen's Printer. Retrieved February 2, 2009.
[318] "Row over Canada F-35 fighter jet order". BBC News. July 16, 2010.
  Retrieved July 20, 2010.
[319] Mike De Souza; David Pugliese (July 18, 2010). "Conservatives
  announce $9B purchase of military fighter jets". Vancouver Sun. Retrieved
  July 15, 2009.
[320] "Military expenditure of Canada". SIPRI. Retrieved August 2, 2012.
[321] Nathan Tidridge (2011). Canada's constitutional monarchy. Dundurn
  Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-1-4597-0084-0.
[322] Gary Toffoli. "The Royal Family and the Armed Forces". Canadian Royal
  Heritage Trust.
[323] Elizabeth II (December 12, 2008). National Defence Act. II.14.
  Queen's Printer.
[324] Victoria (March 29, 1867). "Constitution Act, 1867". Queen's Printer.
[325] Canadian Forces Grievance Board (August 28, 2006). "Canadian Forces
  Grievance Board". Queen's Printer. Archived from the original on April 7,
  2008. Retrieved February 7, 2008.
[326] Federal Court of Canada (January 21, 2008). "In the Matter of Aralt
  Mac Giolla Chainnigh v. the Attorney-General of Canada" (PDF). Queen's
  Printer. p. 5. 2008 FC 69. Retrieved February 27, 2008.
[327] Office of the Governor General of Canada. "Queen Elizabeth II Diamond
  Jubilee Medal" (PDF). Queen's Printer. Retrieved February 3, 2011.
[328] Royal Canadian Mounted Police. "Honours and Recognition Programs:
  Canadian National Honours". Queen's Printer. Retrieved May 20, 2009.
[329] Department of National Defence. "Canadian Honours Chart: Sacrifice
  Medal (SM)". Queen's Printer. Retrieved September 2, 2009.
[330] Christopher McCreery (2005). The Canadian honours system. Dundurn
  Press. pp. 361–363. ISBN 978-1-55002-554-5.
[331] Christopher McCreery (2005). The Order of Canada: its origins,
  history, and development. University of Toronto Press. p. 228. ISBN
  978-0-8020-3940-8.
[332] Mike Filey (1993). More Toronto sketches: "the way we were". Dundurn
  Press. p. 175. ISBN 978-1-55002-201-8.
[333] Isabel Teotonio (March 7, 2007). "Vets irate at Victoria Cross
  proposal". Toronto Star. Retrieved July 12, 2007.
[334] "Restoration of traditional military service names welcomed".
  Government of New Brunswick. 2011. Retrieved January 1, 2012.
[335] "Peacekeeping: Concepts, Evolution, and Canada's Role". Public Works
  and Government Services Canada. 1997. Retrieved January 5, 2012.
[336] Andrew Cohen (2008). Lester B. Pearson. Penguin Canada. pp. 114–116.
  ISBN 978-0-14-317269-7.
[337] Fred Gaffen (1987). In The Eye of The Storm: A History of Canadian
  Peacekeeping. Deneau & Wayne Publishers. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-88879-160-3.
[338] Lauri Johnson; Reva Joshee (2007). Multicultural education policies
  in Canada and the United States. UBC Press. p. 23. ISBN
  978-0-7748-1325-9.
[339] "Ranking of Military and Police Contributions to UN Operations"
  (PDF). United Nations. Retrieved February 24, 2011.
[340] "Troop and police contributors archive (1990–2011)". United Nations.
  2010. Retrieved January 1, 2012.
[341] Linda McQuaig (2010). Holding the Bully's Coat: Canada and the U.S.
  Empire. Random House Digital. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-385-67297-9.
[342] Antony Adolf (2009). Peace: a world history. Polity. ISBN
  978-0-7456-4125-6.
[343] Alan Vaughan Lowe; Adam Roberts; Jennifer Welsh (2008). The United
  Nations Security Council and war: the evolution of thought and practice
  since 1945. Oxford University Press. p. 280. ISBN 978-0-19-953343-5.
[344] Andrew Cohen (2008). Lester B. Pearson. Penguin Canada. pp. 116–125.
  ISBN 978-0-14-317269-7.
[345] Fred Gaffen (1987). In the eye of the storm: a history of Canadian
  peacekeeping. Deneau & Wayne. pp. 40–41. ISBN 978-0-88879-160-3.
[346] Andrew Cohen (2011). While Canada Slept: How We Lost Our Place in the
  World. Random House Digital. p. 82. ISBN 978-1-55199-587-8.
[347] Frederick H. Fleitz (2002). Peacekeeping fiascoes of the 1990s:
  causes, solutions, and U.S. interests. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp.
  54–55. ISBN 978-0-275-97367-4.
[348] Dan Bjarnason; Adrienne Clarkson; Peter Mansbridge (2011). Triumph at
  Kapyong: Canada's Pivotal Battle in Korea. Dundurn Press. p. 18. ISBN
  978-1-55488-872-6.
[349] Christopher McCreery (2005). The Canadian honours system. Dundurn
  Press. p. 181. ISBN 978-1-55002-554-5.

Further reading

Main article: Bibliography of Canadian military history
- Black, Jeremy (2011). Fighting for America: The Struggle for Mastery in
  North America, 1519–1871. Indiana University Press. ISBN
  978-0-253-35660-4.
- Douglas, W. A. B. The RCN in Transition, 1910–1985 (1988), Navy
- Horn, Bernd (2008). Show No Fear: Daring Actions in Canadian Military
  History. Dundurn Press. ISBN 978-1-55002-816-4.
- Morton, Desmond (1981). Canada and war: a military and political history.
  Butterworths. ISBN 978-0-409-85240-0.
- Shaw, Susan Evans, and Jean Crankshaw. Canadians at War Vol. 1: A Guide
  to the Battlefields and Memorials of World War I; Vol. 2: A Guide to the
  Battlefields and Memorials of World War II (2014)
- Zuehlke, Mark (2006). Canadian Military Atlas: Four Centuries of Conflict
  from New France to Kosovo. Douglas & McIntyre. ISBN 978-1-55365-209-0.
Historiography
- Douglas, W.A.B. "Marching to Different Drums: Canadian Military History"
  The Journal of Military History (1992) 56#2 pp 245–260.

External links

- Canadian Military History Gateway – Government of Canada
- Canadian Military History – Library and Archives Canada
- Canadian Military History – Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and
  Disarmament Studies, Wilfrid Laurier University
- War and the Foundation of Canada, Canadian War Museum
- CBC Archives (War & Conflict)

Foreign relations of Canada

The foreign relations of Canada are Canada's relations with other
governments and peoples. Canada's most important relationship, being the
largest trading relationship in the world, is with the United States.¹
However, Canadian governments have traditionally maintained active
relations with other nations, mostly through multilateral organizations
such as the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, La Francophonie,
the Organization of American States, and the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO).

History

Colonial era

The British North American colonies which today constitute modern Canada
had little control over their foreign affairs until the achievement of
responsible government in the late 1840s. Up to that time, wars,
negotiations and treaties were carried out by the British government to
settle disputes concerning the colonies over fishing and boundaries and to
promote trade. Notable examples from the colonial period include the Nootka
Convention, the War of 1812, the Rush–Bagot Treaty, the Treaty of 1818, the
Webster–Ashburton Treaty, and the Oregon Treaty. Before the granting of
responsible government, British diplomats handled foreign affairs and had
the goal of achieving British goals, especially peace with the United
States; domestic Canadian interests were secondary. The Canadian–American
Reciprocity Treaty of 1854 signaled an important change in relations
between Britain and its North American colonies. In this treaty, the
Canadas were allowed to impose tariff duties more favourable to a foreign
country (the U.S.) than to Britain, a precedent that was extended by new
tariffs in 1859, 1879 and 1887, despite angry demands on the part of
British industrialists that these tariffs be disallowed by London.²

Dominion of Canada: 1867

Soon after Confederation, the first prime minister Sir John A. Macdonald
appointed Sir John Rose as his lobbyist in London. When Alexander Mackenzie
became prime minister, he sent George Brown to represent Canada in
Washington during British-American trade talks. After the Conservative
Party came back to power in 1878, the government sent Alexander Galt to
London, as well as to France and Spain. Although the British government was
concerned about this nascent Canadian diplomacy, it finally consented to
giving Galt the formal title of High Commissioner in 1880. A trade
commissioner was appointed to Australia in 1894. As High Commissioner,
Charles Tupper helped negotiate an agreement with France in 1893 but it was
countersigned by the British ambassador as the Queen's official
representative to France. Meanwhile, in 1882 the province of Quebec made
its first of many forays into the international community by sending a
representative, Hector Fabre to Paris in 1882.³

Canada's responses to international events elsewhere were limited at this
time. During 1878 tensions between Britain and Russia, for example, Canada
constructed a few limited defences but did little else. By the time of the
British campaign in Sudan of 1884–85, however, Canada was expected to
contribute troops. Since Ottawa was reluctant to become involved, the
Governor General of Canada privately raised 386 voyageurs at Britain's
expense to help British forces on the Nile river. By 1885, many Canadians
offered to volunteer as part of a potential Canadian force, however the
government declined to act. This stood in sharp contrast to Australia (New
South Wales), which raised and paid for its own troops.⁴

The first Canadian commercial representative abroad was John Short Larke.
Larke became Canada's first trade commissioner following a successful trade
delegation to Australia led by Canada's first Minister of Trade and
Commerce, Mackenzie Bowell.⁵

In 1909, Prime Minister Sir Wilfrid Laurier reluctantly established a
Department of External Affairs and the positions of Secretary and
Under-Secretary of State for External Affairs, largely at the urging of the
Governor-General Earl Grey and James Bryce, the British ambassador in
Washington, who estimated that three-quarters of his embassy's time was
devoted to Canadian-American matters. The Alaska boundary dispute was
resolved by a commission in 1903, at which the British delegate sided with
the Americans, stunning Canadians into a realization that the Empire's
interests were paramount to Canada's. The Canadian judges refused to sign
the award (issued 20 October 1903) as a protest and angry anti-British
feeling erupted in Canada.⁶ ⁷

World Wars

Due to Canada's important contributions to the British war effort in
1914–18, Prime Minister Sir Robert Borden insisted that Canada be treated
as a separate signatory to the Treaty of Versailles. In 1920 Canada became
a full member of the League of Nations, and acted independently of London.
It was elected to the League Council (governing board) in 1927. It did not
play a leading role, and generally opposed sanctions or military action by
the League. The League was virtually defunct by 1939.⁸

The government operated a Canadian War Mission in Washington, 1918 to 1921,
but it was not until William Lyon Mackenzie King became Prime Minister in
1921 that Canada seriously pursued an independent foreign policy. In 1923,
Canada independently signed the Halibut Treaty with the United States at
Mackenzie King's insistence – the first time Canada signed a treaty without
the British also signing it. In 1925, the government appointed a permanent
diplomat to Geneva to deal with the League of Nations and International
Labour Organization. Following the Balfour Declaration of 1926, King
appointed Vincent Massey as the first Canadian minister plenipotentiary in
Washington (1926), raised the office in Paris to legation status under
Philippe Roy (1928), and opened a legation in Tokyo with Herbert Marler as
envoy (1929).

Canada achieved legislative independence with the enactment of the Statute
of Westminster in 1931, although British diplomatic missions continued to
represent Canada in most countries throughout the 1930s.

In the 1930s, the Mackenzie King government strongly supported the
appeasement policy of the Chamberlain government in London toward Nazi
Germany.⁹ ¹⁰

After the outbreak of World War II in 1939, Canada rapidly expanded its
diplomatic missions abroad. While Canada hosted two major Allied
conferences in Quebec in 1943 and 1944, neither Prime Minister Mackenzie
King nor senior generals and admirals were invited to take part in any of
the discussions.¹¹

Since 1945

The period from 1945 to 1957 is considered the golden age of Canadian
diplomacy under Lester B. Pearson, when Canada had its greatest impact on
world diplomacy.

In 1982, responsibility for trade was added with the creation of the
Department of External Affairs and International Trade. In 1995, the name
was changed to Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade.

Canada has often carried out its foreign policy through coalitions and
international organizations, and through the work of numerous federal
institutions.¹² Under the aegis of Canadian foreign policy, various
departments and agencies conduct their own international relations and
outreach activities. For example, the Canadian Forces and the Department of
National Defence conduct defence diplomacy in support of national
interests, including through the deployment of Canadian Defence Attachés,¹³
participation in bilateral and multilateral military forums (e.g., the
System of Cooperation Among the American Air Forces), ship and aircraft
visits, military training and cooperation,¹⁴ and other such outreach and
relationship-building efforts.

There are two major elements of Canadian foreign relations, Canada-US
relations and multilateralism.

Greg Donaghy, of Canada's Department of Foreign Affairs, argues:

  Since taking power in 2006, Prime Minister Harper's government has
  clearly abandoned the liberal internationalism that had so often
  characterized Ottawa's approach to world affairs, replacing it with a new
  emphasis on realist notions of national interest, enhanced capabilities,
  and Western democratic values.¹⁵

Administration

Canada's international relations are the responsibility of the Department
of Global Affairs, which is run by the Minister of Foreign Affairs, a
position currently held by Chrystia Freeland. Traditionally the Prime
Minister has played a prominent role in foreign affairs decisions. Foreign
aid, formerly delivered through the Canadian International Development
Agency, has been administered by DFATD since March 2013.¹⁶

Foreign aid

Canada's foreign aid was administered by the Canadian International
Development Agency, which provided aid and assistance to other countries
around the world through various methods. In March 2013 CIDA ceased to
exist when it was folded into DFAIT, creating DFATD.¹⁶ The strategy of the
Canadian government's foreign aid policy reflects an emphasis to meet the
Millennium Development Goals, while also providing assistance in response
to foreign humanitarian crises. However a growing focus on development,
defense, and diplomacy in recent decades has produced a concentration of
foreign aid funding to countries determined to be security risks to
Canadian policy. For example, in 2004-2005 the largest recipients of
Canada's official developmental assistance were Afghanistan and Iraq, two
nations in conflict with the United States of America and its allies at the
time. The structural emphasis on security and industry development has
contributed to a fixed foreign policy that generally fails to consider
global health and international social and economic inequalities.¹⁷

In addition, although Canada's foreign aid policies has been molded with
the intentions to be in accordance to the Millennium Development Goals, its
focus on human security has slowly shifted away as new policy developments
arose. The foreign aid provided by the country became less
"people-centered" and less health-related. Canada's contributions have been
quite inconsistent with regards to human security, which indicates that the
reputation that the country has built throughout the years, in fact,
exceeds the country's actual record. Canada's contributions internationally
have been detrimental and crucial but it needs redirecting back to its
original goals.¹⁷

Federalism and foreign relations

One of the most unusual aspects of Canadian foreign policy is the high
level of freedom the provinces have to operate internationally. Despite the
fact the federal government worked to strengthen its foreign affairs
responsibilities as relinquished by Britain, the provinces have always had
pretensions in this area, dating from Quebec's first representative to
France in the 1886, Hector Fabre. Alberta has had representatives abroad,
starting with Alberta House in London (37 Hill Street), since 1948, and
British Columbia around 25 years before that.¹⁸ By 1984 Quebec had offices
in ten countries including eight in the United States and three in other
Canadian provinces while Ontario had thirteen delegations in seven
countries.¹⁹ Most provincial governments have a ministry of international
relations, both Quebec and New Brunswick are members of La Francophonie
(separately from the federal delegation), Alberta has quasi-diplomatic
offices in Washington (currently staffed by former cabinet minister Gary
Mar). Provincial premiers were always part of the famous Team Canada trade
missions of the 1990s. In 2007, Quebec premier Jean Charest proposed a free
trade agreement with the European Union.

Provinces have always participated in some foreign relations, and appointed
agents general in the United Kingdom and France for many years, but they
cannot legislate treaties. The French-speaking provinces of Quebec and New
Brunswick are members of la Francophonie, and Ontario has announced it
wishes to join. Quebec has pursued its own foreign relations, especially
with France. Alberta opened an office in Washington, D.C., in March 2005 to
lobby the American government, mostly to reopen the borders to import of
Canadian beef. With the exception of Quebec, none of these efforts
undermine the ability of the federal government to conduct foreign affairs.

Bilateral relations

Americas

Europe

Asia-Pacific

Africa

Other bilateral and plurilateral relations

One important difference between Canadian and American foreign policy has
been in relations with communist governments. Canada established diplomatic
relations with the People's Republic of China (13 October 1970) long before
the Americans did (1 January 1979). It also has maintained trade and
diplomatic relations with communist Cuba, despite pressures from the United
States.

Arms Control

Main article: Canadian Arms trade

Canadian Government guidance for export controls on weapons systems is
published by Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada.¹³⁹ ¹⁴⁰
Automatic Firearms Country Control List, comprises a list of approved
export nations which include as of 2014; (Albania, Australia, Belgium,
Botswana, Bulgaria, Colombia, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia,
Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Latvia,
Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal,
Romania, Saudi Arabia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, United
Kingdom, and the United States).

Selected dates of diplomatic representation abroad

- Australia – 1939 – first high commissioner Charles Burchell
- Belgium – January 1939 – first ambassador Jean Désy
- China – 1943 – first ambassador General Victor Odlum
- France – 1882 – agent without diplomatic status Hector Fabre
- France – 1928 – first minister Philippe Roy
- France – 1944 – first ambassador George Philias Vanier
- International Criminal Court – 2003 – first Judge-President Philippe
  Kirsch
- Japan – May 1929 – first minister Sir Herbert Marler
- Mexico – January 1944 – first ambassador William Ferdinand Alphonse
  Turgeon
- Netherlands – January 1939 – first ambassador Jean Désy
- Newfoundland – 1941 – first high commissioner Charles Burchell
- United Kingdom – 1880 – first high commissioner Sir Alexander Galt
- United Nations – first ambassador General Andrew McNaughton
- United States of America – 1926 – first minister Vincent Massey

Multilateralism

Canada is and has been a strong supporter of multilateralism. The country
is one of the world's leading peacekeepers, sending soldiers under U.N.
authority around the world.¹⁴¹ Canadian former Minister of Foreign Affairs
and subsequent Prime Minister, Lester B. Pearson, is credited for his
contributions to modern international peacekeeping, for which he won the
Nobel Peace Prize in 1957.¹⁴² Canada is committed to disarmament, and is
especially noted for its leadership in the 1997 Convention in Ottawa on the
prohibition of the use, stockpiling, production and transfer of
anti-personnel mines.¹⁴³

In the last century Canada has made efforts to reach out to the rest of the
world and promoting itself as a "middle power" able to work with large and
small nations alike. This was demonstrated during the Suez Crisis when
Lester B. Pearson mollified the tension by proposing peacekeeping efforts
and the inception of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force. In that spirit,
Canada developed and has tried to maintain a leading role in UN
peacekeeping efforts.¹⁴⁴

Canada has long been reluctant to participate in military operations that
are not sanctioned by the United Nations, such as the Vietnam War or the
2003 Invasion of Iraq, but does join in sanctioned operations such as the
first Gulf War, Afghanistan and Libya. It participated with its NATO and
OAS allies in the Kosovo Conflict and in Haiti respectively.

Despite Canada's track record as a liberal democracy that has embraced the
values of the UN's Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Canada has not
been involved in any major plan for Reform of the United Nations Security
Council; although the Canadian government does support UN reform, in order
to strengthen UN efficiency and effectiveness.¹⁴⁵

Canada hosted the third Summit of the Americas in Quebec City.

Canada is working on setting up military bases around the world, while
reducing aid and diplomatic efforts.¹⁴⁶ ¹⁴⁷ In the late 90s, Canada
actively promoted the notion of human security as an alternative to
business-as-usual approaches to foreign aid. However, by invoking the
"three Ds" (defense, diplomacy, and development) as the fundamental basis
for Canadian foreign policy, and then implementing this in a manner that
conforms more to military security and trade interests, Canada has
successfully distanced itself from the humanitarian objectives of foreign
aid, with the human security goal far from being achieved. ¹⁴⁸ Under the
Harper government, emphasis on promoting Canada's military presence
internationally has included an effort to rebrand Canada historically as a
"warrior nation", in large measure to counter the image of only supporting
peacekeeping and multilateralism.¹⁴⁹

Canada–Asia relations

See also: Asia–Canada relations

In 1985 the Parliament of Canada passed an Act to create the Asia Pacific
Foundation of Canada, a think-tank focusing on Canada-Asia relations, in
order to enhance Canada-Asia relations. Canada also seeks to expand its
ties to Pacific Rim economies through membership in the Asia-Pacific
Economic Cooperation forum (APEC). In addition, Canada is an active
participant in discussions stemming from the Organization for Security and
Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). Canada joined the Organization of American
States (OAS) in 1990 and has been an active member, hosting the OAS General
Assembly in Windsor, Ontario, in June 2000.

Canada–Caribbean relations

See also: Canada–Caribbean relations

Many Caribbean Community countries turn to Canada as a valued partner.¹⁵⁰
Canadians, particularly Canadian banks, played an important economic role
in the development of former British West Indies colonies. Efforts to
improve trade have included the idea of concluding a free trade agreement
to replace the 1986 bilateral CARIBCAN agreement. At various times, several
Caribbean countries have also considered joining Canadian Confederation as
new provinces or territories, although no Caribbean nation has implemented
such a proposal.

Canada–Commonwealth of Nations

See also: Canada–United Kingdom relations, Canada–New Zealand relations,
and Australia–Canada relations

Canada maintains close links to the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth
realms, with which Canada has strong historic ties and shares a monarch. It
also remains a member of the Commonwealth.

Canada–European Union relations

See also: Canada–European Union relations and Transatlantic relations

Canada–Latin American relations

See also: Canada–Latin America relations, Canada–Venezuela relations, and
Brazil–Canada relations

In recent years Canadian leaders have taken increasing interest in Latin
America. Canada has had diplomatic relations with Venezuela since January
1953 and the relations are based on mutual commercial interests, especially
in technology, oil and gas industry, telecommunications and others. Canada
has an ongoing trade dispute with Brazil.

International organizations

Canada is a member of the following organizations:¹⁵¹

ADB (nonregional member), AfDB (nonregional member), APEC, Arctic Council,
ARF, ASEAN (dialogue partner), Australia Group, BIS, Commonwealth of
Nations, CDB (nonregional member), EAPC, EBRD, FAO, FATF, G-20, G7, G8,
G-10, IADB, IAEA, IBRD (also known as the World Bank), ICAO, ICC, ICCt,
ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC,
IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, ITUC, MIGA, MINUSTAH, MONUSCO, NAFTA, NATO, NEA,
NSG, OAS, OECD, OIF, OPCW, OSCE, Paris Club, PCA, PIF (partner), SECI
(observer), UN, UNAMID, UNCTAD, UNDOF, UNESCO, UNFICYP, UNHCR, UNMIS,
UNRWA, UNTSO, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO, Zangger Committee

Relations with international groups

Organizations with headquarters in Canada

- International Air Transport Association
- International Civil Aviation Organization
- Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization
- North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission

Major treaties signed in Canada

- Ottawa Treaty or Mine Ban Treaty (1997)
- Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987)
- Great Peace of Montreal (1701)

Territorial and boundary disputes

Further information: Former colonies and territories in Canada

Canada and the United States have negotiated the boundary between the
countries over many years, with the last significant agreement having taken
place in 1984 when the International Court of Justice ruled on the maritime
boundary in the Gulf of Maine. Likewise, Canada and France had previously
contested the maritime boundary surrounding the islands of St. Pierre and
Miquelon, but accepted a 1992 International Court of Arbitration ruling.

Remaining disputes include managed maritime boundary disputes with the US
(Dixon Entrance, Beaufort Sea, Strait of Juan de Fuca, Machias Seal
Island).

Arctic disputes

A long-simmering dispute between Canada and the U.S. involves the issue of
Canadian sovereignty over the Northwest Passage (the sea passages in the
Arctic). Canada's assertion that the Northwest Passage represents internal
(territorial) waters has been challenged by other countries, especially the
U.S., which argue that these waters constitute an international strait
(international waters). Canadians were incensed when Americans drove the
reinforced oil tanker Manhattan through the Northwest Passage in 1969,
followed by the icebreaker Polar Sea in 1985, both without asking for
Canadian permission. In 1970, the Canadian government enacted the Arctic
Waters Pollution Prevention Act, which asserts Canadian regulatory control
over pollution within a 100-nautical-mile (190 km) zone. In response, the
Americans in 1970 stated, "We cannot accept the assertion of a Canadian
claim that the Arctic waters are internal waters of Canada.... Such
acceptance would jeopardize the freedom of navigation essential for United
States naval activities worldwide." A compromise was reached in 1988, by an
agreement on "Arctic Cooperation," which pledges that voyages of American
icebreakers "will be undertaken with the consent of the Government of
Canada." However the agreement did not alter either country's basic legal
position. Essentially, the Americans agreed to ask for the consent of the
Government of Canada without conceding that they were obliged to. In
January 2006, David Wilkins, the American ambassador to Canada, said his
government opposes Stephen Harper's proposed plan to deploy military
icebreakers in the Arctic to detect interlopers and assert Canadian
sovereignty over those waters.¹⁵²

Also, there is a dispute with Denmark over the sovereignty of the
uninhabited Hans Island and surrounding waters in the Kennedy Channel
between Ellesmere Island and Greenland.

Along with other nations in the Arctic Council, Canada, Sweden, Iceland,
Norway, Finland, Denmark and Russia, the maritime boundaries in the far
north will be decided after countries have completed their submissions, due
in 2012. Russia has made an extensive claim based on the Russian position
that everything that is an extension of the Lomonosov Ridge should be
assigned to Russia.¹⁵³ ¹⁵⁴ Their submission had been rejected when first
submitted by the United Nations in 2001.¹⁵⁵ The regions represent some of
the most extreme environments on Earth yet there is a hope for
hypothetically commercially viable oil and gas deposits.

See also

References

[1] ""A Unique and Vital Relationship" between Cybelle and the US".
  Canadainternational.gc.ca. Retrieved 2011-06-03.
[2] Ian Robertson (2008). Sir Andrew Macphail: The Life and Legacy of a
  Canadian Man of Letters. McGill-Queen's Press. p. 90.
[3] Garth Stevenson (1997). Ex Uno Plures: Federal-Provincial Relations in
  Canada, 1867-1896. McGill-Queen's Press. p. 96.
[4] Roy MacLaren (2011). Canadians on the Nile. UBC Press. p. 171.
[5] History of Canada-Australia relations
[6] Kohn 2005.
[7] John A. Munro, "English-Canadianism and the Demand for Canadian
  Autonomy: Ontario's Response to the Alaska Boundary Decision, 1903,"
  Ontario History 1965 57(4): 189-203.
[8] Anique H. M. van Ginneken (2006). Historical Dictionary of the League
  of Nations. p. 54.
[9] Norman Hillmer (1999). Pearson: The Unlikely Gladiator. p. 22.
[10] Ritchie Ovendale, Appeasement and the English-Speaking World: Britain,
  the United States, the Dominions, and the Policy of Appeasement (1975)
[11] J. L. Granatstein, "Happily on the Margins: Mackenzie King and Canada
  at the Quebec Conferences," in David B. Woolner, ed., The Second Quebec
  Conference Revisited: Waging War, Formulating Peace: Canada, Great
  Britain, and the United States in 1944-1945 (1998) pp 49-64.
[12] For example, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police International Peace
  Operations Branch <http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/po-mp/index-eng.htm> or
  deployments of personnel by the Correctional Service of Canada
  <http://www.international.gc.ca/media/aff/news-communiques/2010/333.aspx>
[13] "Canadian Defence Attaché Network". Outcan.forces.gc.ca. 2010-07-22.
  Retrieved 2011-06-03.
[14] For example, through the Military Training and Cooperation Program and
  its ancillary activities http://www.forces.gc.ca/admpol/mtcp-eng.html
[15] "Introduction by Greg Donaghy" (June 2014)
[16] Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. .
[17] Spiegel, J.M., and R. Huish. 2009. Canadian foreign aid for global
  health: Human security opportunity lost. Canadian Foreign Policy Journal
  15 (3):60-84. doi:10.1080/11926422.2009.9673492
[18] http://douglassocialcredit.com/resources/resources/alf_hooke_ch16.pdf
[19] The Impact of Federalism on the Organization of Canadian Foreign
  Policy
  - Elliot J. Feldman and Lily Gardner Feldman
  - Publius, Vol. 14, No. 4, Federated States and International Relations
    (Autumn, 1984), pp. 33–59.
[20] "About the Embassy". The Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Ministry of
  Foreign Affairs (Argentina). Retrieved 14 March 2016.
[21] "Consulates". Ecana. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Argentina).
  Retrieved 14 March 2016.
[22] "Embassy of Canada to Argentina and Paraguay". Canada International.
  Government of Canada. Retrieved 14 March 2016.
[23] "Canadian Trade and Investment Activity: Canada Argentina". Parliament
  of Canada. Library of Parliament (Canada). Retrieved 14 March 2016.
[24] "Embassy of Canada to Argentina and Paraguay". Canada International.
  Government of Canada. Retrieved 14 March 2016.
[25] "Canada - Antigua and Barbuda Relations". Retrieved 2013-04-22.
[26] "Canada - Bahamas Relations". Retrieved 2012-12-14.
[27] Parraguez, Maria-Luisa (26 March 2008). "Chile's Foreign Policy
  towards North America". Paper presented at the annual meeting of the
  ISA's 49th ANNUAL CONVENTION, BRIDGING MULTIPLE DIVIDES, Hilton San
  Francisco, SAN FRANCISCO, CA, USA.
[28] "Guyana's population at risk" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-06-03.
[29] Guyana's exports to Canada enjoyed mixed blessings in last five years
[30] "Canada-Haiti Relations". Foreign Affairs & International Trade
  Canada. Retrieved 22 April 2009.
[31] Schifferes, Steve (1 March 2004). "Haiti: An economic basket-case".
  BBC News. Retrieved 26 April 2009.
[32] "Welcome to the website of the Embassy of Canada in Mexico". Retrieved
  19 February 2015.
[33] "Embassy of Mexico in Canada". Retrieved 19 February 2015.
[34] "Canadian embassy in Panama City". Canadainternational.gc.ca.
  2009-12-17. Retrieved 2011-06-03.
[35] "Panamean embassy in Ottawa". Embassyofpanama.ca. Retrieved
  2011-06-03.
[36] "Paraguayan embassy in Ottawa". Embassyofparaguay.ca. Retrieved
  2011-06-03.
[37] Canadian embassy in Lima
[38] Alexander Panetta, "Canada limits main foreign aid recipients to 20
  countries", Canada East website . Retrieved 3 March 2009.
[39] James Tagg reports that Canadian university students have a profound
  fear that "Canadian culture, and likely Canadian sovereignty, will be
  overwhelmed." Tagg, "'And, We Burned down the White House, Too': American
  History, Canadian Undergraduates, and Nationalism," The History Teacher,
  Vol. 37, No. 3 (May, 2004), pp. 309–334 in JSTOR; J. L. Granatstein.
  Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism (1997).
[40] "The world's longest border". Retrieved 1 April 2008.
[41] Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada Documents on Canadian
  External Relations. Retrieved 17 December 2007.
[42] Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada Documents on Canadian
  External Relations. Retrieved 17 December 2007.
[43] Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada Documents on Canadian
  External Relations. Retrieved 17 December 2007.
[44] The Canadian Embassy in Venezuela Bilateral Relations. Retrieved 17
  December 2007.
[45] Embassy of Venezuela in Canada . Retrieved 18 December 2007.
[46] "Canada – Albania Relations". Retrieved 2012-12-14.
[47] "Armenian embassy in Ottawa". Armembassycanada.ca. 23 April 2011.
  Archived from the original on 9 June 2011. Retrieved 2011-06-03.
[48] "Welcome Page | Page d'accueil". Dfait-maeci.gc.ca. Retrieved
  2011-01-31.
[49] Bulgarian embassy in Ottawa
[50] "Bulgarian consulate in Toronto". Bgconsultor.com. 2011-01-04.
  Retrieved 2011-06-03.
[51] Canadian embassy in Zagreb
[52] "Croatian embassy in Ottawa". Ca.mfa.hr. Retrieved 2011-06-03.
[53] Canadian embassy in Copenhagen
[54] "Danish embassy in Ottawa". Ambottawa.um.dk. 2008-01-14. Retrieved
  2011-06-03.
[55] "Estonian embassy in Ottawa". Estemb.ca. Retrieved 2011-06-03.
[56] Gazette, The (18 October 2008). "Sarkozy professes love for Quebec and
  Canada". Canada.com. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016.
  Retrieved 2011-01-31.
[57] Paul Wells (2007-07-30). "Canada and Quebec Unite on EU Free Trade
  Accord". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2011-01-31.
[58] "Greek embassy in Ottawa". Greekembassy.ca. Retrieved 2011-06-03.
[59] Canadian embassy in Athens
[60] Canadian embassy in Budapest
[61] "Hungarian embassy in Ottawa". Mfa.gov.hu. Retrieved 2011-06-03.
[62] Hungarian consulate in Toronto Archived 4 August 2008 at the Wayback
  Machine.
[63] "Hungarian honorary consulate in Vancouver". Hungarianconsulatebc.com.
  Retrieved 2011-06-03.
[64] "Iceland embassy in Ottawa". Iceland.org. Retrieved 2011-06-03.
[65] "Iceland Consulate General in Winnipeg". Iceland.org. Retrieved
  2011-06-03.
[66] Canada embassy in Reykjavík
[67] "Canadian embassy in Rome". International.gc.ca. Retrieved 2011-06-03.
[68] "Italian embassy in Ottawa". Ambottawa.esteri.it. Retrieved
  2011-06-03.
[69] "Italian general consulates in Toronto". Constoronto.esteri.it.
  Retrieved 2011-06-03.
[70] "Italian general consulates in Vancouver". Consvancouver.esteri.it.
  Retrieved 2011-06-03.
[71] "Canada joins international recognition of Kosovo". Canadian Foreign
  Ministry. 18 March 2008. Retrieved 18 March 2008.
[72] "Canadian embassy office in Vilnius". International.gc.ca. Retrieved
  2011-06-03.
[73] "Lithuanian embassy in Ottawa". Ca.mfa.lt. Retrieved 2011-06-03.
[74] "Canadian embassy in Brussels (also accredited to Luxembourg)".
  International.gc.ca. Retrieved 2011-06-03.
[75] Luxembourg embassy in Washington (also accredited to Canada)
[76] "Sorry. The page you are looking for does not exist" (PDF). Retrieved
  19 February 2015.
[77] Canadian embassy in Bucharest
[78] "Romanian Consulate General in Toronto". Romaniacanada.com. Retrieved
  2011-06-03.
[79] "Canadian embassy in Belgrade". International.gc.ca. Retrieved
  2011-06-03.
[80] "Serbian embassy in Ottawa". Serbianembassy.ca. Retrieved 2011-06-03.
[81] "Serbian general consulate in Toronto". Gktoronto.com. Retrieved
  2011-06-03.
[82] "Canadian embassy in Prague (also accredited to Slovakia)". Canada.cz.
  Retrieved 2011-06-03.
[83] "Slovak embassy in Ottawa". Ottawa.mfa.sk. Retrieved 2011-06-03.
[84] "Slovenian embassy in Ottawa". Ottawa.embassy.si. Retrieved
  2011-06-03.
[85] Embassy of Canada in Madrid
[86] Embassy of Spain in Ottawa
[87] Consulate-General of Spain in Montreal
[88] Consulate-General of Spain in Toronto
[89] "Ethnic origins, 2006 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories".
  2.statcan.ca. 2010-10-06. Retrieved 2011-06-03.
[90] "Canadian embassy in Bern". Bern.gc.ca. 2009-12-17. Retrieved
  2011-06-03.
[91] "Swiss embassy in Ottawa". Eda.admin.ch. 2011-01-25. Retrieved
  2011-06-03.
[92] "Canada-Turkey relations". 2014-07-13.
[93] "Rep. of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs". Republic of Turkey
  Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
[94] For a detailed discussion of Canada's early diplomatic engagement with
  Canada, see Bohdan Kordan, "Canadian Ukrainian Relations: Articulating
  the Canadian Interest," in L. Hajda, ed. (1996), Ukraine in the World:
  Studies in the International Relations and Security Structure of a Newly
  Independent State. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
[95] The capital of Ukraine (commonly "Kiev" in English) is officially
  recognized by both the Canadian and Ukrainian governments as Kyiv in all
  English communications (although not in French).
[96] "Embassy of Ukraine in Canada – Political Affairs". Mfa.gov.ua.
  Retrieved 2011-06-03.
[97] Embassy of Ukraine in Canada – Political Affairs,
[98] Edmonton, The (2007-12-20). "Edmonton Journal". Canada.com. Retrieved
  2011-06-03.
[99] "India Canada Trade Relations". Maps of India. Retrieved 11 June 2008.
[100] "India-Canada Trade & Economic Relations". FICCI. Archived from the
  original on 25 May 2008. Retrieved 11 June 2008.
[101] Canadian embassy in Jakarta
[102] "Indonesian embassy in Ottawa". Indonesia-ottawa.org. Retrieved
  2011-06-03.
[103] Ambassade du Japon au Canada: 80ième anniversaire des relations
  diplomatiques nippo-canadiennes.
[104] Foreign Ministry of Japan: Episodes in Japan-Canada Relations.
[105] "High Commission of Canada to Malaysia". Government of Canada.
  Retrieved 2013-01-09.
[106] "Canada-Malaysia Relations". Government of Canada. Retrieved
  2013-01-09.
[107] Nelles, Wayne (December 2000). "Mongolian-Canadian Education,
  Training and Research Cooperation: A Brief History, 1973–2000". Canadian
  and International Education. 29 (2): 91.
[108] "Introduction" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-01-31.
[109] "Canada-Pakistan Relations". Canadainternational.gc.ca. 2009-07-03.
  Retrieved 2011-01-31.
[110] Canada's Economic Relations with China Archived 6 March 2009 at the
  Wayback Machine.
[111] "China becomes Canada's 2nd-largest trade partner".
  Chinadaily.com.cn. 2007-12-15. Retrieved 2011-06-03.
[112] "Canadian embassy in Manila". Canadainternational.gc.ca. 2009-12-17.
  Retrieved 2011-06-03.
[113] "Embassy of the Republic of the Philippines". Retrieved 19 February
  2015.
[114] "Canada-Saudi Arabia Relations". Canada International. Government of
  Canada. Retrieved 14 March 2016.
[115] "Canada-saudi arabia relations". Canadian Government. 9 May 2007.
  Archived from the original on 11 March 2009. Retrieved 4 April 2009.
[116] "Fact Sheet; Saudi Arabia". Canada International. Government of
  Canada. Retrieved 14 March 2016.
[117] "Canadian Trade and Investment Activity: Canada-Saudi Arabia".
  Parliament of Canada. Library of Parliament; Canada. Retrieved 14 March
  2016.
[118] Canadian a high commission in Singapore
[119]
  http://www.mofa.go.kr/ENG/countries/northamerica/countries/20070803/1_24559.jsp?menu=m_30_20
[120]
[121] Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Canada OFFICIAL WEBSITE
[122] Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Vancouver OFFICIAL WEBSITE
[123] Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Toronto OFFICIAL WEBSITE
[124] TAITRA overseas offices
[125] "Embassy of Canada in Bangkok". Thailand.gc.ca. 2009-12-17. Retrieved
  2011-06-03.
[126] Royal Thai Embassy in Ottawa Archived 1 September 2009 at the Wayback
  Machine.
[127] Canadian embassy in Hanoi
[128]
[129]
[130] High Commission of Canada in South Africa
[131] Embassy of Madagascar in Canada
[132] "Canadian embassy in Rabat". Rabat.gc.ca. 2009-12-17. Retrieved
  2011-06-03.
[133] "Moroccan embassy in Ottawa". Ambamaroc.ca. Retrieved 2011-06-03.
[134] "Canadian high commission in Abuja". Canadainternational.gc.ca.
  2009-12-17. Retrieved 2011-06-03.
[135] "Nigerian high commission in Ottawa". Nigeriahcottawa.com. Retrieved
  2011-06-03.
[136]
[137] "Canada-Zambia relations". Canadian Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
  Retrieved 2013-11-07.
[138] "Canada-Zimbabwe relations". Canadian Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
  Retrieved 2013-11-07.
[139]
  http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-91-575/page-2.html#h-1
[140] http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/PDF/SOR-91-575.pdf
[141] "The history of Canadian peacekeeping". CBC. Retrieved 2012-07-10.
[142] "Biography - Lester Bowles Pearson". nobelprize.org. Retrieved
  2012-07-10.
[143] "Disarmament - Anti-Personnel Landmines Convention". The United
  Nations Office at Geneva. Retrieved 2012-07-10.
[144] "Canada and International Peace Efforts". Veterans Affairs Canada.
  Retrieved 2012-07-10.
[145] "United Nations Reform". Government of Canada. Retrieved 2012-07-10.
[146] Payton, Laura. "Canada considering international bases: MacKay." CBC
  News, 2 June 2011.
[147] Noormohamed, Taleeb. "How Harper's Foreign Policy is Failing Canada."
  The Tyee, 2 June 2011.
[148] Jerry M. Spiegel & Robert Huish (2009): Canadian foreign aid for
  global health: Human security opportunity lost, Canadian Foreign Policy
  Journal, 15:3, 60–84.
[149] McKay, I., & Swift, J. (2012). Warrior Nation: Rebranding Canada in
  an Age of Anxiety. Between the Lines.
[150] Staff writer. "Carrington: lauds Canada as 'special friend' of
  region". Stabroek Newspaper. In brief remarks at the signing,
  Secretary-General Carrington expressed appreciation to the Government of
  Canada for its support, and pointed out that over the years "Canada had
  proven to be a "special friend" of the Caribbean at the regional and
  bilateral levels." "Our relations with the Canadian International
  Development Agency (CIDA) have grown to the extent that "it is now
  considered to be a highly valued international development partner for
  the region." Among the many important areas in which CIDA has provided
  grant assistance to the region has been that of trade and
  competitiveness, a most vital area as the region seeks to secure its
  place in the international economic and trading arena," the release
  quoted the Secretary-General as saying.
[151] "CIA World Factbook - Canada". Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved
  2011-03-10.
[152] Matthew Carnaghan, Allison Goody, "Canadian Arctic Sovereignty"
  (Library of Parliament: Political and Social Affairs Division, 26 January
  2006) at ; 2006 news at
[153] "Russia's Arctic Claim Backed By Rocks, Officials Say".
  News.nationalgeographic.com. 2010-10-28. Retrieved 2012-08-15.
[154] "Russia Plants Underwater Flag, Claims Arctic Seafloor".
  News.nationalgeographic.com. 2010-10-28. Retrieved 2012-08-15.
[155] "Staking claim to the Arctic is top priority for Russia, envoy says".
  CBC News. 12 February 2009.

Bibliography

Primary Sources
- Walter A. Riddell, ed; Documents on Canadian Foreign Policy, 1917–1939
  Oxford University Press, 1962 806 pages of documents
Secondary Sources
- Bothwell, Robert. Canada and the United States (1992)
- Bugailiskis, Alex, and Andrés Rozental, eds. Canada Among Nations,
  2011-2012: Canada and Mexico's Unfinished Agenda (2012) further details
- Carnaghan, Matthew, Allison Goody, "Canadian Arctic Sovereignty" (Library
  of Parliament: Political and Social Affairs Division, 26 January 2006)
- Eayrs, James. In Defence of Canada. (5 vols. University of Toronto Press,
  1964–1983) the standard history
- Fox, Annette Baker. Canada in World Affairs (Michigan State University
  Press, 1996)
- Glazov, Jamie. Canadian Policy Toward Khrushchev's Soviet Union (2003)
- Holmes John W. The Shaping of Peace: Canada and the Search for World
  Order. (2 vols. University of Toronto Press, 1979, 1982)
- James, Patrick, Nelson Michaud, and Marc O'Reilly, eds. Handbook of
  Canadian foreign policy (Lexington Books, 2006), essays by experts; 610pp
  excerpt
- James, Patrick. Canada and Conflict (Oxford University Press, 2012)
  H-DIPLO online reviews June 2014
- Kirk, John M. and Peter McKenna; Canada-Cuba Relations: The Other Good
  Neighbor Policy University Press of Florida, 1997
- Kohn, Edward P. This Kindred People: Canadian-American Relations and the
  Anglo-Saxon Idea, 1895–1903 (2005)
- Melnyk, George. Canada and the New American Empire: War and Anti-War
  University of Calgary Press, 2004, highly critical
- Miller, Ronnie. Following the Americans to the Persian Gulf: Canada,
  Australia, and the Development of the New World Order (Fairleigh
  Dickinson University Press, 1994)
- Molot, Maureen Appel. "Where Do We, Should We, Or Can We Sit? A Review of
  the Canadian Foreign Policy Literature", International Journal of
  Canadian Studies (Spring-Fall 1990) 1#2 pp 77–96.
- Perras, Galen Roger. Franklin Roosevelt and the Origins of the
  Canadian-American Security Alliance, 1933–1945: Necessary, but Not
  Necessary Enough (Praeger Publishers, 1998)
- Reid, Escott. Time of Fear and Hope: The Making of the North Atlantic
  Treaty, 1947–1949 (McClelland and Stewart, 1977.)
- Rochlin, James. Discovering the Americas: The Evolution of Canadian
  Foreign Policy towards Latin America (University of British Columbia
  Press, 1994)
- Stacey, C. P. Canada and the Age of Conflict, 1921–1948. Vol. 2.
  (University of Toronto Press, 1981). the standard history
- Stairs Denis, and Gilbert R. Winham, eds. The Politics of Canada's
  Economic Relationship with the United States' (University of Toronto
  Press, 1985)
- Stevenson, Brian J. R. Canada, Latin America, and the New
  Internationalism: A Foreign Policy Analysis, 1968–1990 (2000)
- Wilson, Robert R. and David R. Deener; Canada-United States Treaty
  Relations (Duke University Press, 1963)

Further reading

- Arthur E. Blanchette (1994). Canadian foreign policy, 1977-1992: selected
  speeches and documents. McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP. ISBN
  978-0-88629-243-0.
- Arthur E. Blanchette (1 September 2000). Canadian foreign policy,
  1945-2000: major documents and speeches. Dundurn Press Ltd. ISBN
  978-0-919614-89-5.
- Brian J. Bow; Patrick Lennox (2008). An independent foreign policy for
  Canada?: challenges and choices for the future. University of Toronto
  Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-9634-0.
- Froese, Marc D (2010), Canada at the WTO: Trade Litigation and the Future
  of Public Policy, University of Toronto Press, ISBN 978-1-4426-0138-3
- Holloway, Steven Kendall (2006). Canadian foreign policy: defining the
  national interest. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN
  1-55111-816-5.
- Thompson, John Herd; Randall, Stephen J (2008). Canada and the United
  States: Ambivalent Allies. University of Georgia Press. ISBN
  0-8203-2403-5.
- Konrad, Victor; Nicol, Heather N (2008). Beyond walls: re-inventing the
  Canada-United States borderlands. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 0-7546-7202-6.
- Patrick James; Nelson Michaud; Marc J. O'Reilly (April 2006). Handbook of
  Canadian foreign policy. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-1493-3.
- Rosalind Irwin (2001). Ethics and security in Canadian foreign policy.
  UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-0863-7.
- Bernstein, Alan (10 June 2013). "Science Diplomacy as a Defining Role for
  Canada in the Twenty-First Century". Science & diplomacy. 2 (2).

External links

- Foreign Affairs Canada – Heads of Posts List
- Embassy: Canada's Foreign Policy Newsweekly
- Canada's place in world affairs
- Foreign Affairs Canada – Canada and the World: A History a history of
  Canadian foreign policy.
- Foreign Affairs Canada – Country and Regional Information a summary of
  Canada's relations with each foreign government as well as some
  international regions and organizations
- Canada at the Group of 8
- "H-Diplo Roundtable on Patrick James. Canada and Conflict" (June 2014)
- Global Affairs Canada Treaties ruling relations Argentina and Canada
- Global Affairs Canada Canadian Foreign Affairs and International Trade
  Office about relations with Argentina

Canada–United Kingdom relations

British–Canadian relations are the relations between Canada and the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, being bilateral relations
between their governments and wider relations between the two societies.
The two countries have intimate and frequently cooperative contact; they
are related through mutual migration, through shared military history,
through a shared system of government, through language, through the
Commonwealth of Nations, and their sharing of the same Head of State and
monarch. Despite this shared legacy, the two nations have grown apart
economically and politically: Britain has not been Canada's largest trading
partner since the nineteenth century. Currently Canada and Britain are in
different trade blocs, such as NAFTA and the European Union respectively,
as well as Britain's independent trade negotiations due to its process of
leaving the EU after Brexit.

History

Main article: Constitutional history of Canada

The long-standing relationship between the United Kingdom and Canada
formally began in 1867 when the Canadian Confederation fused together the
North American British crown colonies of the Province of Canada, Province
of New Brunswick and the Province of Nova Scotia. The Dominion of Canada
was formed as a Dominion of the British Empire.

The history of relations between Canada and Britain well into the 20th
Century is really the story of Canada's slow evolution towards full
sovereignty.

British Empire

In 1759, Britain conquered New France, and, after the Treaty of Paris
(1763), began to populate formerly-French Canada with English-speaking
settlers. British governors ruled these new territories absolutely until
the Constitutional Act of 1791, which created the first Canadian
legislatures. These weak bodies were still inferior to the governors until
the granting of responsible government in 1848. With their new powers, the
colonies chose to federate in 1867, creating a new state, Canada, with the
new title of Dominion.

The constitution of the new Canadian federation left foreign affairs to the
Imperial Parliament in Westminster, but the leaders of the federal
parliament in Ottawa soon developed their own viewpoints on some issues,
notably relations between the British Empire and the United States. Stable
relations and secure trade with the United States were becoming
increasingly vital to Canada, — so much so that historians have said that
Canada's early diplomacy constituted a "North Atlantic triangle".

Most of Canada's early attempts at diplomacy necessarily involved the
"mother country". Canada's first (informal) diplomatic officer was Sir John
Rose, who was sent to London by Prime Minister John A. Macdonald. George
Brown was subsequently dispatched to Washington by Prime Minister Alexander
Mackenzie to influence British-American trade talks. The British government
desired to formalise Canada's representation abroad rather than deal with
so many informal lobbyists, and so, in 1880, Alexander Tilloch Galt became
the first High Commissioner sent from a Dominion to Britain.

When it came time to respond to imperial conflicts, Canada maintained a low
profile, especially during the Sudan Campaign. When Britain sided with the
US during the Alaska boundary dispute, it marked a low point in pro-British
sentiment in Canada. By the time of the Boer War, however, Canadians
volunteered to fight for the Empire in large numbers despite the lukewarm
support of the government of Wilfrid Laurier, the first French-Catholic
prime minister.

Economically, Canadian governments were interested in free trade with the
United States; however, since this was difficult to negotiate and
politically divisive, they became leading advocates of imperial preference,
which met with limited enthusiasm in Britain.

First and Second World Wars

At the outbreak of World War I, the Canadian government and millions of
Canadian volunteers enthusiastically joined Britain's side, but the
sacrifices of the war, and the fact they were made in the name of the
British Empire, caused domestic tension in Canada, and awakened a budding
nationalism in Canadians. At the Paris Peace Conference, Canada demanded
the right to sign treaties without British permission and to join the
League of Nations. By the 1920s, Canada was taking a more independent
stance on world affairs.

In 1926, through the Balfour Declaration, Britain declared that she would
no longer legislate for the Dominions, and that they were now fully
independent states with the right to conduct their own foreign affairs.
This was later formalised by the Statute of Westminster 1931.

Loyalty to Britain still existed, however, and during the darkest days of
the Second World War for Britain, after the fall of France and before the
entry of the Soviet Union or the USA, Canada was Britain's principal ally
in the North Atlantic, and a major source of weapons and food. However, the
war showed that the Imperial alliance between Britain, Canada, and the
other Dominions was no longer a dominant global power, not being able to
prevent Hong Kong from being overrun by Japan, and narrowly avoiding a
German invasion of Britain itself.

Owing to the destruction of much of Europe, Canada's relative economic and
military importance was at a peak in the late 1940s, just as Britain's was
declining. Both were dwarfed by the new superpowers, however, policymakers
in both Britain and Canada were eager to participate in a lasting alliance
with the United States for protection from the Soviet Union, which resulted
in the creation of NATO in 1949. So while Britain and Canada were allies
both before 1949 and after, before this it was part of a British-dominated
Imperial alliance, whereas after it has always been a small part of a much
broader Western Bloc where the United States is by far the most powerful
member. This means that the strategic and political importance of military
ties between the UK and Canada are much lower than British-American or
Canadian-American ties. This is easily observed by Canada's participation
in the NORAD scheme with the US for the common defence of North American
airspace.

Constitutional independence

The definitive break in Canada's loyalist foreign policy came during the
Suez Crisis of 1956 when the Canadian government flatly rejected calls from
the British government for support of the latter's invasion of Egypt.
Eventually, Canada helped the British (and their French and Israeli allies)
to save face while extracting themselves from a public relations disaster.
The Canadian delegation to the UN, led by future prime minister Lester B.
Pearson, proposed a peacekeeping force to separate the two warring sides.
For this he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.

Meanwhile, Canada's legal separation from Britain continued. Until 1946,
Britain and Canada shared a common nationality code. The Canadian
Citizenship Act 1946 gave Canadians a separate legal nationality from
Britain. Canadians could no longer appeal court cases to the Judicial
Committee of the Privy Council in London after 1949.

The final constitutional ties between United Kingdom and Canada ended in
1982 with the passing of the Canada Act 1982. An Act of the Parliament of
the United Kingdom that was passed at the request of the Canadian federal
government to "patriate" Canada's constitution, ending the necessity for
the country to request certain types of amendment to the Constitution of
Canada to be made by the British parliament. The Act also formally ended
the "request and consent" provisions of the Statute of Westminster 1931 in
relation to Canada, whereby the British parliament had a general power to
pass laws extending to Canada at its own request.

Formal economic relations between the two countries declined following
Britain's accession to the European Economic Community in 1973. In both
countries, regional economic ties loomed larger than the historical
trans-Atlantic ones. In 1988, Canada signed a free trade agreement with the
United States, which became the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
in 1994 with the addition of Mexico. Thus, the two nations are now in
separate trade blocs, the European Union and North American Free Trade
Agreement respectively. Nevertheless, Britain remains the fifth largest
overall foreign investor in Canada. In turn, Canada is the third largest
foreign direct investor in Britain.

Trade and investment

Despite Canada's long-term shift towards proportionally more trade with the
US, Canada–UK trade has continued to grow in absolute numbers. The UK is by
far Canada's most important commercial partner in Europe and, from a global
perspective, ranks third after the United States and China. In 2010 total
bilateral trade reached over C$27.1 billion, and over the last five years
the UK has been Canada's second- largest goods export market. The UK is an
important source of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in Canada, ranking
third after the United States and the Netherlands, and Canadian companies
invest heavily in the UK. In 2010, the two-way stock of investment stood at
almost CDN$115 billion.¹

On 9 February 2011, the boards of the London Stock Exchange and the Toronto
Stock Exchange agreed to a deal in which both holding companies for the
stock exchanges would merge, creating a leading exchange group with the
largest number of listed companies in the world, and a combined market
capitalisation of £3.7 trillion (C$5.8 trillion). The merger was ultimately
cancelled on 29 June 2011 when it became obvious TMX shareholders would not
give the needed two-thirds approval.²

Canada and the UK – as members of the North American Free Trade Agreement
and the European Union respectively – are working together on negotiations
towards a Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA) between Canada
and the European Union. If approved, the agreement will begin to come into
effect in 2016.¹

In 2013, Mark Carney, Governor of the Bank of Canada resigned in order to
take up a position as Governor of the Bank of England.

Tourism

In 2004, about 800,000 British residents visited Canada, making the United
Kingdom Canada's second-largest source of tourists after the United States.
That same year, British visitors spent almost C$1 billion while visiting
Canada. Britain was the third most-popular international destination for
Canadian tourists in 2003, after the United States and Mexico – with some
700,000 visitors spending over C$800 million.³

Defence and security

The two countries have a long history of close collaboration in military
affairs. Canada fought alongside Britain and its Allies in World War I.
Canadians of British descent—the majority—gave widespread support arguing
that Canadians had a duty to fight on behalf of their Motherland. Indeed,
Sir Wilfrid Laurier, although French-Canadian, spoke for the majority of
English-Canadians when he proclaimed: "It is our duty to let Great Britain
know and to let the friends and foes of Great Britain know that there is in
Canada but one mind and one heart and that all Canadians are behind the
Mother Country."⁴ It fought with Britain and its allies again in World War
II.

Until 1972, the highest military decoration awarded to members of the
British and Canadian Armed Forces, was the Victoria Cross. 81 members of
the Canadian military (including those from Newfoundland) and 13 Canadians
serving in British units had been awarded the Victoria Cross. In 1993,
Canada created its own Victoria Cross.

In modern times they are members of the AUSCANNZUKUS military alliance
including the Five Eyes intelligence-sharing alliance with the US,
Australia and New Zealand. Both countries are members of NATO and
participate in UN peacekeeping operations . Before 2011, the two countries'
main areas of defense cooperation was in Afghanistan, where both were
involved in the dangerous southern provinces. Both have provided air power
to the NATO-led mission over Libya. Though still close allies militarily,
it is no longer a given that Canada will follow Britain's lead in
international conflicts.

Migration

Further information: History of immigration to Canada, English-Canadian,
Scottish Canadian, Welsh Canadian, and Canadians in the United Kingdom

From the conquest of New France until 1966, Britain remained one of
Canada's largest sources of immigrants, usually the largest. Since 1967,
when Canadian laws were changed to remove preferences that had been given
to Britons and other Europeans, British migration to Canada has continued
at a lower level. When the constituent nations of the UK (England, Wales,
Scotland, and Northern Ireland) are taken together, people of British
ancestry still form Canada's largest ethnic group. In 2005, there were
579,620 UK-born people living in Canada, making up 1.9% of population of
Canada.⁵ ⁶

Historically, Canadians have travelled to Britain to advance their careers
or studies to higher levels than could be done at home. Britain acted as
the metropole, to which Canadians gravitated; this function has to a large
extent been reduced as the Canadian economy and institutions have
developed. The Office for National Statistics estimates that, in 2009,
82,000 Canadian-born people were living in the UK.⁷ In 2012 this was the
third largest community in the Canadian diaspora after Canadians in the
United States, and Canadians in Hong Kong.

In recent years there has been growing support for the idea of freedom of
movement between the UK, Canada and Australia, New Zealand with citizens
able to live and work in any of the four countries - similar to the
Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement between Australia and New Zealand.⁸ ⁹

Twinnings

- Bala, Gwynedd and Bala, Ontario
- Blairgowrie and Rattray, Perth and Kinross and Fergus, Ontario
- Comrie, Perth and Kinross and Carleton Place, Ontario
- Coventry, West Midlands and Cornwall, Ontario
- Coventry, West Midlands and Granby, Québec
- Coventry, West Midlands and Windsor, Ontario
- Edinburgh, Lothian and Vancouver, British Columbia
- Halifax, West Yorkshire and Halifax, Nova Scotia
- London, England and London, Ontario
- Perth, Perth and Kinross and Perth, Ontario
- Stirling, Stirlingshire and Summerside, Prince Edward Island
- Truro, Cornwall and Truro, Nova Scotia

Diplomacy

The contemporary political relationship between London and Ottawa is
underpinned by a robust bilateral dialogue at head-of-government,
ministerial and senior officials level. As Commonwealth realms, the two
countries share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, and are both active members
within the Commonwealth of Nations. In 2011, British Prime Minister David
Cameron gave a joint address to the Canadian Parliament and in 2013,
Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper addressed both Houses of the British
Parliament.¹⁰ ¹¹

Canada maintains a High Commission in London. The United Kingdom, in turn,
maintains a High Commission in Ottawa, along with Consulates-General in
Toronto, Montreal, Calgary, and Vancouver. In recent years Canada has
sought closer Commonwealth cooperation, with the announcement in 2012 of
joint diplomatic missions with the UK and of the intention of extending the
scheme to include Australia and New Zealand, both of whom already share a
head of state with Canada. In September 2012, Canada and the United Kingdom
signed a Memorandum of Understanding on diplomatic cooperation, which
promotes the co-location of embassies, the joint provision of consular
services, and common crisis response.¹² The project has been criticised by
some Canadian politicians as giving the appearance of a common foreign
policy and is seen by many in the UK as an alternative and counterweight to
EU integration.

Gallery

-
Canada House, home of the High Commission of Canada, London.
-
Earnscliffe, residence of the British High Commissioner to Canada.
-
David Cameron and Stephen Harper at the 36th G8 summit in Ontario on June,
  2010.
-
British Foreign Secretary William Hague with Canadian Foreign Affairs
  Minister John Baird, February 2014.

Quotes

- Canada's future first prime minister, Sir John A. Macdonald, speaking in
  1865, hoped that, if the Canadian colonies created a new federation, then
  Britain and Canada would have "a healthy and cordial alliance. Instead of
  looking upon us as a merely dependent colony, Britain will have in us a
  friendly nation, a subordinate, but still powerful people to stand by her
  in North America in peace or in war."¹³
- Speaking many years later at the beginning of the 1891 election (fought
  mostly over Canadian free trade with the United States), Macdonald said
  on February 3, 1891: "As for myself, my course is clear. A British
  subject I was born; a British subject I will die. With my utmost effort,
  with my latest breath, will I oppose the 'veiled treason' which attempts,
  by sordid means and mercenary proffers, to lure our people from their
  allegiance."¹⁴

See also

- High Commission of Canada in London
- High Commission of the United Kingdom in Ottawa
- List of High Commissioners from the United Kingdom to Canada
- List of Canadian High Commissioners to the United Kingdom
- Canada–European Union relations
- Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement

References

[1] "Commercial and Economic Relations". Canadian High Commission.
  Retrieved 16 March 2015.
[2]
  http://www.thestar.com/business/article/1016709--toronto-london-stock-exchange-merger-terminated
[3]
  http://www.international.gc.ca/canada-europa/united_kingdom/can_UK-en.asp
  Canadian High Commission in London
[4] Robert Borden (1969). Robert Laird Borden: His Memoirs. McGill-Queen's
  Press. p. 216. ISBN 978-0-7735-6055-0.
[5] Place of birth for the immigrant population by period of immigration,
  2006 counts and percentages
[6] Population by immigrant status and period of immigration, 2006 counts,
  for Canada, provinces and territories
[7] "Estimated population resident in the United Kingdom, by foreign
  country of birth (Table 1.3)". Office for National Statistics. September
  2009. Archived from the original on 22 January 2011. Retrieved 8 July
  2010.
[8] "Australians and New Zealanders should be free to live and work in UK,
  report says". theguardian.com. Retrieved 16 March 2015.
[9] "Commonwealth Freedom of Movement Organisation". CFMO. Retrieved 16
  March 2015.
[10] "PM gives speech at Canadian Parliament". Gov.uk. Retrieved 16 March
  2015.
[11] "Canadian PM Stephen Harper visits UK Parliament". parliament.uk.
  Retrieved 16 March 2015.
[12] "UK to share embassy premises with 'first cousins' Canada".
  theguardian.com. Retrieved 16 March 2015.
[13] Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada – Canada and the World:
  A History – 1867 – 1896: Forging a Nation
[14] Histor!ca "Election of 1891: A Question of Loyalty", James Marsh.

External links

Government
- Visit Britain the British Tourist Board's Canadian site
- British High Commission The British High Commission in Ottawa
- Canadian High Commission Canadian High Commission in London

Canada–United States relations

Relations between Canada and the United States of America historically have
been extensive, given a shared border and ever- increasing¹ ² close
cultural, economical ties and similarities.³ ⁴ The shared historical and
cultural heritage has resulted in one of the most stable and mutually
beneficial international relationships in the world. For both countries,
the level of trade with the other is at the top of the annual combined
import-export total. Tourism and migration between the two nations have
increased rapport, but border security was heightened after the terrorist
attacks in the United States on September 11, 2001.⁵ The U.S. is ten times
larger in population and has dominant cultural and economic influence.
Starting with the American Revolution, when anti-American Loyalists fled to
Canada, a vocal element in Canada has warned against US dominance or
annexation. The War of 1812 saw invasions across the border. In 1815, the
war ended with the border unchanged and demilitarized, as were the Great
Lakes. The British ceased aiding First Nation attacks on American
territory, and the United States never again attempted to invade Canada.
Apart from minor raids, it has remained peaceful.⁶

As Britain decided to disengage, fears of an American takeover played a
role in the formation of the Dominion of Canada (1867), and Canada's
rejection of free trade (1911). Military collaboration was close during
World War II and continued throughout the Cold War, bilaterally through
NORAD and multilaterally through NATO. A very high volume of trade and
migration continues between the two nations, as well as a heavy overlapping
of popular and elite culture, a dynamic which has generated closer ties,
especially after the signing of the Canada–United States Free Trade
Agreement in 1988.

Canada and the United States are the world's largest trading partners.⁷ The
two nations have the world's longest shared border (8,891 kilometres (5,525
mi)),⁸ ⁹ and also have significant interoperability within the defence
sphere.¹ Recent difficulties have included repeated trade disputes,
environmental concerns, Canadian concern for the future of oil exports, and
issues of illegal immigration and the threat of terrorism. Trade has
continued to expand, especially following the 1988 FTA and North American
Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994 which has further merged the two
economies.¹⁰ ¹¹ Co-operation on many fronts, such as the ease of the flow
of goods, services, and people across borders are to be even more extended,
as well as the establishment of joint border inspection agencies,
relocation of U.S. food inspectors agents to Canadian plants and vice
versa, greater sharing of intelligence, and harmonizing regulations on
everything from food to manufactured goods, thus further increasing the
American-Canadian assemblage.¹²

The foreign policies of the neighbours have been closely aligned since the
Cold War. Canada has disagreed with American policies regarding the Vietnam
War, the status of Cuba, the Iraq War, Missile Defense, and the War on
Terrorism. A diplomatic debate has been underway in recent years on whether
the Northwest Passage is in international waters or under Canadian
sovereignty.

Today there are close cultural ties, many similar and identical traits¹³ ¹⁴
¹⁵ ¹⁶ and according to Gallup's annual public opinion polls, Canada has
consistently been Americans' favorite nation, with 96% of Americans viewing
Canada favorably in 2012.¹⁷ ¹⁸ According to a 2013 BBC World Service Poll,
84% of Americans view their northern neighbor's influence positively, with
only 5% expressing a negative view, the most favorable perception of Canada
in the world. As of spring 2013, 64% of Canadians had a favorable view of
the U.S. and 81% expressed confidence in then-US President Obama to do the
right thing in international matters. According to the same poll, 30%
viewed the U.S. negatively.¹⁹ Also, according to a 2014 BBC World Service
Poll, 86% of Americans view Canada's influence positively, with only 5%
expressing a negative view. However, according to the same poll, 43% of
Canadians view U.S. influence positively, with 52% expressing a negative
view.²⁰

Country comparison

Leaders of Canada and the United States from 1950

History

Colonial wars

Before the British conquest of French Canada in 1760, there had been a
series of wars between the British and the French which were fought out in
the colonies as well as in Europe and the high seas. In general, the
British heavily relied on American colonial militia units, while the French
heavily relied on their First Nation allies. The Iroquois Nation were
important allies of the British.²⁹ Much of the fighting involved ambushes
and small-scale warfare in the villages along the border between New
England and Quebec. The New England colonies had a much larger population
than Quebec, so major invasions came from south to north. The First Nation
allies, only loosely controlled by the French, repeatedly raided New
England villages to kidnap women and children, and torture and kill the
men.³⁰ Those who survived were brought up as Francophone Catholics. The
tension along the border was exacerbated by religion, the French Catholics
and English Protestants had a deep mutual distrust.³¹ There was a naval
dimension as well, involving privateers attacking enemy merchant ships.³²

England seized Quebec from 1629 to 1632, and Acadia in 1613 and again from
1654 to 1670; These territories were returned to France by the peace
treaties. The major wars were (to use American names), King William's War
(1689–1697); Queen Anne's War (1702–1713); King George's War (1744–1748),
and the French and Indian War (1755–1763). In Canada, as in Europe, this
era is known as the Seven Years' War.

New England soldiers and sailors were critical to the successful British
campaign to capture the French fortress of Louisbourg in 1745,³³ and (after
it had been returned by treaty) to capture it again in 1758.³⁴

Mingling of peoples

From the 1750s to the 21st century, there has been extensive mingling of
the Canadian and American populations, with large movements in both
directions.³⁵

New England Yankees settled large parts of Nova Scotia before 1775, and
were neutral during the American Revolution.³⁶ At the end of the
Revolution, about 75,000 Loyalists moved out of the new United States to
Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the lands of Quebec, east and south of
Montreal. From 1790 to 1812 many farmers moved from New York and New
England into Ontario (mostly to Niagara, and the north shore of Lake
Ontario). In the mid and late 19th century gold rushes attracted American
prospectors, mostly to British Columbia after the Cariboo Gold Rush, Fraser
Canyon Gold Rush, and later to the Yukon. In the early 20th century, the
opening of land blocks in the Prairie Provinces attracted many farmers from
the American Midwest. Many Mennonites immigrated from Pennsylvania and
formed their own colonies. In the 1890s some Mormons went north to form
communities in Alberta after The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints rejected plural marriage.³⁷ The 1960s saw the arrival of about
50,000 draft-dodgers who opposed the Vietnam War.³⁸

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, about 900,000 French Canadians
moved to the U.S., with 395,000 residents there in 1900. Two-thirds went to
mill towns in New England, where they formed distinctive ethnic
communities. By the late 20th century, they had abandoned the French
language, but most kept the Catholic religion.³⁹ About twice as many
English Canadians came to the U.S., but they did not form distinctive
ethnic settlements.⁴⁰

Canada was a way-station through which immigrants from other lands stopped
for a while, ultimately heading to the U.S. In 1851–1951, 7.1 million
people arrived in Canada (mostly from Continental Europe), and 6.6 million
left Canada, most of them to the U.S.⁴¹

American Revolutionary War

At the outset of the American Revolutionary War, the American
revolutionaries hoped the French Canadians in Quebec and the Colonists in
Nova Scotia would join their rebellion and they were pre-approved for
joining the United States in the Articles of Confederation. When Canada was
invaded, thousands joined the American cause and formed regiments that
fought during the war; however most remained neutral and some joined the
British effort. Britain advised the French Canadians that the British
Empire already enshrined their rights in the Quebec Act, which the American
colonies had viewed as one of the Intolerable Acts. The American invasion
was a fiasco and Britain tightened its grip on its northern possessions; in
1777, a major British invasion into New York led to the surrender of the
entire British army at Saratoga, and led France to enter the war as an ally
of the U.S. The French Canadians largely ignored France's appeals for
solidarity.⁴² After the war Canada became a refuge for about 75,000
Loyalists who either wanted to leave the U.S., or were compelled by Patriot
reprisals to do so.⁴³

Among the original Loyalists there were 3,500 free blacks. Most went to
Nova Scotia and in 1792, 1200 migrated to Sierra Leone. About 2000 black
slaves were brought in by Loyalist owners; they remained slaves in Canada
until the Empire abolished slavery in 1833. Before 1860, about
30,000–40,000 blacks entered Canada; many were already free and others were
escaped slaves who came through the Underground Railroad.⁴⁴

War of 1812

Main article: War of 1812

The Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the war, called for British forces
to vacate all their forts south of the Great Lakes border. Britain refused
to do so, citing failure of the United States to provide financial
restitution for Loyalists who had lost property in the war. The Jay Treaty
in 1795 with Great Britain resolved that lingering issue and the British
departed the forts. Thomas Jefferson saw the nearby British imperial
presence as a threat to the United States, and so he opposed the Jay
Treaty, and it became one of the major political issues in the United
States at the time.⁴⁵ Thousands of Americans immigrated to Upper Canada
(Ontario) from 1785 to 1812 to obtain cheaper land and better tax rates
prevalent in that province; despite expectations that they would be loyal
to the U.S. if a war broke out, in the event they were largely
non-political.⁴⁶

Tensions mounted again after 1805, erupting into the War of 1812, when the
Americans declared war on Britain. The Americans were angered by British
harassment of U.S. ships on the high seas and seizure ("Impressment") of
6,000 sailors from American ships, severe restrictions against neutral
American trade with France, and British support for hostile Indian tribes
in Ohio and territories the U.S. had gained in 1783. American "honor" was
an implicit issue. The Americans were outgunned by more than 10 to 1 by the
Royal Navy, but could call on an army much larger than the British garrison
in Canada, and so a land invasion of Canada was proposed as the only
feasible, and most advantegous means of attacking the British Empire.
Americans on the western frontier also hoped an invasion would bring an end
to British support of Native American resistance to the westward expansion
of the United States, typified by Tecumseh's coalition of tribes.⁴⁷
Americans may also have wanted to annex Canada.⁴⁸ ⁴⁹ ⁵⁰ ⁵¹ ⁵² ⁵³ ⁵⁴ ⁵⁵

Once war broke out, the American strategy was to seize Canada—perhaps as a
means of forcing concessions from the British Empire, or perhaps in order
to annex it. There was some hope that settlers in western Canada—most of
them recent immigrants from the U.S.—would welcome the chance to overthrow
their British rulers. However, the American invasions were defeated
primarily by British regulars with support from Native Americans and Upper
Canada (Ontario) militia. Aided by the powerful Royal Navy, a series of
British raids on the American coast were highly successful, culminating
with an attack on Washington that resulted in the British burning of the
White House, Capitol, and other public buildings. Major British invasions
of New York in 1814 and Louisiana in 1814–15 were fiascoes, with the
British retreating from New York and decisively defeated at the Battle of
New Orleans. At the end of the war, Britain's American Indian allies had
largely been defeated, and the Americans controlled a strip of Western
Ontario centered on Fort Malden. However, Britain held much of Maine, and,
with the support of their remaining American Indian allies, huge areas of
the Old Northwest, including Wisconsin and much of Michigan and Illinois.
With the surrender of Napoleon in 1814, Britain ended naval policies that
angered Americans; with the defeat of the Indian tribes the threat to
American expansion was ended. The upshot was both sides had asserted their
honour, Canada was not annexed, and London and Washington had nothing more
to fight over. The war was ended by the Treaty of Ghent, which took effect
in February 1815.⁵⁶ A series of postwar agreements further stabilized
peaceful relations along the Canadian-US border. Canada reduced American
immigration for fear of undue American influence, and built up the Anglican
church as a counterweight to the largely American Methodist and Baptist
churches.⁵⁷

In later years, Anglophone Canadians, especially in Ontario, viewed the War
of 1812 as a heroic and successful resistance against invasion and as a
victory that defined them as a people. The myth that the Canadian militia
had defeated the invasion almost single-handed, known logically as the
"militia myth", became highly prevalent after the war, having been
propounded by John Strachan, Anglican Bishop of York. Meanwhile, the United
States celebrated victory in its "Second War of Independence," and war
heroes such as Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison headed to the
White House.⁵⁸

Conservative reaction

In the aftermath of the War of 1812, pro-imperial conservatives led by
Anglican Bishop John Strachan took control in Ontario ("Upper Canada"), and
promoted the Anglican religion as opposed to the more republican Methodist
and Baptist churches. A small interlocking elite, known as the Family
Compact took full political control. Democracy, as practiced in the US, was
ridiculed. The policies had the desired effect of deterring immigration
from United States. Revolts in favor of democracy in Ontario and Quebec
("Lower Canada") in 1837 were suppressed; many of the leaders fled to the
US.⁵⁹ The American policy was to largely ignore the rebellions,⁶⁰ and
indeed ignore Canada generally in favor of westward expansion of the
American Frontier.

Alabama claims

At the end of the American Civil War in 1865, Americans were angry at
British support for the Confederacy. One result was toleration of Fenian
efforts to use the U.S. as a base to attack Canada. More serious was the
demand for a huge payment to cover the damages caused, on the notion that
British involvement had lengthened the war. Senator Charles Sumner, the
chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, originally wanted to
ask for $2 billion, or alternatively the ceding of all of Canada to the
United States.⁶¹ When American Secretary of State William H. Seward
negotiated the Alaska Purchase with Russia in 1867, he intended it as the
first step in a comprehensive plan to gain control of the entire northwest
Pacific Coast. Seward was a firm believer in Manifest Destiny, primarily
for its commercial advantages to the U.S. Seward expected British Columbia
to seek annexation to the U.S. and thought Britain might accept this in
exchange for the Alabama claims. Soon other elements endorsed annexation,
Their plan was to annex British Columbia, Red River Colony (Manitoba), and
Nova Scotia, in exchange for the dropping the damage claims. The idea
reached a peak in the spring and summer of 1870, with American
expansionists, Canadian separatists, and British anti-imperialists
seemingly combining forces. The plan was dropped for multiple reasons.
London continued to stall, American commercial and financial groups pressed
Washington for a quick settlement of the dispute on a cash basis, growing
Canadian nationalist sentiment in British Columbia called for staying
inside the British Empire, Congress became preoccupied with Reconstruction,
and most Americans showed little interest in territorial expansion. The
"Alabama Claims" dispute went to international arbitration. In one of the
first major cases of arbitration, the tribunal in 1872 supported the
American claims and ordered Britain to pay $15.5 million. Britain paid and
the episode ended in peaceful relations.⁶² ⁶³

Dominion of Canada

Canada became a self-governing dominion in 1867 in internal affairs while
Britain controlled diplomacy and defense policy. Prior to Confederation,
there was an Oregon boundary dispute in which the Americans claimed the
54th degree latitude. That issue was resolved by splitting the disputed
territory; the northern half became British Columbia, and the southern half
the states of Washington and Oregon. Strained relations with America
continued, however, due to a series of small-scale armed incursions named
the Fenian raids by Irish-American Civil War veterans across the border
from 1866 to 1871 in an attempt to trade Canada for Irish independence.⁶⁴
The American government, angry at Canadian tolerance of Confederate raiders
during the American Civil War, moved very slowly to disarm the Fenians. The
British government, in charge of diplomatic relations, protested
cautiously, as Anglo-American relations were tense. Much of the tension was
relieved as the Fenians faded away and in 1872 by the settlement of the
Alabama Claims, when Britain paid the U.S. $15.5 million for war losses
caused by warships built in Britain and sold to the Confederacy.

Disputes over ocean boundaries on Georges Bank and over fishing, whaling,
and sealing rights in the Pacific were settled by international
arbitration, setting an important precedent.⁶⁵

Emigration to and from the United States

Further information: French American

After 1850, the pace of industrialization and urbanization was much faster
in the United States, drawing a wide range of immigrants from the North. By
1870, 1/6 of all the people born in Canada had moved to the United States,
with the highest concentrations in New England, which was the destination
of Francophone emigrants from Quebec and Anglophone emigrants from the
Maritimes. It was common for people to move back and forth across the
border, such as seasonal lumberjacks, entrepreneurs looking for larger
markets, and families looking for jobs in the textile mills that paid much
higher wages than in Canada.⁶⁶

The southward migration slacked off after 1890, as Canadian industry began
a growth spurt. By then, the American frontier was closing, and thousands
of farmers looking for fresh land moved from the United States north into
the Prairie Provinces. The net result of the flows were that in 1901 there
were 128,000 American-born residents in Canada (3.5% of the Canadian
population) and 1.18 million Canadian-born residents in the United States
(1.6% of the U.S. population).⁶⁷

Alaska boundary

A short-lived controversy was the Alaska boundary dispute, settled in favor
of the United States in 1903. No one cared until a gold rush brought tens
of thousands of men to Canada's Yukon, and they had to arrive through
American ports. Canada needed its port and claimed that it had a legal
right to a port near the present American town of Haines, Alaska. It would
provide an all-Canadian route to the rich goldfields. The dispute was
settled by arbitration, and the British delegate voted with the
Americans—to the astonishment and disgust of Canadians who suddenly
realized that Britain considered its relations with the United States
paramount compared to those with Canada. The arbitrartion validated the
status quo, but made Canada angry at Britain.⁶⁸

1907 saw a minor controversy over USS Nashville sailing into the Great
Lakes via Canada without Canadian permission. To head off future
embarrassments, in 1909 the two sides signed the International Boundary
Waters Treaty and the International Joint Commission was established to
manage the Great Lakes and keep them disarmed. It was amended in World War
II to allow the building and training of warships.⁶⁹

Reciprocal trade with U.S.

Anti-Americanism reached a shrill peak in 1911 in Canada.⁷⁰ The Liberal
government in 1911 negotiated a Reciprocity treaty with the U.S. that would
lower trade barriers. Canadian manufacturing interests were alarmed that
free trade would allow the bigger and more efficient American factories to
take their markets. The Conservatives made it a central campaign issue in
the 1911 election, warning that it would be a "sell out" to the United
States with economic annexation a special danger.⁷¹ Conservative slogan was
"No truck or trade with the Yankees", as they appealed to Canadian
nationalism and nostalgia for the British Empire to win a major victory.⁷²

Canadian autonomy

Canada demanded and received permission from London to send its own
delegation to the Versailles Peace Talks in 1919, with the proviso that it
sign the treaty under the British Empire. Canada subsequently took
responsibility for its own foreign and military affairs in the 1920s. Its
first ambassador to the United States, Vincent Massey, was named in 1927.
The United States first ambassador to Canada was William Phillips. Canada
became an active member of the British Commonwealth, the League of Nations,
and the World Court, none of which included the U.S.

Relations with the United States were cordial until 1930, when Canada
vehemently protested the new Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act by which the U.S.
raised tariffs (taxes) on products imported from Canada. Canada retaliated
with higher tariffs of its own against American products, and moved toward
more trade within the British Commonwealth. U.S.–Canadian trade fell 75% as
the Great Depression dragged both countries down.⁷³ ⁷⁴

Down to the 1920s the war and naval departments of both nations designed
hypothetical war game scenarios with the other as an enemy. These were
primarily exercises; the departments were never told to get ready for a
real war. In 1921, Canada developed Defence Scheme No. 1 for an attack on
American cities and for forestalling invasion by the United States until
Imperial reinforcements arrived. Through the later 1920s and 1930s, the
United States Army War College developed a plan for a war with the British
Empire waged largely on North American territory, in War Plan Red.⁷⁵

Herbert Hoover meeting in 1927 with British Ambassador Sir Esme Howard
agreed on the "absurdity of contemplating the possibility of war between
the United States and the British Empire."⁷⁶

In 1938, as the roots of World War II were set in motion, U.S. President
Franklin Roosevelt gave a public speech at Queens University in Kingston,
Ontario, declaring that the United States would not sit idly by if another
power tried to dominate Canada. Diplomats saw it as a clear warning to
Germany not to attack Canada.⁷⁷

World War II

The two nations cooperated closely in World War II,⁷⁸ as both nations saw
new levels of prosperity and a determination to defeat the Axis powers.
Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King and President Franklin D.
Roosevelt were determined not to repeat the mistakes of their
predecessors.⁷⁹ They met in August 1940 at Ogdensburg, issuing a
declaration calling for close cooperation, and formed the Permanent Joint
Board on Defense (PJBD).

King sought to raise Canada's international visibility by hosting the
August 1943 Quadrant conference in Quebec on military and political
strategy; he was a gracious host but was kept out of the important meetings
by Winston Churchill and Roosevelt.

Canada allowed the construction of the Alaska Highway and participated in
the building of the atomic bomb. 49,000 Americans joined the RCAF
(Canadian) or RAF (British) air forces through the Clayton Knight
Committee, which had Roosevelt's permission to recruit in the U.S. in
1940–42.⁸⁰

American attempts in the mid-1930s to integrate British Columbia into a
united West Coast military command had aroused Canadian opposition. Fearing
a Japanese invasion of Canada's vulnerable coast, American officials urged
the creation of a united military command for an eastern Pacific Ocean
theater of war. Canadian leaders feared American imperialism and the loss
of autonomy more than a Japanese invasion. In 1941, Canadians successfully
argued within the PJBD for mutual cooperation rather than unified command
for the West Coast.⁸¹

Newfoundland

The United States built large military bases in Newfoundland, at the time,
a British dominion. The American involvement ended the depression and
brought new prosperity; Newfoundland's business community sought closer
ties with the United States as expressed by the Economic Union Party.
Ottawa took notice and wanted Newfoundland to join Canada, which it did
after hotly contested referenda. There was little demand in the United
States for the acquisition of Newfoundland, so the United States did not
protest the British decision not to allow an American option on the
Newfoundland referendum.⁸²

Cold War

Following co-operation in the two World Wars, Canada and the United States
lost much of their previous animosity. As Britain's influence as a global
imperial power declined, Canada and the United States became extremely
close partners. Canada was a close ally of the United States during the
Cold War.

Nixon Shock 1971

The United States had become Canada's largest market, and after the war the
Canadian economy became dependent on smooth trade flows with the United
States so much that in 1971 when the United States enacted the "Nixon
Shock" economic policies (including a 10% tariff on all imports) it put the
Canadian government into a panic. This led in a large part to the
articulation of Prime Minister Trudeau's "Third Option" policy of
diversifying Canada's trade and downgrading the importance of Canada –
United States relations. In a 1972 speech in Ottawa, Nixon declared the
"special relationship" between Canada and the United States dead.⁸³

1990s

The main issues in Canada–U.S. relations in the 1990s focused on the NAFTA
agreement, which was signed in 1994. It created a common market that by
2014 was worth $19 trillion, encompassed 470 million people, and had
created millions of jobs.⁸⁴ Wilson says, "Few dispute that NAFTA has
produced large and measurable gains for Canadian consumers, workers, and
businesses." However, he adds, "NAFTA has fallen well short of
expectations."⁸⁵

Anti-Americanism

Further information: Anti-Americanism § Canada

Since the arrival of the Loyalists as refugees from the American Revolution
in the 1780s, historians have identified a constant theme of Canadian fear
of the United States and of "Americanization" or a cultural takeover. In
the War of 1812, for example, the enthusiastic response by French militia
to defend Lower Canada reflected, according to Heidler and Heidler (2004),
"the fear of Americanization."⁸⁶ Scholars have traced this attitude over
time in Ontario and Quebec.⁸⁷

Canadian intellectuals who wrote about the U.S. in the first half of the
20th century identified America as the world center of modernity, and
deplored it. Imperialists (who admired the British Empire) explained that
Canadians had narrowly escaped American conquest with its rejection of
tradition, its worship of "progress" and technology, and its mass culture;
they explained that Canada was much better because of its commitment to
orderly government and societal harmony. There were a few ardent defenders
of the nation to the south, notably liberal and socialist intellectuals
such as F. R. Scott and Jean-Charles Harvey (1891–1967).⁸⁸

Looking at television, Collins (1990) finds that it is in English Canada
that fear of cultural Americanization is most powerful, for there the
attractions of the U.S. are strongest.⁸⁹ Meren (2009) argues that after
1945, the emergence of Quebec nationalism and the desire to preserve
French-Canadian cultural heritage led to growing anxiety regarding American
cultural imperialism and Americanization.⁹⁰ In 2006 surveys showed that 60
percent of Quebecers had a fear of Americanization, while other surveys
showed they preferred their current situation to that of the Americans in
the realms of health care, quality of life as seniors, environmental
quality, poverty, educational system, racism and standard of living. While
agreeing that job opportunities are greater in America, 89 percent
disagreed with the notion that they would rather be in the United States,
and they were more likely to feel closer to English Canadians than to
Americans.⁹¹ However, there is evidence that the elites and Quebec are much
less fearful of Americanization, and much more open to economic integration
than the general public.⁹¹

The history has been traced in detail by a leading Canadian historian J.L.
Granatstein in Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism (1997).
Current studies report the phenomenon persists. Two scholars report,
"Anti-Americanism is alive and well in Canada today, strengthened by, among
other things, disputes related to NAFTA, American involvement in the Middle
East, and the ever-increasing Americanization of Canadian culture."⁹² Jamie
Glazov writes, "More than anything else, Diefenbaker became the tragic
victim of Canadian anti-Americanism, a sentiment the prime minister had
fully embraced by 1962. [He was] unable to imagine himself (or his foreign
policy) without enemies."⁹³ Historian J. M. Bumsted says, "In its most
extreme form, Canadian suspicion of the United States has led to outbreaks
of overt anti-Americanism, usually spilling over against American residents
in Canada."⁹⁴ John R. Wennersten writes, "But at the heart of Canadian
anti-Americanism lies a cultural bitterness that takes an American
expatriate unaware. Canadians fear the American media's influence on their
culture and talk critically about how Americans are exporting a culture of
violence in its television programming and movies."⁹⁵ However Kim Nossal
points out that the Canadian variety is much milder than anti-Americanism
in some other countries.⁹⁶ By contrast Americans show very little knowledge
or interest one way or the other regarding Canadian affairs.⁹⁷ Canadian
historian Frank Underhill, quoting Canadian playwright Merrill Denison
summed it up: "Americans are benevolently ignorant about Canada, whereas
Canadians are malevolently informed about the United States."⁹⁸

Relations between political executives

The executive of each country is represented differently. The President of
the United States serves as both the head of state and head of government,
and his "administration" is the executive, while the Prime Minister of
Canada is head of government only, and his or her "government" or
"ministry" directs the executive.

Mulroney and Reagan

Relations between Brian Mulroney and Ronald Reagan were famously close.
This relationship resulted in negotiations for the Canada–United States
Free Trade Agreement, and the U.S.–Canada Air Quality Agreement to reduce
acid-rain-causing emissions, both major policy goals of Mulroney, that
would be finalized under the presidency of George H. W. Bush.

Chrétien and Clinton

Although Jean Chrétien was wary of appearing too close to the President,
personally, he and Bill Clinton were known to be golfing partners. Their
governments had many small trade quarrels over the Canadian content of
American magazines, softwood lumber, and so on, but on the whole were quite
friendly. Both leaders had run on reforming or abolishing NAFTA, but the
agreement went ahead with the addition of environmental and labor side
agreements. Crucially, the Clinton administration lent rhetorical support
to Canadian unity during the 1995 referendum in Quebec on separation from
Canada.

Chrétien and Bush

Relations between Chrétien and George W. Bush were strained throughout
their overlapping times in office. After the September 11 attacks terror
attacks, Jean Chrétien publicly mused that U.S. foreign policy might be
part of the "root causes" of terrorism. Some Americans criticized his "smug
moralism", and Chrétien's public refusal to support the 2003 Iraq war was
met drew responses in the United States, especially among conservatives.⁹⁹

Harper and Bush

Stephen Harper and George W. Bush were thought to share warm personal
relations and also close ties between their administrations. Because Bush
was so unpopular among liberals in Canada (particularly in the media), this
was underplayed by the Harper government.¹⁰⁰

Shortly after being congratulated by Bush for his victory in February 2006,
Harper rebuked U.S. ambassador to Canada David Wilkins for criticizing the
Conservatives' plans to assert Canada's sovereignty over the Arctic Ocean
waters with military force.

Harper and Obama

President Barack Obama's first international trip was to Canada on February
19, 2009, thereby sending a strong message of peace and cooperation.¹⁰¹
With the exception of Canadian lobbying against "Buy American" provisions
in the U.S. stimulus package, relations between the two administrations
were smooth.

They also held friendly bets on hockey games during the Winter Olympic
season. In the 2010 Winter Olympics hosted by Canada in Vancouver, Canada
defeated the US in both gold medal matches, entitling Stephen Harper to
receive a case of Molson Canadian beer from Barack Obama; in reverse, if
Canada had lost, Harper would have provided a case of Yuengling beer to
Obama.¹⁰² During the 2014 Winter Olympics, alongside U.S. Secretary of
State John Kerry & Minister of Foreign Affairs John Baird, Stephen Harper
was given a case of Samuel Adams beer by Obama for the Canadian gold medal
victory over the US in women's hockey, and the semi-final victory over the
US in men's hockey.¹⁰³

Canada-United States Regulatory Cooperation Council (RCC) (2011)

On February 4, 2011, Harper and Obama issued a "Declaration on a Shared
Vision for Perimeter Security and Economic Competitiveness"¹⁰⁴ ¹⁰⁵ and
announced the creation of the Canada–United States Regulatory Cooperation
Council (RCC) "to increase regulatory transparency and coordination between
the two countries."¹⁰⁶

Health Canada and the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
under the RCC mandate, undertook the "first of its kind" initiative by
selecting "as its first area of alignment common cold indications for
certain over-the-counter antihistamine ingredients (GC 2013-01-10)."¹⁰⁷

On Wednesday, December 7, Harper flew to Washington, met with Obama and
signed an agreement to implement the joint action plans that had been
developed since the initial meeting in February. The plans called on both
countries to spend more on border infrastructure, share more information on
people who cross the border, and acknowledge more of each other's safety
and security inspection on third-country traffic. An editorial in The Globe
and Mail praised the agreement for giving Canada the ability to track
whether failed refugee claimants have left Canada via the U.S. and for
eliminating "duplicated baggage screenings on connecting flights".¹⁰⁸ The
agreement is not a legally binding treaty, and relies on the political will
and ability of the executives of both governments to implement the terms of
the agreement. These types of executive agreements are routine—on both
sides of the Canada–U.S. border.

Trudeau and Obama

President Barack Obama and Prime Minister Justin Trudeau first met formally
at the APEC summit meeting in Manila, Philippines in November 2015, nearly
a week after the latter was sworn into the office. Both leaders expressed
eagerness for increased cooperation and coordination between the two
countries during the course of Trudeau's government with Trudeau promising
an "enhanced Canada–U.S. partnership".¹⁰⁹

On November 6, 2015, Obama announced the U.S. State Department's rejection
of the proposed Keystone XL pipeline, the fourth phase of the Keystone oil
pipeline system running between Canada and the United States, to which
Trudeau expressed disappointment but said that the rejection would not
damage Canada–U.S. relations and would instead provide a "fresh start" to
strengthening ties through cooperation and coordination, saying that "the
Canada–U.S. relationship is much bigger than any one project."¹¹⁰ Obama has
since praised Trudeau's efforts to prioritize the reduction of climate
change, calling it "extraordinarily helpful" to establish a worldwide
consensus on addressing the issue.¹¹¹

Although Trudeau has told Obama his plans to withdraw Canada's McDonnell
Douglas CF-18 Hornet jets assisting in the American-led intervention
against ISIL, Trudeau said that Canada will still "do more than its part"
in combating the terrorist group by increasing the number of Canadian
special forces members training and fighting on ground in Iraq and
Syria.¹¹²

Trudeau visited the White House for an official visit and state dinner on
March 10, 2016.¹¹³ Trudeau and Obama were reported to have shared warm
personal relations during the visit, making humorous remarks about which
country was better at hockey and which country had better beer.¹¹⁴ Obama
complimented Trudeau's 2015 election campaign for its "message of hope and
change" and "positive and optimistic vision". Obama and Trudeau also held
"productive" discussions on climate change and relations between the two
countries, and Trudeau invited Obama to speak in the Canadian parliament in
Ottawa later in the year.¹¹⁵

Trudeau and Trump

Following the victory of Donald Trump in the 2016 U.S. presidential
election, Trudeau congratulated him and invited him to visit Canada at the
"earliest opportunity."¹¹⁶

Military and security

The Canadian military, like forces of other NATO countries, fought
alongside the United States in most major conflicts since World War II,
including the Korean War, the Gulf War, the Kosovo War, and most recently
the war in Afghanistan. The main exceptions to this were the Canadian
government's opposition to the Vietnam War and the Iraq War, which caused
some brief diplomatic tensions. Despite these issues, military relations
have remained close.

American defense arrangements with Canada are more extensive than with any
other country.¹¹⁷ The Permanent Joint Board of Defense, established in
1940, provides policy-level consultation on bilateral defense matters. The
United States and Canada share North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
mutual security commitments. In addition, American and Canadian military
forces have cooperated since 1958 on continental air defense within the
framework of the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD). Canadian
forces have provided indirect support for the American invasion of Iraq
that began in 2003.¹¹⁸ Moreover, interoperability with the American armed
forces has been a guiding principle of Canadian military force structuring
and doctrine since the end of the Cold War. Canadian navy frigates, for
instance, integrate seamlessly into American carrier battle groups.¹¹⁹

In commemoration of the 200th Anniversary of the War of 1812 ambassadors
from Canada and the US, and naval officers from both countries gathered at
the Pritzker Military Library on August 17, 2012, for a panel discussion on
Canada-US relations with emphasis on national security-related matters.
Also as part of the commemoration, the navies of both countries sailed
together throughout the Great Lakes region.¹²⁰

War in Afghanistan

Main article: Canada's role in the invasion of Afghanistan

Canada's elite JTF2 unit joined American special forces in Afghanistan
shortly after the al-Qaida attacks on September 11, 2001. Canadian forces
joined the multinational coalition in Operation Anaconda in January 2002.
On April 18, 2002, an American pilot bombed Canadian forces involved in a
training exercise, killing four and wounding eight Canadians. A joint
American-Canadian inquiry determined the cause of the incident to be pilot
error, in which the pilot interpreted ground fire as an attack; the pilot
ignored orders that he felt were "second-guessing" his field tactical
decision.¹²¹ ¹²² Canadian forces assumed a six-month command rotation of
the International Security Assistance Force in 2003; in 2005, Canadians
assumed operational command of the multi-national Brigade in Kandahar, with
2,300 troops, and supervises the Provincial Reconstruction Team in
Kandahar, where al-Qaida forces are most active. Canada has also deployed
naval forces in the Persian Gulf since 1991 in support of the UN Gulf
Multinational Interdiction Force.¹²³

The Canadian Embassy in Washington, DC maintains a public relations website
named CanadianAlly.com, which is intended "to give American citizens a
better sense of the scope of Canada's role in North American and Global
Security and the War on Terror".

The New Democratic Party and some recent Liberal leadership candidates have
expressed opposition to Canada's expanded role in the Afghan conflict on
the ground that it is inconsistent with Canada's historic role (since the
Second World War) of peacekeeping operations.¹²⁴

2003 Invasion of Iraq

See also: Canada and the Iraq War and Canada and Iraq War resisters

According to contemporary polls, 71% of Canadians were opposed to the 2003
invasion of Iraq.¹²⁵ Many Canadians, and the former Liberal Cabinet headed
by Paul Martin (as well as many Americans such as Bill Clinton and Barack
Obama),¹²⁶ made a policy distinction between conflicts in Afghanistan and
Iraq, unlike the Bush Doctrine, which linked these together in a "Global
war on terror".

Responding to ISIS/Daesh

Canada has been involved in international responses to the threats from
Daesh/ISIS/ISIL in Syria and Iraq, and is a member of the Global Coalition
to Counter Daesh. In October 2016, Foreign Affairs Minister Dion and
National Defence Minister Sajjan meet U.S. special envoy for this
coalition. The Americans thanked Canada "for the role of Canadian Armed
Forces (CAF) in providing training and assistance to Iraqi security forces,
as well as the CAF's role in improving essential capacity-building
capabilities with regional forces."¹²⁷

Trade

Main article: Canada–United States trade relations

Canada and the United States have the world's largest trading relationship,
with huge quantities of goods and people flowing across the border each
year. Since the 1987 Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement, there have
been no tariffs on most goods passed between the two countries.

In the course of the softwood lumber dispute, the U.S. has placed tariffs
on Canadian softwood lumber because of what it argues is an unfair Canadian
government subsidy, a claim which Canada disputes. The dispute has cycled
through several agreements and arbitration cases. Other notable disputes
include the Canadian Wheat Board, and Canadian cultural "restrictions" on
magazines and television (See CRTC, CBC, and National Film Board of
Canada). Canadians have been criticized about such things as the ban on
beef since a case of Mad Cow disease was discovered in 2003 in cows from
the United States (and a few subsequent cases) and the high American
agricultural subsidies. Concerns in Canada also run high over aspects of
the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) such as Chapter 11.¹²⁸

Environmental issues

A principal instrument of this cooperation is the International Joint
Commission (IJC), established as part of the Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909
to resolve differences and promote international cooperation on boundary
waters. The Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1972 is another historic
example of joint cooperation in controlling trans-border water
pollution.¹²⁹ However, there have been some disputes. Most recently, the
Devil's Lake Outlet, a project instituted by North Dakota, has angered
Manitobans who fear that their water may soon become polluted as a result
of this project.

Beginning in 1986 the Canadian government of Brian Mulroney began pressing
the Reagan administration for an "Acid Rain Treaty" in order to do
something about U.S. industrial air pollution causing acid rain in Canada.
The Reagan administration was hesitant, and questioned the science behind
Mulroney's claims. However, Mulroney was able to prevail. The product was
the signing and ratification of the Air Quality Agreement of 1991 by the
first Bush administration. Under that treaty, the two governments consult
semi-annually on trans-border air pollution, which has demonstrably reduced
acid rain, and they have since signed an annex to the treaty dealing with
ground level ozone in 2000.¹³⁰ ¹³¹ ¹³² ¹³³ Despite this, trans-border air
pollution remains an issue, particularly in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence
watershed during the summer. The main source of this trans-border pollution
results from coal-fired power stations, most of them located in the
Midwestern United States.¹³⁴ As part of the negotiations to create NAFTA,
Canada and the U.S. signed, along with Mexico, the North American Agreement
On Environmental Cooperation which created the Commission for Environmental
Cooperation which monitors environmental issues across the continent,
publishing the North American Environmental Atlas as one aspect of its
monitoring duties.¹³⁵

Currently neither of the countries' governments support the Kyoto Protocol,
which set out time scheduled curbing of greenhouse gas emissions. Unlike
the United States, Canada has ratified the agreement. Yet after
ratification, due to internal political conflict within Canada, the
Canadian government does not enforce the Kyoto Protocol, and has received
criticism from environmental groups and from other governments for its
climate change positions. In January 2011, the Canadian minister of the
environment, Peter Kent, explicitly stated that the policy of his
government with regards to greenhouse gas emissions reductions is to wait
for the United States to act first, and then try to harmonize with that
action - a position that has been condemned by environmentalists and
Canadian nationalists, and as well as scientists and government
think-tanks.¹³⁶ ¹³⁷

Newfoundland fisheries dispute

The United States and Britain, had a long-standing dispute about the rights
of Americans fishing in the waters near Newfoundland.¹³⁸ Before 1776, there
was no question that American fishermen, mostly from Massachusetts, had
rights to use the waters off Newfoundland. In the peace treaty negotiations
of 1783, the Americans insisted on a statement of these rights. However,
France, an American ally, disputed the American position because France had
its own specified rights in the area and wanted them to be exclusive.¹³⁹
The Treaty of Paris (1783) gave the Americans not rights, but rather
"liberties" to fish within the territorial waters of British North America
and to dry fish on certain coasts.

After the War of 1812, the Convention of 1818 between the United States and
Britain specified exactly what liberties were involved.¹⁴⁰ Canadian and
Newfoundland fishermen contested these liberties in the 1830s and 1840s.
The Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty of 1854, and the Treaty of
Washington of 1871 spelled-out the liberties in more detail. However the
Treaty of Washington expired in 1885, and there was a continuous round of
disputes over jurisdictions and liberties. Britain and the United States
sent the issue to the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague in 1909.
It produced a compromise settlement that permanently ended the problems.¹⁴¹
¹⁴²

Illicit drugs

Main articles: Drug policy of the United States and Drug policy of Canada

In 2003 the American government became concerned when members of the
Canadian government announced plans to decriminalize marijuana. David
Murray, an assistant to U.S. Drug Czar John P. Walters, said in a CBC
interview that, "We would have to respond. We would be forced to
respond."¹⁴³ However the election of the Conservative Party in early 2006
halted the liberalization of marijuana laws for the foreseeable future.

A 2007 joint report by American and Canadian officials on cross-border drug
smuggling indicated that, despite their best efforts, "drug trafficking
still occurs in significant quantities in both directions across the
border. The principal illicit substances smuggled across our shared border
are MDMA (Ecstasy), cocaine, and marijuana."¹⁴⁴ The report indicated that
Canada was a major producer of Ecstasy and marijuana for the U.S. market,
while the U.S. was a transit country for cocaine entering Canada.

Diplomacy

Views of presidents and prime ministers

Presidents and prime ministers typically make formal or informal statements
that indicate the diplomatic policy of their administration. Diplomats and
journalists at the time—and historians since—dissect the nuances and tone
to detect the warmth or coolness of the relationship.

- Prime Minister John A. Macdonald, speaking at the beginning of the 1891
  election (fought mostly over Canadian free trade with the United States),
  arguing against closer trade relations with the U.S. stated "As for
  myself, my course is clear. A British subject I was born—a British
  subject I will die. With my utmost effort, with my latest breath, will I
  oppose the 'veiled treason' which attempts by sordid means and mercenary
  proffers to lure our people from their allegiance." (February 3, 1891.¹⁴⁵
  )

Canada's first Prime Minister also said:

  It has been said that the United States Government is a failure. I don't
  go so far. On the contrary, I consider it a marvelous exhibition of human
  wisdom. It was as perfect as human wisdom could make it, and under it the
  American States greatly prospered until very recently; but being the work
  of men it had its defects, and it is for us to take advantage by
  experience, and endeavor to see if we cannot arrive by careful study at
  such a plan as will avoid the mistakes of our neighbors. In the first
  place we know that every individual state was an individual
  sovereignty—that each had its own army and navy and political
  organization - and when they formed themselves into a confederation they
  only gave the central authority certain specific rights appertaining to
  sovereign powers. The dangers that have risen from this system we will
  avoid if we can agree upon forming a strong central government—a great
  Central Legislature—a constitution for a Union which will have all the
  rights of sovereignty except those that are given to the local
  governments. Then we shall have taken a great step in advance of the
  American Republic. (September 12, 1864)
- Prime Minister John Sparrow Thompson, angry at failed trade talks in
  1888, privately complained to his wife, Lady Thompson, that "These Yankee
  politicians are the lowest race of thieves in existence."¹⁴⁶
- After the World War II years of close military and economic cooperation,
  President Harry S. Truman said in 1947 that "Canada and the United States
  have reached the point where we can no longer think of each other as
  'foreign' countries."¹⁴⁷
- President John F. Kennedy told Parliament in Ottawa in May 1961 that
  "Geography has made us neighbors. History has made us friends. Economics
  has made us partners. And necessity has made us allies. Those whom nature
  hath so joined together, let no man put asunder."¹⁴⁸
- President Lyndon Johnson helped open Expo '67 with an upbeat theme,
  saying that "We of the United States consider ourselves blessed. We have
  much to give thanks for. But the gift of providence we cherish most is
  that we were given as our neighbours on this wonderful continent the
  people and the nation of Canada." Remarks at Expo '67, Montreal, May 25,
  1967.¹⁴⁹
- Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau famously said that being America's
  neighbour "is like sleeping with an elephant. No matter how friendly and
  even-tempered the beast, if one can call it that, one is affected by
  every twitch and grunt."¹⁵⁰ ¹⁵¹
- Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau, sharply at odds with the U.S. over
  Cold War policy, warned at a press conference in 1971 that the
  overwhelming American presence posed "a danger to our national identity
  from a cultural, economic and perhaps even military point of view."¹⁵²
- President Richard Nixon, in a speech to Parliament in 1972 was angry at
  Trudeau, declared that the "special relationship" between Canada and the
  United States was dead. "It is time for us to recognize," he stated,
  "that we have very separate identities; that we have significant
  differences; and that nobody's interests are furthered when these
  realities are obscured."¹⁵³
- In late 2001, President George W. Bush did not mention Canada during a
  speech in which he thanked a list of countries who had assisted in
  responding to the events of September 11, although Canada had provided
  military, financial, and other support.¹⁵⁴ Ten years later, David Frum,
  one of President Bush's speechwriters, stated that it was an
  unintentional omission.¹⁵⁵
- Prime Minister Stephen Harper, in a statement congratulating Barack Obama
  on his inauguration, stated that "The United States remains Canada's most
  important ally, closest friend and largest trading partner and I look
  forward to working with President Obama and his administration as we
  build on this special relationship."¹⁵⁶
- President Barack Obama, speaking in Ottawa at his first official
  international visit in February 19, 2009, said, "I love this country. We
  could not have a better friend and ally."¹⁵⁷

Canadian public opinion on U.S. presidents

United States President George W. Bush was "deeply disliked" by a majority
of Canadians according to the Arizona Daily Sun. A 2004 poll found that
more than two thirds of Canadians favoured Democrat John Kerry over Bush in
the 2004 presidential election, with Bush's lowest approval ratings in
Canada being in the province of Quebec where just 11% of the population
supported him.¹⁵⁸ Canadian public opinion of Barack Obama was significantly
more positive. A 2012 poll found that 65% of Canadians would vote for Obama
in the 2012 presidential election "if they could" while only 9% of
Canadians would vote for his Republican opponent Mitt Romney. The same
study found that 61% of Canadians felt that the Obama administration had
been "good" for America, while only 12% felt it had been "bad". Similarly,
a Pew Research poll conducted in June 2016 found that 83% of Canadians were
"confident in Obama to do the right thing regarding world affairs".¹⁵⁹ The
study also found that a majority of members of all three major Canadian
political parties supported Obama, and also found that Obama had slightly
higher approval ratings in Canada in 2012 than he did in 2008. John
Ibbitson of The Globe and Mail stated in 2012 that Canadians generally
supported Democratic presidents over Republican presidents, citing how
President Richard Nixon was "never liked" in Canada and that Canadians
generally did not approve of Prime Minister Brian Mulroney's friendship
with President Ronald Reagan.¹⁶⁰

A March 2016 poll conducted by Nanos Research examining Canadian public
opinion on the 2016 presidential election determined that 37% of Canadians
supported Hillary Clinton, 27% supported Bernie Sanders, 7% supported
Donald Trump, 5% supported Ted Cruz, and 4% supported Marco Rubio.¹⁶¹ A
poll conducted in May 2016 by Finder.com found that 31% percent supported
Sanders, 29% supported Clinton, 14% supported Trump, and 4% supported Cruz,
while 22% of respondents chose "other" or "unsure".¹⁶²

Territorial disputes

See also: List of areas disputed by Canada and the United States

These include maritime boundary disputes:

- Dixon Entrance
- Beaufort Sea
- Strait of Juan de Fuca
- San Juan Islands
- Machias Seal Island and North Rock

Territorial land disputes:

- Aroostook War (Maine boundary)
- Alaska Boundary Dispute
- Pig War

and disputes over the international status of the:

- Northwest Passage
- Inside Passage

Arctic disputes

A long-simmering dispute between Canada and the U.S. involves the issue of
Canadian sovereignty over the Northwest Passage (the sea passages in the
Arctic). Canada's assertion that the Northwest Passage represents internal
(territorial) waters has been challenged by other countries, especially the
U.S., which argue that these waters constitute an international strait
(international waters). Canadians were alarmed when Americans drove the
reinforced oil tanker Manhattan through the Northwest Passage in 1969,
followed by the icebreaker Polar Sea in 1985, which actually resulted in a
minor diplomatic incident. In 1970, the Canadian parliament enacted the
Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act, which asserts Canadian regulatory
control over pollution within a 100-mile zone. In response, the United
States in 1970 stated, "We cannot accept the assertion of a Canadian claim
that the Arctic waters are internal waters of Canada. ... Such acceptance
would jeopardize the freedom of navigation essential for United States
naval activities worldwide." A compromise of sorts was reached in 1988, by
an agreement on "Arctic Cooperation," which pledges that voyages of
American icebreakers "will be undertaken with the consent of the Government
of Canada." However the agreement did not alter either country's basic
legal position. Paul Cellucci, the American ambassador to Canada, in 2005
suggested to Washington that it should recognize the straits as belonging
to Canada. His advice was rejected and Harper took opposite positions. The
U.S. opposes Harper's proposed plan to deploy military icebreakers in the
Arctic to detect interlopers and assert Canadian sovereignty over those
waters.¹⁶³ ¹⁶⁴

See also: Beaufort Sea § Border dispute

Common memberships

Canada and the United States both hold membership in a number of
multinational organizations such as:

- Arctic Council
- Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
- Canadian Football League
- CONCACAF
- FIBA
- FIFA
- Food and Agriculture Organization
- G7
- G-10
- G-20 major economies
- International Chamber of Commerce
- International Development Association
- International Ice Hockey Federation
- International Monetary Fund
- International Olympic Committee
- Interpol
- Major League Baseball
- Major League Soccer
- National Basketball Association
- National Football League
- National Hockey League
- National Lacrosse League
- North American Free Trade Agreement
- North American Aerospace Defense Command
- North American Numbering Plan
- North Atlantic Treaty Organization
- Organization of American States
- Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
- Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America
- UKUSA Community
- United Nations
- UNESCO
- World Bowling
- World Health Organization
- World Trade Organization
- World Bank

Diplomatic missions

Canadian missions in the United States

Embassy of Canada in Washington, D.C.
Embassy of the United States in Ottawa

Canada's chief diplomatic mission to the United States is the Canadian
Embassy in Washington, D.C.. It is further supported by many consulates
located through United States.¹⁶⁵ The Canadian Government maintains
consulates-general in several major U.S. cities including: Atlanta, Boston,
Chicago, Dallas, Denver, Detroit, Los Angeles, Miami, Minneapolis, New York
City, San Francisco and Seattle. Canadian consular services are also
available in Honolulu at the consulate of Australia through the
Canada–Australia Consular Services Sharing Agreement.

There are also Canadian trade offices located in Houston, Palo Alto and San
Diego.

U.S. missions in Canada

The United States's chief diplomatic mission to Canada is the United States
Embassy in Ottawa. It is further supported by many consulates located
throughout Canada.¹⁶⁶ The U.S government maintains consulates-general in
several major Canadian cities including:Calgary, Halifax, Montreal, Quebec
City, Toronto, Vancouver and Winnipeg.

The United States also maintains Virtual Presence Posts (VPP) in the:
Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Southwestern Ontario and Yukon.

See also

- Comparison of Canadian and American economies
- Continental One Highway
- Definitions of Canadian borders
- Etiquette in Canada and the United States
- Foreign relations of Canada
- Foreign relations of the United States
- Garrison mentality
- Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America
- United States Border Patrol interior checkpoints

References

[1] James Cudmore. "Canadian military explored plan to fully integrate
  forces with U.S. - Politics - CBC News". Cbc.ca. Retrieved 2017-01-04.
[2] "George W. Bush: 'Canada, Mexico and US Should Merge'". The Daily Bell.
  Retrieved 2017-01-04.
[3] July 7, 2011 - by By Basil Waugh (2011-07-07). "Canadians and Americans
  are more similar than assumed". News.ubc.ca. Retrieved 2017-01-04.
[4] Francis, Diane (2013-10-26). "US, Canada should merge into one country
  | New York Post". Nypost.com. Retrieved 2017-01-04.
[5] Victor Konrad and Heather Nicol, Beyond Walls: Re-inventing the
  Canada-United States Borderlands (2008) pp 49, 128
[6] John Herd Thompson, Canada and the United States: ambivalent allies
  (2008).
[7] Shafiq, Rabiya (2016-12-08). "A Cut Down In Processing Times -
  Immigration To Canada To Become Faster Through The Family Class
  Immigration Programs - Lalani & Associates". Lalaniassociates.com.pk.
  Retrieved 2017-01-04.
[8] "The Canada-U.S. border: by the numbers". cbc.ca. CBC/Radio-Canada.
  December 7, 2011. Retrieved March 23, 2016.
[9] "The world's longest border". Retrieved April 1, 2008.
[10] Hills, Carla A. "NAFTA's Economic Upsides: The View from the United
  States." Foreign Affairs 93 (2014): 122.
[11] Michael Wilson, "NAFTA's Unfinished Business: The View from Canada."
  Foreign Affairs (2014) 93#1 pp: 128+.
[12] "Harper, Obama to begin security talks | CTV News". Ctvnews.ca.
  2011-02-03. Retrieved 2016-08-27.
[13] Waugh, Basil (July 7, 2011). "Canadians and Americans are more similar
  than assumed". News.ubc.ca.
[14] Maich, Steve. "Canadians and Americans Think a Lot Alike".
  Thecanadianencyclopedia.ca.
[15] "United North America". Unitednorthamerica.org.
[16] "Americans and Canadians". Pewglobal.org. January 14, 2004.
[17] "In U.S., Canada Places First in Image Contest; Iran Last".
  Gallup.com. February 19, 2010. Retrieved February 26, 2011. published in
  2010.
[18] Americans Give Record-High Ratings to Several U.S. Allies Gallup
[19] See Jacob Poushter and Bruce Drake, "Americans' views of Mexico,
  Canada diverge as Obama attends 'Three Amigos' summit" Pew research
  Center February 19, 2014
[20] "Negative views of Russia on the Rise: Global Poll" (PDF).
  Downloads.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2016-08-27.
[21] "U.S. & World Population Clocks". Us Census Bureau. May 2012.
  Retrieved October 17, 2012.
[22] "Canada's population clock". Statistics Canada. August 2012. Retrieved
  October 17, 2012.
[23] "United States". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved March 23, 2016.
[24] "Canada". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved March 23, 2016.
[25] "American FactFinder - Results". United States Census Bureau.
[26] "Population and Dwelling Count Highlight Tables, 2011 Census".
  Statistics Canada.
[27] "America's Changing Religious Landscape". Pew Research Center. Pew
  Research Center. Retrieved September 4, 2016.
[28] "GDP 2014".
[29] Thomas Morgan, William (1926). "The Five Nations and Queen Anne".
  Mississippi Valley Historical Review. 13 (2): 169–189.
  doi:10.2307/1891955. JSTOR 1891955.
[30] June Namias, White Captives: Gender and Ethnicity on the American
  Frontier (1993)
[31] Howard H. Peckham, The Colonial Wars (1965)
[32] Chard, Donald F. (1975). "The Impact of French Privateering on New
  England, 1689–1713". American Neptune. 35 (3): 153–165.
[33] Shortt, S. E. D. (1972). "Conflict and Identity in Massachusetts: The
  Louisbourg Expedition of 1745". Social History / Histoire Sociale. 5
  (10): 165–185.
[34] Johnston, A. J. B. (2008). "D-Day at Louisbourg". Beaver. 88 (3):
  16–23.
[35] Marcus Lee Hansen, The Mingling of the Canadian and American Peoples.
  Vol. 1: Historical (1940)
[36] John Brebner, The Neutral Yankees of Nova Scotia: A Marginal Colony
  During the Revolutionary Years (1937)
[37] Marcus Lee Hansen, The Mingling of the Canadian and American Peoples.
  Vol. 1: Historical (1940); David D. Harvey, Americans in Canada:
  Migration and Settlement since 1840 (1991)
[38] Renee Kasinsky, "Refugees from Militarism: Draft Age Americans in
  Canada (1976)
[39] Yves Roby, The Franco-Americans of New England (2004); Elliott Robert
  Barkan, "French Canadians" in Stephan Thernstrom, ed. Harvard
  Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups (1980) pp 389–401
[40] Alan A. Brookes, "Canadians, British" in Stephan Thernstrom, ed.
  Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups (1980) pp 191ff.
[41] Stephan Thernstrom, ed. Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups
  (1980) p 392.
[42] Mason Wade, The French Canadians, 1760–1945 (1955) p. 74.
[43] Thomas B. Allen, Tories: Fighting for the King in America's First
  Civil War (2010) p xviii
[44] Patrick Bode, "Upper Canada, 1793: Simcoe and the Slaves," Beaver 1993
  73(3): 17–19; Paul Robert Magocsi, ed. Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples
  (1999) p 142–3
[45] Bradford Perkins, The First Rapprochement: England and the United
  States, 1795–1805 (1955)
[46] George A. Rawlyk (1994). The Canada Fire: Radical Evangelicalism in
  British North America, 1775-1812. McGill-Queen's Press. p. 122. Retrieved
  2015-11-06.
[47] Alan Taylor, The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British
  Subjects, Irish Rebels, & Indian Allies (2010).
[48] Stagg 2012, pp. 5-6.
[49] George F. G. Stanley, 1983, pg. 32
[50] David Heidler,Jeanne T. Heidler, The War of 1812,pg4
[51] Tucker 2011, p. 236.
[52] Nugent, p. 73.
[53] Nugent, p. 75.
[54] Carlisle & Golson 2007, p. 44.
[55] Pratt 1925, pp. 9–15; Hacker 1924, pp. 365–395.
[56] Mark Zuehlke, For Honour's Sake: The War of 1812 and the Brokering of
  an Uneasy Peace (2007) is a Canadian perspective.
[57] W.L. Morton, The Kingdom of Canada (1969) ch 12
[58] A.J. Langguth, Union 1812: The Americans Who Fought the Second War of
  Independence (2006) ch 24
[59] Dunning, Tom (2009). "The Canadian Rebellions of 1837 and 1838 as a
  Borderland War: A Retrospective". Ontario History. 101 (2): 129–141.
[60] Orrin Edward Tiffany, The Relations of the United States to the
  Canadian Rebellion of 1837–1838 (1905). excerpt and text search
[61] Jay Sexton (2005). Debtor Diplomacy: Finance and American Foreign
  Relations in the Civil War Era, 1837-1873. Oxford University Press. p.
  206. Retrieved 2015-11-06.
[62] Doris W. Dashew, "The Story of An Illusion: The Plan To Trade
  'Alabama' Claims For Canada," Civil War History, December 1969, Vol. 15
  Issue 4, pp 332-348
[63] Shi, David E. (1978). "Seward's Attempt to Annex British Columbia,
  1865-1869". Pacific Historical Review. 47 (2): 217–238.
  doi:10.2307/3637972. JSTOR 3637972.
[64] Yossi Shain (1999). Marketing the American Creed Abroad: Diasporas in
  the U.S. and Their Homelands. Cambridge U.P. p. 53. Retrieved 2015-11-06.
[65] Mark Kurlansky (1998). Cod: A Biography of the Fish That Changed the
  World. Penguin. p. 117. Retrieved 2015-11-06.
[66] John J. Bukowczyk et al. Permeable Border: The Great Lakes Region as
  Transnational Region, 1650-1990 (University of Pittsburgh Press. 2005)
[67] J. Castell Hopkins, The Canadian Annual Review of Public Affairs: 1902
  (1903), p. 327.
[68] Munro, John A. (1965). "English-Canadianism and the Demand for
  Canadian Autonomy: Ontario's Response to the Alaska Boundary Decision,
  1903". Ontario History. 57 (4): 189–203.
[69] Spencer Tucker (2011). World War II at Sea: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO.
  p. 142.
[70] Baker, W. M. (1970). "A Case Study of Anti-Americanism in
  English-Speaking Canada: The Election Campaign of 1911". Canadian
  Historical Review. 51 (4): 426–449. doi:10.3138/chr-051-04-04.
[71] Clements, Kendrick A. (1973). "Manifest Destiny and Canadian
  Reciprocity in 1911". Pacific Historical Review. 42 (1): 32–52.
  doi:10.2307/3637741. JSTOR 3637741.
[72] Lewis E. Ellis (1968). Reciprocity, 1911: a study in Canadian-American
  relations. Greenwood. Retrieved 2015-11-06.
[73] Richard N. Kottman, "Herbert Hoover and the Smoot-Hawley Tariff:
  Canada, A Case Study," Journal of American History, Vol. 62, No. 3
  (December 1975), pp. 609-635 in JSTOR
[74] McDonald, Judith; et al. "Trade Wars: Canada's Reaction to the
  Smoot-Hawley Tariff", (1997)". Journal of Economic History. 57 (4):
  802–826. doi:10.2307/2951161.
[75] Carlson, Peter (December 30, 2005). "Raiding the Icebox". The
  Washington Post.
[76] Bell, Christopher M. (1997). "Thinking the Unthinkable: British and
  American Naval Strategies for an Anglo-American War, 1918–1931".
  International History Review. 19 (4): 789–808.
  doi:10.1080/07075332.1997.9640804.
[77] Arnold A. Offner, American Appeasement: United States Foreign Policy
  and Germany, 1933-1938 (1969) p. 256
[78] Galen Roger Perras, Franklin Roosevelt and the Origins of the
  Canadian-American Security Alliance, 1933-1945 (1998)
[79] Richard Jensen, "Nationalism and Civic Duty in Wartime: Comparing
  World Wars in Canada and America," Canadian Issues / Thèmes Canadiens,
  December 2004, pp 6–10
[80] Rachel Lea Heide, "Allies in Complicity: The United States, Canada,
  and the Clayton Knight Committee's Clandestine Recruiting of Americans
  for the Royal Canadian Air Force, 1940-1942," Journal of the Canadian
  Historical Association, 2004, Vol. 15, pp 207–230
[81] Galen Roger Perras, "Who Will Defend British Columbia? Unity of
  Command on the West Coast, 1934-1942," Pacific Northwest Quarterly,
  Spring 1997, Vol. 88 Issue 2, pp 59–69
[82] McNeil Earle, Karl (1998). "Cousins of a Kind: The Newfoundland and
  Labrador Relationship with the United States". American Review of
  Canadian Studies. 28 (4): 387–411. doi:10.1080/02722019809481611.
[83] Bruce Muirhead, "From Special Relationship to Third Option: Canada,
  the U.S., and the Nixon Shock," American Review of Canadian Studies, Vol.
  34, 2004 online edition
[84] Hills, Carla A. "NAFTA's Economic Upsides: The View from the United
  States." Foreign Affairs 93 (2014): 122. online
[85] Wilson, Michael. "NAFTA's Unfinished Business: The View from Canada."
  Foreign Affairs 93 (2014): 128. online
[86] David Stephen Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler, Encyclopedia of the War
  of 1812 (2004) p. 194
[87] J. L. Granatstein, Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism
  (1997)
[88] Damien-Claude Bélanger, Prejudice and Pride: Canadian Intellectuals
  Confront the United States, 1891–1945 (University of Toronto Press,
  2011), pp 16, 180
[89] Richard Collins, Culture, Communication, and National Identity: The
  Case of Canadian Television (U. of Toronto Press, 1990) p. 25
[90] David Meren, "'Plus que jamais nécessaires': Cultural Relations,
  Nationalism and the State in the Canada-Quebec-France Triangle,
  1945–1960," Journal of the Canadian Historical Association, 2009, Vol. 19
  Issue 1, pp 279–305,
[91] Paula Ruth Gilbert, Violence and the Female Imagination: Quebec's
  Women Writers (2006) p. 114
[92] Barbara S. Groseclose; Jochen Wierich (2009). Internationalizing the
  History of American Art: Views. Penn State Press. p. 105. Retrieved
  2015-11-06.
[93] Jamie Glazov (2002). Canadian Policy Toward Khrushchev's Soviet Union.
  McGill-Queens. p. 138. Retrieved 2015-11-06.
[94] J. M. Bumsted in Paul Magocsi, ed. (1999). Encyclopedia of Canada's
  Peoples. University of Toronto Press. p. 197. Retrieved 2015-11-06.
[95] John R. Wennersten (2008). Leaving America: The New Expatriate
  Generation. Greenwood. p. 44. Retrieved 2015-11-06.
[96] Brendon O'Connor (2007). Anti-Americanism: Comparative perspectives.
  Greenwood. p. 60. Retrieved 2015-11-06.
[97] Seymour Martin Lipset (1990). Continental Divide: The Values and
  Institutions of the United States and Canada. Routledge. Retrieved
  2015-11-06.
[98] Camille R. La Bossière (1994). Context North America: Canadian/U.S.
  Literary Relations. U. of Ottawa Press. p. 11. Retrieved 2015-11-06.
[99] Daniel Drache (2008). Big Picture Realities: Canada and Mexico at the
  Crossroads. Wilfrid Laurier U.P. p. 115. Retrieved 2015-11-06.
[100] "Prime ministers and presidents". CBC News. February 18, 2009.
[101] "Obama to visit Canada Feb. 19, PMO confirms - CTV News". Ctv.ca.
  January 28, 2009. Retrieved February 26, 2011.
[102] "Obama loses boozy bet with Harper". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved
  April 27, 2016.
[103] Canoe inc. "Barack Obama follows through on Olympic beer bet".
  canoe.com. Retrieved April 27, 2016.
[104] "Joint Statement by President Obama and Prime Minister Harper of
  Canada on Regulatory Cooperation". Whitehouse.gov. February 4, 2011.
  Retrieved February 26, 2011.
[105] "PM and U.S. President Obama announce shared vision for perimeter
  security and economic competitiveness between Canada and the United
  States". Office of the Prime Minister of Canada. February 4, 2011.
  Archived from the original on 2013-09-10. Retrieved February 26, 2011.
[106] "United States-Canada Regulatory Cooperation Council (RCC) Joint
  Action Plan: Developing and implementing the Joint Action Plan".
  Washington, D.C.: Office of the Prime Minister of Canada. December 7,
  2011. Archived from the original on 2013-07-29.
[107] "Notice: Regulatory Cooperation Council (RCC) Over-the-Counter (OTC)
  Products: Common Monograph Working Group: Selection of a Monograph for
  Alignment". Canada's Action Plan. Government of Canada. January 10, 2013.
  Archived from the original on 2014-11-08. Retrieved February 15, 2013.
[108] "Canada-U.S. border agreement a good thing". The Globe and Mail.
  Toronto. September 6, 2012.
[109] Jordan, Roger (November 20, 2015). "Trudeau promises Obama an
  enhanced Canada-US partnership". World Socialist Web Site. International
  Committee of the Fourth International. Retrieved January 2, 2016.
[110] Harris, Kathleen (November 6, 2015). "Justin Trudeau 'disappointed'
  with U.S. rejection of Keystone XL". CBC News. Canadian Broadcasting
  Corporation. Retrieved January 2, 2016.
[111] Hall, Chris (November 20, 2015). "Trudeau warmly embraced by Obama,
  but don't expect concessions from U.S.". CBC News. Canadian Broadcasting
  Corporation. Retrieved January 2, 2016.
[112] Cullen, Catherine (November 17, 2015). "Justin Trudeau says Canada to
  increase number of training troops in Iraq". CBC News. Canadian
  Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved January 2, 2016.
[113] "Barack Obama and Justin Trudeau set a date for first meeting in
  Washington". Toronto Star. The Canadian Press. December 28, 2015.
  Retrieved January 2, 2016.
[114] "Obama welcomes Trudeau to White House, 'About time, eh?'".
  thestar.com. March 10, 2016. Retrieved April 27, 2016.
[115] "Obama on growing friendship with Trudeau - 'What's not to like?'".
  SWI swissinfo.ch. Retrieved April 27, 2016.
[116] Harris, Kathleen (November 10, 2016). "Justin Trudeau invites Donald
  Trump to visit Canada during call that marks 'strong beginning'". CBC
  News. Retrieved November 11, 2016.
[117] Background note on Canada, U.S. State Department
[118] Patrick Lennox (2009). At Home and Abroad: The Canada-US Relationship
  and Canada's Place in the World. UBC Press. p. 107. Retrieved 2015-11-06.
[119] Canadian Peace Research Institute (2006). Peace Research. Canadian
  Peace Research and Education Association. Retrieved 2015-11-06. vol 38
  page 8
[120] Webcast Panel Discussion "Ties That Bind" at the Pritzker Military
  Library on August 17, 2012
[121] "U.S. 'friendly fire' pilot won't face court martial". CBC News. July
  6, 2004. Retrieved January 28, 2004.
[122] "Pilots blamed for 'friendly fire' deaths". BBC News. August 22,
  2002. Retrieved January 28, 2007.
[123] "CANADIAN NAVY TEAMS UP WITH U.S. CARRIER BATTLE GROUPS". Department
  of National Defence. September 25, 2006. Archived from the original on
  2007-04-05. Retrieved January 28, 2007.
[124] Wayne S. Cox; Bruno Charbonneau (2010). Locating Global Order:
  American Power and Canadian Security After 9/11. UBC Press. p. 119.
  Retrieved 2015-11-06.
[125] Harper, Tim (March 22, 2003). "Canadians back Chrétien on war, poll
  finds". Toronto Star. Retrieved January 12, 2009.
[126] Spector, Norman (November 20, 2006). "Clinton speaks on Afghanistan,
  and Canada listens". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved January 28, 2007.
[127] "Ministers Dion and Sajjan meet U.S. special envoy for Global
  Coalition to Counter ISIL". Global Affairs Canada. October 6, 2016.
[128] Eric Miller (2002). The Outlier Sectors: Areas of Non-free Trade in
  the North American Free Trade Agreement. BID-INTAL. p. 19. Retrieved
  2015-11-06.
[129] GMcKeating. "The Embassy of the U.S.A., Ottawa - United States -
  Canada Relations". Archived from the original on 2010-05-27. Retrieved
  April 27, 2016.
[130] "Clean Air Markets". Retrieved April 27, 2016.
[131] "Environment and Climate Change Canada - Air - Canada- United States
  Air Quality Agreement". Retrieved April 27, 2016.
[132] "Exclusive Interview: Brian Mulroney remembers his friend Ronald
  Reagan". News.nationalpost.com.
[133] Freed, Kenneth; Gerstenzang, James (April 6, 1987). "Mulroney Asks
  Reagan for Treaty on Acid Rain". Los Angeles Times.
[134] Edward S. Cassedy; Peter Z. Grossman (1998). Introduction to Energy:
  Resources, Technology, and Society. Cambridge U.P. p. 157. Retrieved
  2015-11-06.
[135] "COMMISSION FOR ENVIRONMENTAL COOPERATION". Retrieved April 27, 2016.
[136] "Canada's environment policy to follow the U.S.: Minister". Archived
  from the original on 2011-11-27. Retrieved April 27, 2016.
[137] "Resources - Climate Prosperity". Retrieved April 27, 2016.
[138] Michael Rheta Martin (1978). Dictionary of American History: With the
  Complete Text of the Constitution of the United States. Rowman &
  Littlefield. p. 227. Retrieved 2015-11-06.
[139] Murphy, Orville T. (1965). "The Comte De Vergennes, The Newfoundland
  Fisheries And The Peace Negotiation Of 1783: A Reconsideration". Canadian
  Historical Review. 46 (1): 32–46. doi:10.3138/chr-046-01-02.
[140] Golladay, V. Dennis (1973). "The United States and British North
  American Fisheries, 1815-1818". American Neptune. 33 (4): 246–257.
[141] Alvin, C. Gluek Jr (1976). "Programmed Diplomacy: The Settlement of
  the North Atlantic Fisheries Question, 1907-12". Acadiensis. 6 (1):
  43–70.
[142] Kurkpatrick Dorsey (2009). The Dawn of Conservation Diplomacy:
  U.S.-Canadian wildlife protection treaties in the progressive era.
  University of Washington Press. p. 19ff. Retrieved 2015-11-06.
[143] "U.S. warns Canada against easing pot laws". Cbc.ca. May 2, 2003.
  Archived from the original on March 24, 2009. Retrieved February 26,
  2011.
[144] https://etacanadaonline.com/
[145] Histor!ca "Election of 1891: A Question of Loyalty" Archived April 6,
  2008, at the Wayback Machine., James Marsh.
[146] Donald Creighton, John A. Macdonald: The Old Chieftain (1955) p. 497
[147] Council on Foreign Relations, Documents on American foreign relations
  (1957) Volume 9 p 558
[148] John F. Kennedy. Address Before the Canadian Parliament in Ottawa.
  The American Presidency Project.
[149] "The Embassy of the U.S.A., Ottawa - United States - Canada
  Relations". Canada.usembassy.gov. Archived from the original on
  2009-03-23. Retrieved February 26, 2011.
[150] From a speech by Trudeau to the National Press Club in Washington,
  DC, on March 25, 1969
[151] J. L. Granatstein and Robert Bothwell, Pirouette: Pierre Trudeau and
  Canadian Foreign Policy(1991) p 51
[152] J. L. Granatstein and Robert Bothwell, Pirouette: Pierre Trudeau and
  Canadian Foreign Policy(1991) p 195
[153] J. L. Granatstein and Robert Bothwell, Pirouette: Pierre Trudeau and
  Canadian Foreign Policy(1991) p 71
[154] "The Rhetoric of 9/11: President George W. Bush -- Address to Joint
  Session of Congress and the American People (9-20-01)". Retrieved April
  27, 2016.
[155] Frum, David (9 September 2011). "David Frum: Why Bush didn't mention
  Canada in his 9/20 speech". National Post. Retrieved 12 October 2016.
[156] "Statement by Prime Minister Stephen Harper". Office of the Prime
  Minister of Canada. January 20, 2009. Archived from the original on
  2010-01-13. Retrieved January 21, 2009.
[157] "Obama declares love for Canada, banishes Bush era". Reuters.
  February 19, 2009.
[158] "Poll: Deep anti-Bush sentiment in Canada". Arizona Daily Sun.
  October 20, 2004. Retrieved April 27, 2016.
[159] Wike, Richard; Poushter, Jacob; Zainulbhai, Hani (June 29, 2016). "2.
  Obama's international image remains strong in Europe and Asia".
  Pewglobal.org.
[160] "Who do Canadians want to vote for? Barack Obama". The Globe and
  Mail. Retrieved April 27, 2016.
[161] "CTV News Channel: Nanos on the Numbers | CTV News". Ctvnews.ca.
  2014-09-09. Retrieved 2016-08-27.
[162] "Canadians choose Bernie Sanders over Hillary Clinton, survey
  suggests - National". Globalnews.ca. 2016-05-10. Retrieved 2016-08-27.
[163] Matthew Carnaghan, Allison Goody, "Canadian Arctic Sovereignty"
  (Library of Parliament: Political and Social Affairs Division, January
  26, 2006); 2006 news
[164] "Cellucci: Canada should control Northwest Passage". CTV.ca. Archived
  from the original on 2011-02-22. Retrieved February 26, 2011.
[165] "Canadian Government offices in the U.S". Canadainternational.gc.ca.
  April 5, 2015. Retrieved April 5, 2015.
[166] "American Government offices in Canada". Canada.usembassy.gov.
  Retrieved February 26, 2011.

Further reading

- Anderson, Greg; Christopher Sands (2011). Forgotten Partnership Redux:
  Canada-U.S. Relations in the 21st Century. Cambria Press. ISBN
  978-1-60497-762-2. Retrieved 2015-11-06.
- Azzi, Stephen. Reconcilable Differences: A History of Canada-US Relations
  (Oxford University Press, 2014)
- Behiels, Michael D. and Reginald C. Stuart, eds. Transnationalism:
  Canada-United States History into the Twenty-First Century
  (McGill-Queen's University Press, 2010) 312 pp. online 2012 review
- Bothwell, Robert. Your Country, My Country: A Unified History of the
  United States and Canada (2015), 400 pages; traces relations, shared
  values, and differences across the centuries
- Doran, Charles F., and James Patrick Sewell, "Anti-Americanism in
  Canada," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,
  Vol. 497, Anti-Americanism: Origins and Context (May 1988), pp. 105–119
  in JSTOR
- Clarkson, Stephen. Uncle Sam and Us: Globalization, Neoconservatism and
  the Canadian State (University of Toronto Press, 2002)
- Engler, Yves"The Black Book of Canadian Foreign Policy". Co-published:
  RED Publishing, Fernwood Publishing. April 2009. ISBN 978-1-55266-314-1.
- Ek, Carl, and Ian F. Fergusson. Canada-U.S. Relations (Congressional
  Research Service, 2010) 2010 Report, by an agency of the U.S. Congress
  + "Report Highlight" of 2010 report
- Granatstein, J. L. Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism (1997)
- Granatstein, J. L. and Norman Hillmer, For Better or for Worse: Canada
  and the United States to the 1990s (1991)
- Gravelle, Timothy B. "Partisanship, Border Proximity, and Canadian
  Attitudes toward North American Integration." International Journal of
  Public Opinion Research (2014) 26#4 pp: 453-474.
- Gravelle, Timothy B. "Love Thy Neighbo (u) r? Political Attitudes,
  Proximity and the Mutual Perceptions of the Canadian and American
  Publics." Canadian Journal of Political Science (2014) 47#1 pp: 135-157.
- Hale, Geoffrey. So Near Yet So Far: The Public and Hidden Worlds of
  Canada-US Relations (University of British Columbia Press, 2012); 352
  pages focus on 2001-2011
- Holland, Kenneth. "The Canada–United States defence relationship: a
  partnership for the twenty-first century." Canadian Foreign Policy
  Journal ahead-of-print (2015): 1-6. online
- Holmes, Ken. "The Canadian Cognitive Bias and its Influence on Canada/US
  Relations." International Social Science Review (2015) 90#1 online.
- Holmes, John W. "Impact of Domestic Political Factors on
  Canadian-American Relations: Canada," International Organization, Vol.
  28, No. 4, Canada and the United States: Transnational and
  Transgovernmental Relations (Autumn, 1974), pp. 611–635 in JSTOR
- Innes, Hugh, ed. Americanization: Issues for the Seventies (McGraw-Hill
  Ryerson, 1972). ISBN 0-07-092943-2; re 1970s
- Lennox, Patrick. At Home and Abroad: The Canada-U.S. Relationship and
  Canada's Place in the World (University of British Columbia Press; 2010)
  192 pages; the post–World War II period.
- Little, John Michael. "Canada Discovered: Continentalist Perceptions of
  the Roosevelt Administration, 1939-1945," PhD dissertation. Dissertation
  Abstracts International, 1978, Vol. 38 Issue 9, p5696-5697
- Lumsden, Ian, ed. The Americanization of Canada, ed. ... for the
  University League for Social Reform (U of Toronto Press, 1970). ISBN
  0-8020-6111-7
- McKercher, Asa. Camelot and Canada: Canadian-American Relations in the
  Kennedy Era (Oxford UP, 2016). xii, 298 pp.
- Graeme S. Mount and Edelgard Mahant, An Introduction to Canadian-American
  Relations (1984, updated 1989)
- Molloy, Patricia. Canada/US and Other Unfriendly Relations: Before and
  After 9/11 (Palgrave Macmillan; 2012) 192 pages; essays on various
  "myths"
- Mount, Graeme S. and Edelgard Mahant, Invisible and Inaudible in
  Washington: American Policies toward Canada during the Cold War (1999)
- Muirhead, Bruce. "From Special Relationship to Third Option: Canada, the
  U.S., and the Nixon Shock," American Review of Canadian Studies, Vol. 34,
  2004 online edition
- Myers, Phillip E. Dissolving Tensions: Rapprochement and Resolution in
  British-American-Canadian Relations in the Treaty of Washington Era,
  1865–1914 (Kent State UP, 2015). x, 326 pp.
- Pederson, William D. ed. A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt (2011)
  online pp 517–41, covers FDR's policies
- Stuart, Reginald C. Dispersed Relations: Americans and Canadians in Upper
  North America (2007) excerpt and text search
- Tagg, James.. "'And, We Burned down the White House, Too': American
  History, Canadian Undergraduates, and Nationalism," The History Teacher,
  37#3 (May 2004), pp. 309–334 in JSTOR
- Tansill, C. C. Canadian-American Relations, 1875-1911 (1943)
- Thompson, John Herd, and Stephen J. Randall. Canada and the United
  States: Ambivalent Allies (4th ed. McGill-Queen's UP, 2008), 387pp, the
  standard scholarly survey

Primary sources

- Gallagher, Connell. "The Senator George D. Aiken Papers: Sources for the
  Study of Canadian-American Relations, 1930-1974." Archivaria 1#21 (1985)
  pp 176–79 online.

External links

- History of Canada - U.S. relations
- Canadian Embassy in Washington, D.C.
- Embassy of the United States of America in Ottawa
- Canadian Association of New York
- Canada and the United States, by Stephen Azzi and J.L. Granatstein
- Canadian-American Relations, by John English

Economy

Economy of Canada

Canada has the 10th (nominal) or 15th-largest (PPP) economy in the world
(measured in US dollars at market exchange rates), is one of the world's
wealthiest nations, and is a member of the Organization for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD) and Group of Seven (G7). As with other
developed nations, the Canadian economy is dominated by the service
industry, which employs about three quarters of Canadians.¹⁹ Canada is
unusual among developed countries in the importance of the primary sector,
with the logging and oil industries being two of Canada's most important.
Canada also has a sizable manufacturing sector, based in Central Canada,
with the automobile industry and aircraft industry being especially
important. With a long coastline, Canada has the 8th largest commercial
fishing and seafood industry in the world.²⁰ ²¹ Canada is one of the global
leaders of the entertainment software industry.²²

Overview

With the exception of a few big island nations in the Caribbean, Canada is
the only major parliamentary democracy in the western hemisphere. As a
result, Canada has developed its own social and political institutions,
distinct from most other countries in the world.²³ Though the Canadian
economy is closely integrated with the American economy, it has developed
unique economic institutions.

The Canadian economic system generally combines elements of private
enterprise and public enterprise. Many aspects of public enterprise, most
notably the development of an extensive social welfare system to redress
social and economic inequities, were adopted after the end of World War Two
in 1945.²³

Canada has a private to public (Crown) property ratio of 60:40 and one of
the highest levels of economic freedom in the world. Today Canada closely
resembles the U.S. in its market-oriented economic system and pattern of
production.²⁴ As of February 2013, Canada's national unemployment rate
stood at 7.0%,²⁵ as the economy continues its recovery from the effects of
the financial crisis of 2007–08. In May 2010, provincial unemployment rates
varied from a low of 5.0% in Saskatchewan to a high of 13.8% in
Newfoundland and Labrador.²⁶ According to the Forbes Global 2000 list of
the world's largest companies in 2008, Canada has 69 companies in the list,
ranking 5th next to France.²⁷

International trade makes up a large part of the Canadian economy,
particularly of its natural resources. In 2009, agriculture, energy,
forestry and mining exports accounted for about 58% of Canada's total
exports.²⁸ Machinery, equipment, automotive products and other manufactures
accounted for a further 38% of exports in 2009.²⁸ In 2009, exports
accounted for approximately 30% of Canada's GDP. The United States is by
far its largest trading partner, accounting for about 73% of exports and
63% of imports as of 2009.²⁹ Canada's combined exports and imports ranked
8th among all nations in 2006.³⁰

Approximately 4% of Canadians are directly employed in primary resource
fields, and they account for 6.2% of GDP.³¹ They are still paramount in
many parts of the country. Many, if not most, towns in northern Canada,
where agriculture is difficult, exist because of a nearby mine or source of
timber. Canada is a world leader in the production of many natural
resources such as gold, nickel, uranium, diamonds, lead, and in recent
years, crude petroleum, which, with the world's second-largest oil
reserves, is taking an increasingly prominent position in natural resources
extraction. Several of Canada's largest companies are based in natural
resource industries, such as EnCana, Cameco, Goldcorp, and Barrick Gold.
The vast majority of these products are exported, mainly to the United
States. There are also many secondary and service industries that are
directly linked to primary ones. For instance one of Canada's largest
manufacturing industries is the pulp and paper sector, which is directly
linked to the logging business.

The reliance on natural resources has several effects on the Canadian
economy and Canadian society. While manufacturing and service industries
are easy to standardize, natural resources vary greatly by region. This
ensures that differing economic structures developed in each region of
Canada, contributing to Canada's strong regionalism. At the same time the
vast majority of these resources are exported, integrating Canada closely
into the international economy. Howlett and Ramesh argue that the inherent
instability of such industries also contributes to greater government
intervention in the economy, to reduce the social impact of market
changes.³²

Natural resource industries also raise important questions of
sustainability. Despite many decades as a leading producer, there is little
risk of depletion. Large discoveries continue to be made, such as the
massive nickel find at Voisey's Bay. Moreover, the far north remains
largely undeveloped as producers await higher prices or new technologies as
many operations in this region are not yet cost effective. In recent
decades Canadians have become less willing to accept the environmental
destruction associated with exploiting natural resources. High wages and
Aboriginal land claims have also curbed expansion. Instead many Canadian
companies have focused their exploration, exploitation and expansion
activities overseas where prices are lower and governments more amenable.
Canadian companies are increasingly playing important roles in Latin
America, Southeast Asia, and Africa.

The depletion of renewable resources has raised concerns in recent years.
After decades of escalating overutilization the cod fishery all but
collapsed in the 1990s, and the Pacific salmon industry also suffered
greatly. The logging industry, after many years of activism, has in recent
years moved to a more sustainable model, or to other countries.

Measuring productivity

Productivity measures are key indicators of economic performance and a key
source of economic growth and competitiveness. The Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)[notes 1] The OECD Compendium
of Productivity Indicators,³⁴ published annually, presents a broad overview
of productivity levels and growth in member nations, highlighting key
measurement issues. It analyses the role of "productivity as the main
driver of economic growth and convergence" and the "contributions of
labour, capital and MFP in driving economic growth."³⁴ According to the
definition above "MFP is often interpreted as the contribution to economic
growth made by factors such as technical and organisational innovation"
(OECD 2008,11). Measures of productivity include Gross Domestic Product
(GDP)(OECD 2008,11) and multifactor productivity.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

The OECD provides data for example comparing labour productivity levels in
the total economy of each member nation. In their 2011 report Canada's
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was $CDN 1,720,748 million.³⁵

In the International Monetary Fund's (IMF) quarterly World Economic Outlook
released in April 2015, the IMF forecast that Canada's real gross domestic
product (GDP) would grow 2.2 percent. In the July World Economic Outlook
the IMF forecast that Canada's real GDP would grow by 1.5 per cent in
2015.³⁶

According to CTV News real estate accounts for half of all GDP growth.³⁷

Multifactor productivity (MFP)

Another productivity measure, used by the OECD, is the long-term trend in
multifactor productivity (MFP) also known as total factor productivity
(TFP). This indicator assesses an economy's "underlying productive capacity
("potential output"), itself an important measure of the growth
possibilities of economies and of inflationary pressures." MFP measures the
residual growth that cannot be explained by the rate of change in the
services of labour, capital and intermediate outputs, and is often
interpreted as the contribution to economic growth made by factors such as
technical and organisational innovation. (OECD 2008,11)

According to the OECD's annual economic survey of Canada in June 2012,
Canada has experienced weak growth of multi-factor productivity (MFP) and
has been declining further since 2002. One of the ways MFP growth is raised
is by boosting innovation and Canada's innovation indicators such as
business R&D and patenting rates were poor. Raising MFP growth, is "needed
to sustain rising living standards, especially as the population ages."³⁸

Bank of Canada

Inflation targeting

The Bank of Canada, a federal crown corporation, has the responsibility of
Canada's monetary system. During the period that John Crow was Governor of
the Bank of Canada—1987 to 1994— there was a worldwide recession and the
bank rate rose to around 14% and unemployment topped 11%.³⁹ In 1991, with
Prime Minister Brian Mulroney in office, the federal government and the
Bank of Canada announced a new inflation targeting monetary policy that has
been the cornerstone of Canada's monetary and fiscal policy ever since.⁴⁰
⁴¹ Although since that time inflation-targeting has been adopted by "most
advanced-world central banks",⁴² in 1991 it was innovative and Canada was
an early adopter when the then-Finance Minister Michael Wilson approved the
Bank of Canada's first inflation-targeting in the 1991 federal budget.⁴²
The inflation target was set at 2 per cent, which is the midpoint of an
inflation range of 1 to 3 per cent. They established a set of
inflation-reduction targets in order to keep inflation "low, stable and
predictable" and to foster "confidence in the value of money," contribute
to Canada's sustained growth, employment gains and improved standard of
living.⁴⁰ Inflation is measured by the total consumer price index (CPI). In
2011 the Government of Canada and the Bank of Canada extended Canada's
inflation-control target to December 31, 2016.⁴⁰ The Bank of Canada uses
three unconventional instruments to achieve the inflation target: "a
conditional statement on the future path of the policy rate," quantitative
easing, and credit easing.⁴³

As a result, interest rates and inflation eventually came down along with
the value of the Canadian dollar.³⁹ From 1991 to 2011 the
inflation-targeting regime kept "price gains fairly reliable."⁴²

Following the Financial crisis of 2007–08 the narrow focus of
inflation-targeting as a means of providing stable growth in the Canadian
economy, was questioned. By 2011, the then-Bank of Canada Governor Mark
Carney argued that the central bank's mandate would allow for a more
flexible inflation-targeting in specific situations where he would consider
taking longer "than the typical six to eight quarters to return inflation
to 2 per cent."⁴²

The central bank— the Bank of Canada— issues its rate announcement through
its Monetary Policy Report which is released eight times a year.⁴⁰ On July
15, 2015 the Bank of Canada announced that it was lowering its target for
the overnight rate by another one-quarter percentage point, to 0.5 per
cent⁴⁴ "to try to stimulate an economy that appears to have failed to
rebound meaningfully from the oil shock woes that dragged it into decline
in the first quarter."³⁶ According to the Bank of Canada announcement, in
the first quarter of 2015, the total Consumer price index (CPI) inflation
was about 1 per cent. This reflects "year-over-year price declines for
consumer energy products." Core inflation in the first quarter of 2015 was
about 2 per cent with an underlying trend in inflation at about 1.5 to 1.7
per cent.⁴⁴

In response to the Bank of Canada's July 15, 2015 rate adjustment, Prime
Minister Stephen Harper explained that the Canadian economy was being
dragged down by forces beyond Canadian borders such as global oil prices,
the European debt crisis, and China's economic slowdown" which has made the
global economy "fragile."⁴⁵

The Chinese stock market had lost about US$3 trillion of wealth by July
2015 when panicked investors sold stocks, which created declines in the
commodities markets, which in turn negatively impacted resource-producing
countries like Canada.⁴⁶

Key industries

In 2012, the Canadian economy had the following relative weighting by
industry, as percentage value of GDP:³¹

- 12.34 Real estate and rental and leasing
- 10.86 Manufacturing
- 07.96 Mining, quarrying and oil or gas extraction
- 07.03 Health care and social assistance
- 06.90 Public administration
- 06.55 Finance and insurance
- 05.41 Wholesale trade
- 05.41 Retail trade
- 05.38 Educational services
- 05.21 Professional scientific and technical services
- 04.20 Transportation and warehousing
- 03.31 Information and cultural industries
- 02.58 Administrative and support, waste management and remediation
  services
- 02.46 Utilities
- 02.10 Accommodation and food services
- 02.04 Other services (except public administration)
- 01.59 Agriculture, forestry, fishing and hunting
- 00.76 Management of companies and enterprises
- 00.75 Arts, entertainment and recreation

Service sector

The service sector in Canada is vast and multifaceted, employing about
three quarters of Canadians and accounting for 70% of GDP.⁴⁷ The largest
employer is the retail sector, employing almost 12% of Canadians.⁴⁸ The
retail industry is mainly concentrated in a small number of chain stores
clustered together in shopping malls. In recent years, there has been an
increase in the number of big-box stores, such as Wal-Mart (of the United
States), Real Canadian Superstore, and Best Buy (of the United States).
This has led to fewer workers in this sector and a migration of retail jobs
to the suburbs.

The second largest portion of the service sector is the business service
and hire only a slightly smaller percentage of the population. This
includes the financial services, real estate, and communications
industries. This portion of the economy has been rapidly growing in recent
years. It is largely concentrated in the major urban centres, especially
Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver (see Banking in Canada).

The education and health sectors are two of Canada's largest, but both are
largely under the influence of the government. The health care industry has
been quickly growing, and is the third largest in Canada. Its rapid growth
has led to problems for governments who must find money to fund it.

Canada has an important high tech industry, and a burgeoning film,
television, and entertainment industry creating content for local and
international consumption (see Media in Canada).⁴⁹ Tourism is of ever
increasing importance, with the vast majority of international visitors
coming from the United States. Though the recent strength of the Canadian
Dollar has hurt this sector, other nations such as China have increased
tourism to Canada. Casino gaming is currently the fastest-growing component
of the Canadian tourism industry, contributing $5 billion in profits for
Canadian governments and employing 41,000 Canadians as of 2001.⁵⁰

Manufacturing

The general pattern of development for wealthy nations was a transition
from a primary industry based economy to a manufacturing based one, and
then to a service based economy. Canada did not escape this pattern - at
its (abnormally high World War II) peak in 1944, manufacturing accounted
for 29% of GDP,⁵¹ declining to 15.6% in 2005. Canada has not suffered as
greatly as most other rich, industrialized nations from the pains of the
relative decline in the importance of manufacturing since the 1960s.⁵² A
2009 study by Statistics Canada also found that, while manufacturing
declined as a relative percentage of GDP from 24.3% in the 1960s to 15.6%
in 2005, manufacturing volumes between 1961 and 2005 kept pace with the
overall growth in the volume index of GDP.⁵³ Manufacturing in Canada was
especially hit hard by the financial crisis of 2007–08. As of 2010,
manufacturing accounts for 13% of Canada's GDP,³¹ a relative decline of
more than 2% of GDP since 2005.

Central Canada is home to branch plants to all the major American and
Japanese automobile makers and many parts factories owned by Canadian firms
such as Magna International and Linamar Corporation. Central Canada today
produces more vehicles each year than the neighbouring U.S. state of
Michigan, the heart of the American automobile industry. Manufacturers have
been attracted to Canada due to the highly educated population with lower
labour costs than the United States. Canada's publicly funded health care
system is also an important attraction, as companies are exempt from the
high health insurance costs US firms pay, though they are offset by
corporate health care taxes.

Much of the Canadian manufacturing industry consists of branch plants of
United States firms, though there are some important domestic
manufacturers, such as Bombardier Inc.. This has raised several concerns
for Canadians. Branch plants provide mainly blue collar jobs, with research
and executive positions confined to the United States.

Energy

See also: Petroleum production in Canada

Canada is one of the few developed nations that is a net exporter of energy
- in 2009 net exports of energy products amounted to 2.9% of GDP. Most
important are the large oil and gas resources centred in Alberta and the
Northern Territories, but also present in neighbouring British Columbia and
Saskatchewan. The vast Athabasca oil sands give Canada the world's third
largest reserves of oil after Saudi Arabia and Venezuela according to USGS.
In British Columbia and Quebec, as well as Ontario, Saskatchewan, Manitoba
and the Labrador region, hydroelectric power is an inexpensive and
relatively environmentally friendly source of abundant energy. In part
because of this, Canada is also one of the world's highest per capita
consumers of energy.⁵⁴ ⁵⁵ Cheap energy has enabled the creation of several
important industries, such as the large aluminium industries in British
Columbia ⁵⁶ and Quebec.⁵⁷

Historically, an important issue in Canadian politics is the interplay
between the oil and energy industry in Western Canada and the industrial
heartland of Southern Ontario. Foreign investment in Western oil projects
has fueled Canada's rising dollar. This has raised the price of Ontario's
manufacturing exports and made them less competitive, a problem similar to
the decline of the manufacturing sector in the Netherlands.⁵⁸ ⁵⁹ Also,
Ontario has relatively fewer native sources of power. However, it is
cheaper for Alberta to ship its oil to the western United States than to
eastern Canada. The eastern Canadian ports thus import significant
quantities of oil from overseas, and Ontario makes significant use of
nuclear power.

The National Energy Policy of the early 1980s attempted to force Alberta to
sell low priced oil to eastern Canada. This policy proved deeply divisive,
and quickly lost its importance as oil prices collapsed in the mid-1980s.
One of the most controversial sections of the Canada-United States Free
Trade Agreement of 1988 was a promise that Canada would never charge the
United States more for energy than fellow Canadians.

Agriculture

Main article: Agriculture in Canada

Canada is also one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural
products, particularly of wheat and other grains.⁶⁰ Canada is a major
exporter of agricultural products, to the United States and Asia. As with
all other developed nations the proportion of the population and GDP
devoted to agriculture fell dramatically over the 20th century.

As with other developed nations, the Canadian agriculture industry receives
significant government subsidies and supports. However, Canada has been a
strong supporter of reducing market influencing subsidies through the World
Trade Organization. In 2000, Canada spent approximately CDN$4.6 billion on
supports for the industry. Of this, $2.32 billion was classified under the
WTO designation of "green box" support, meaning it did not directly
influence the market, such as money for research or disaster relief. All
but $848.2 million were subsidies worth less than 5% of the value of the
crops they were provided for.

Free trade agreements

Main article: Free trade agreements of Canada

Free Trade Agreements in force⁶¹

- Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement (Signed 12-Oct-1987, entered into force
  01-Jan-1989, later superseded by NAFTA)
- North American Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 01-Jan-1994,
  includes Canada, U.S. and Mexico)
- Canada-Israel Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 01-Jan-1997,
  modernization ongoing)
- Canada-Chile Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 05-Jul-1997)
- Canada-Costa Rica Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 01-Nov-2002,
  modernization ongoing)
- Canada-European Free Trade Association Free Trade Agreement (Iceland,
  Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein; entered into force 01-Jul-2009)
- Canada-Peru Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 01-Aug-2009)
- Canada-Colombia Free Trade Agreement (Signed 21-Nov-2008, entered into
  force 15-Aug-2011; Canada's ratification of this FTA had been dependent
  upon Colombia's ratification of the "Agreement Concerning Annual Reports
  on Human Rights and Free Trade Between Canada and the Republic of
  Colombia" signed on 27-May-2010)
- Canada-Jordan Free Trade Agreement (Signed on 28-June-2009, entered into
  force 01-Oct-2012)
- Canada-Panama Free Trade Agreement (Signed on 14-May-2010, entered into
  force 01-April-2013)
- Canada-South Korea Free Trade Agreement (Signed on 11-March-2014, entered
  into force 01-January-2015)

Free Trade Agreements concluded⁶²

- Trans-Pacific Partnership (concluded 05-October-2015)
- Canada-Ukraine Free Trade Agreement (concluded 14-July-2015)
- Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (concluded 05-August-2014)

Ongoing Free Trade Agreements Negotiations⁶²

Canada is negotiating bilateral FTAs with the following countries and trade
blocs:

- Caribbean Community (CARICOM)
- Guatemala, Nicaragua and El Salvador
- Dominican Republic
- India
- Japan⁶³
- Morocco
- Singapore
- Andean Community (FTA's are already in force with Peru and Colombia)

Canada has been involved in negotiations to create the following regional
trade blocks:

- Canada-Central American Free Trade Agreement
- Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA)

Political issues

Relations with the U.S.

Main article: Canada–United States trade relations

Canada and the United States share a common trading relationship. Canada's
job market continues to perform well along with the US, reaching a 30-year
low in the unemployment rate in December 2006, following 14 consecutive
years of employment growth.⁶⁴

The United States is by far Canada's largest trading partner, with more
than $1.7 billion CAD in trade per day in 2005. In 2009, 73% of Canada's
exports went to the United States, and 63% of Canada's imports were from
the United States.⁶⁵ Trade with Canada makes up 23% of the United States'
exports and 17% of its imports.⁶⁶ By comparison, in 2005 this was more than
U.S. trade with all countries in the European Union combined,⁶⁷ and well
over twice U.S. trade with all the countries of Latin America combined.⁶⁸
Just the two-way trade that crosses the Ambassador Bridge between Michigan
and Ontario equals all U.S. exports to Japan. Canada's importance to the
United States is not just a border-state phenomenon: Canada is the leading
export market for 35 of 50 U.S. states, and is the United States' largest
foreign supplier of energy.

Bilateral trade increased by 52% between 1989, when the U.S.-Canada Free
Trade Agreement (FTA) went into effect, and 1994, when the North American
Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) superseded it. Trade has since increased by
40%. NAFTA continues the FTA's moves toward reducing trade barriers and
establishing agreed-upon trade rules. It also resolves some long-standing
bilateral irritants and liberalizes rules in several areas, including
agriculture, services, energy, financial services, investment, and
government procurement. NAFTA forms the largest trading area in the world,
embracing the 405 million people of the three North American countries.

The largest component of U.S.-Canada trade is in the commodity sector.

The U.S. is Canada's largest agricultural export market, taking well over
half of all Canadian food exports.⁶⁹ Similarly, Canada is the largest
market for U.S. agricultural goods, with nearly 20% of American food
exports going to its northern neighbour. Nearly two-thirds of Canada's
forest products, including pulp and paper, are exported to the United
States; 72% of Canada's total newsprint production also is exported to the
U.S.

At $73.6 billion in 2004, U.S.-Canada trade in energy is the largest U.S.
energy trading relationship, with the overwhelming majority ($66.7 billion)
being exports from Canada. The primary components of U.S. energy trade with
Canada are petroleum, natural gas, and electricity. Canada is the United
States' largest oil supplier and the fifth-largest energy producing country
in the world. Canada provides about 16% of U.S. oil imports and 14% of
total U.S. consumption of natural gas. The United States and Canada's
national electricity grids are linked, and both countries share hydropower
facilities on the western borders.

While most of U.S.-Canada trade flows smoothly, there are occasionally
bilateral trade disputes, particularly in the agricultural and cultural
fields. Usually these issues are resolved through bilateral consultative
forums or referral to World Trade Organization (WTO) or NAFTA dispute
resolution. In May 1999, the U.S. and Canadian governments negotiated an
agreement on magazines that provides increased access for the U.S.
publishing industry to the Canadian market. The United States and Canada
also have resolved several major issues involving fisheries. By common
agreement, the two countries submitted a Gulf of Maine boundary dispute to
the International Court of Justice in 1981; both accepted the court's 12
October 1984 ruling which demarcated the territorial sea boundary. A
current issue between the United States and Canada is the ongoing softwood
lumber dispute, as the U.S. alleges that Canada unfairly subsidizes its
forestry industry.

In 1990, the United States and Canada signed a bilateral Fisheries
Enforcement Agreement, which has served to deter illegal fishing activity
and reduce the risk of injury during fisheries enforcement incidents. The
U.S. and Canada signed a Pacific Salmon Agreement in June 1999 that settled
differences over implementation of the 1985 Pacific Salmon Treaty for the
next decade.

Canada and the United States signed an aviation agreement during Bill
Clinton's visit to Canada in February 1995, and air traffic between the two
countries has increased dramatically as a result. The two countries also
share in operation of the St. Lawrence Seaway, connecting the Great Lakes
to the Atlantic Ocean.⁷⁰

The U.S. is Canada's largest foreign investor and the most popular
destination for Canadian foreign investments; at the end of 2007, the stock
of U.S. direct investment in Canada was estimated at $293 billion, while
Canadian direct investment (stock) in the United States was valued at $213
billion.⁷¹ ⁷² U.S. FDI accounts for 59.5% of total foreign direct
investment in Canada while Canadian FDI in the U.S. accounts for 10% (5th
largest foreign investor).⁷³ US investments are primarily directed at
Canada's mining and smelting industries, petroleum, chemicals, the
manufacture of machinery and transportation equipment, and finance, while
Canadian investment in the United States is concentrated in manufacturing,
wholesale trade, real estate, petroleum, finance, and insurance and other
services.⁷⁴

Debt issue

Central Government Debt

The OECD reports the Central Government Debt as percentage of the GDP. In
2000 Canada's was 40.9 percent, in 2007 it was 25.2 percent, in 2008 it was
28.6 percent and by 2010 it was 36.1 percent.⁷⁵ The OECD reports net
financial liabilities measure used by the OECD, reports the net number at
25.2%, as of 2008,⁷⁵ making Canada's total government debt burden as the
lowest in the G8. The gross number was 68% in 2011.⁷⁶

The CIA World Factbook, updated weekly, measures financial liabilities by
using gross general government debt, as opposed to net federal debt used by
the OECD and the Canadian federal government. Gross general government debt
includes both "intragovernmental debt and the debt of public entities at
the sub-national level." For example, the CIA measured Canada's public debt
as 84.1% of GDP in 2012 and 87.4% of GDP in 2011 making it 22nd in the
world.⁷⁷

Household Debt

In March 2015 the International Monetary Fund reported that Canada's high
household debt was one of two vulnerable domestic areas in Canada's
economy; the second is its overheated housing market.⁷⁸

According to a July 2015 report by Laura Cooper, an economist with the
RBC—the largest financial institution in Canada— "outstanding household
credit balances" had reached $1.83 trillion.⁷⁹ Canadian household credit
growth had reached a peak in 2009 then plummeted to a cycle-low in late
2013.⁷⁹ There was a quickened pace of growth in household debt in December
2012 and another in April and May 2015.⁷⁹ ⁸⁰

Household debt in 2013

According to the August 2013 third annual Ipsos Reid Debt Poll only 24 per
cent of Canadians were debt free in 2013 compared to 26 per cent in 2012.
The average personal non-mortgage debt in 2013 was $15,920 up from $13,141
in 2012. According to an IPSOS chart produced in 2013 debt levels increased
"a staggering 35 per cent" in Western Canada compared to 10 per cent in
Eastern Canada since 2012 even before the Alberta floods.⁸¹ In Alberta in
2013 household debt rose 63 per cent to $24,271 per household from 2012
after the 2013 Alberta floods.⁸² In 2013 the average personal debt load in
British Columbia was "up 38 per cent to $15,549;" in "Manitoba and
Saskatchewan, up 32 per cent to $16,145;" in Ontario, "up 13 per cent to
$17,416," in Quebec up "3 per cent to $10,458;" and in Atlantic Canada, "up
12 per cent to $15,243."

Household debt in 2014

Statistics Canada announced in December 2014 that Canada's household
debt-to-income ratio "hit a record high in the third quarter of 2014,
climbing to 162.6 percent from 161.5 percent in the second quarter."
However "household assets and net worth increased much faster than debt,"⁸³
with the national net worth at C$8.12 trillion in the third quarter of
2014, a increase of 2.8 percent from the second quarter.⁸⁴ ⁸⁵ Also through
the inflation-targeting policy of the Bank of Canada, interest rates are
kept low improving the ability of households to service their debt. "The
debt-service ratio, or interest paid as a proportion of disposable income,
fell to a record low 6.8 percent in the third quarter."⁸⁴

Household debt in 2015

By 2015 according to the Globe and Mail, "The total debt owed by all
Canadians at the end of March 2015 was a record $1.8-trillion with mortgage
debt making up $1.29-trillion."⁸⁶

According to Philip Cross of the Fraser Institute, in May 2015, while the
Canadian household debt-to-income ratio is similar to that in the US,
however lending standards in Canada are tighter than those in the United
States to protect against high-risk borrowers taking out unsustainable
debt.⁸³

Household debt, the amount of money that all adults in the household owe
financial institutions, includes consumer debt and mortgage loans. Paul
Krugman argued that by 2007 household debt in the United States, prior to
the financial crisis, had reached 130 percent of household income. Krugman
distinguished between the total domestic non-financial debt (public plus
private) relative to GDP which is "money we owe to ourselves" and net
foreign debt.⁸⁷ ⁸⁸ Statistics Canada reported in March 2013 that
"credit-market debt such as mortgages rose to 165% of disposable income,
compared with 164.7% in the prior three-month period" in 2013⁸⁹ According
to the IMF in 2012, "Housing-related debt (mortgages) comprises about 70
percent of gross household debt in advanced economies. The remainder
consists mainly of credit card debt and auto loans."⁹⁰

Royal Bank of Canada 2016 report

As shown in the table below—based on the RBC Economic and Financial Market
Outlook March 11, 2016 report—in Canada in 2015—while business investments
decreased—consumption, housing and government spending along with net
exports contributed to a real GDP increase at a subpar 1.2% pace.⁹¹ :4 In
December 2015 export volumes reached $1.2 billion—the sixth time since 2010
with sales growing by such a large amount⁹¹ :5-evidence that the Canadian
economy is transitioning. In November and December 2015, with the weakening
in the Canadian dollar, manufacturing sales and exports increased and
employment rose.⁹¹ Job losses in construction, mining, oil and gas were
countered by gains in the service sector.⁹¹

Between early December, 2015 and mid-January the price of oil unexpectedly
dropped 24%.⁹¹ :1 RBC economists argued that fear not fundamentals led the
shift in financial conditions.:1 Risk adverse investors contributed to a
global double-digit decline in the first six weeks of 2016. In Canada, the
US, UK and Euro-area yields on long-term government bonds reached an
all-time low.⁹¹ :1 As financial market volatility continued in March 2016
the Bank of Canada and Bank of England held their policy rate at 0.5%.⁹¹ :6

See also

- Canada's Global Markets Action Plan
- Comparison of Canadian and American economies
- Economy of Alberta
- Economy of Ontario
- Economy of Quebec
- Economy of Saskatchewan
- Free trade agreements of Canada
- History of the petroleum industry in Canada
- List of Median household income of cities in Canada
- List of Commonwealth of Nations countries by GDP
- List of Canadian provinces and territories by gross domestic product
- List of companies of Canada
- Taxation in Canada
- Trans-Pacific Partnership
- Transport in Canada
- Tourism in Canada

Notes

[1] The OECD produces an annual report on member nations who share the goal
  of "contributing to the development of the world economy" by attaining
  the "highest sustainable economic growth and employment and a rising
  standard of living while maintaining financial stability."

References

[1] Canada: Economic and financial data
[2] "Canada's Economy Grows 0.5% in June". Government. StatsCanada. 1
  September 2015. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
[3] "Gross domestic product". Statistics Canada. Retrieved November 5,
  2011.
[4] Population by year, by province and territory (Number)
[5] Inflation rate dips to 1% in January on cheaper gasoline - Yahoo News
  Canada
[6] Persons in low income before tax (In percent, 2007 to 2011)
[7] "Income Distribution and Poverty". OECD.Stat (database). Retrieved 6
  January 2016.
[8] "Statistics Canada: Canada's - Unemployment rate". Statcan.gc.ca.
  2013-03-08. Retrieved 2011-11-02.
[9] "Ease of Doing Business in Canada". Doingbusiness.org. Retrieved
  2017-01-24.
[10]
  https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2078rank.html#ca
[11] "Statistics Canada: Imports, exports and trade balance of goods on a
  balance-of-payments basis, by country or country grouping".
  Statcan.gc.ca. 2016-03-01. Retrieved 2016-03-25.
[12]
  https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2087rank.html#ca
[13]
  https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2079rank.html#ca
[14]
  https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2186rank.html#ca
[15] CablePulse24.
[16] The World Factbook
[17] "Sovereigns rating list". Standard & Poor's. Retrieved 26 May 2011.
[18] "International Reserves and Foreign Currency Liquidity - CANADA".
  International Monetary Fund. 9 May 2011. Retrieved 31 May 2011.
[19] "Actual hours worked per week by industry, seasonally adjusted crack".
  Statistics Canada.
[20] Archived May 12, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
[21] "Aquaculture Canada: Facts and Figures". Dfo-mpo.gc.ca. 2011-02-02.
  Retrieved 2013-02-01.
[22] "Canada's Entertainment Software Industry In 2011 A Report Prepared
  For The Entertainment Software Association Of Canada" (PDF). Archived
  from the original (PDF) on May 7, 2013. Retrieved February 5, 2016.
[23] Global Systems by David J Rees with Michael G Jones, Chapter 4, ISBN
  0-919913-74-1
[24] Central Intelligence Agency (2006-05-16). "The World Factbook:
  Canada". Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2007-05-06.
[25] "Labour force characteristics, seasonally adjusted, by province
  (monthly)". statcan.gc.ca. 2011-09-13. Retrieved 2011-09-13.
[26] "Labour force characteristics, unadjusted, by province (monthly)".
  Statistics Canada.
[27] Forbes (2008-04-02). "Latest release". Forbes. Retrieved 2006-07-01.
[28] "Exports of goods on a balance-of-payments basis, by product".
  Statistics Canada.
[29] "Imports, exports and trade balance of goods on a balance-of-payments
  basis, by country or country grouping". Statistics Canada. Archived from
  the original on 2006-06-18.
[30] Canada's Private to Public (Crown) Property Ratio is 60:40.2006
  exports/imports
[31] "Gross domestic product at basic prices, by industry (monthly)".
  Statistics Canada.
[32] Howlett, Michael and M. Ramesh. Political Economy of Canada: An
  Introduction. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1992.
[33] "Labour force characteristics, seasonally adjusted, by province
  (monthly) (Newfoundland and Labrador, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia,
  New Brunswick)".
[34] 'OECD Compendium of Productivity Indicators 2012 (Report). OECD.
  2012.page 3
[35] Labour productivity levels in the total economy (Report). 2011.
  Retrieved 12 June 2013.
[36] David Parkinson (9 July 2015), IMF again cuts Canada's growth forecast
  ahead of interest rate decision, The Globe and Mail, retrieved 6 August
  2015
[37] "As economy shrinks, real estate now accounts for half of all GDP
  growth". Retrieved 2016-09-27.
[38] OECD Economic Surveys Canada June 2012 Overview (PDF) (Report).
  Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. 2012. Archived
  (PDF) from the original on 2013-08-13.
[39] Blake, ed. (2007), Transforming the Nation: Canada and Brian Mulroney
[40] Monetary Policy Report (PDF) (Report). 15 July 2015. Retrieved 6
  August 2015.
[41] Inflation-Control Target Backgrounder (PDF), Bank of Canada, November
  2010
[42] Jeremy Torobin, Bill Curry (16 October 2011), Bank of Canada to get
  marching orders to look beyond inflation targeting, Ottawa, Ontario: The
  Globe and Mail
[43] Monetary Policy Report (Report). Bank of Canada. April 2009.
[44] Bank of Canada lowers overnight rate target to 1/2 per cent, Bank of
  Canada, retrieved 6 August 2015
[45] After rate cut Canada PMs office says global woes hit economy, Daily
  Mail UK, 15 July 2015, retrieved 7 August 2015
[46] Chris Sorensen, Aaron Hutchins (July 15, 2015), How Canada's economy
  went from boom to recession so fast: An in-depth look at the perfect
  storm that pushed Canada into recession, Macleans, retrieved 8 August
  2015
[47] "CIA World Factbook - Canada". Cia.gov. Retrieved 2011-02-22.
[48] Wallace, Iain, A Geography of the Canadian Economy. Don Mills: Oxford
  University Press, 2002.
[49] Gasher, Mike (2002). Hollywood North the feature film industry in
  British Columbia. Vancouver: UBC Press. ISBN 978-0774809689.
[50] MacLaurin, Tanya; MacLaurin, Donald (2003). "Casino gaming and tourism
  in Canada". International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management.
  MCB UP Ltd. 15 (6): 328–332. doi:10.1108/09596110310488177.
[51] "Manufacturing's share of gross domestic product, 1900 to 2005".
  Statistics Canada.
[52] "Manufacturing share of gross domestic product, 1961 to 2007".
  Statistics Canada.
[53] "The Canadian Manufacturing Sector: Adapting to Challenges".
  Statistics Canada.
[54] Environment Canada - Energy Consumption Archived February 22, 2004, at
  the Wayback Machine.
[55] "Canada vs. The OECD: An Environmental Comparison".
  Environmentalindicators.com. Retrieved 2011-02-22.
[56] "Resource-based Industries and High-tech Manufacturing - Goods Sector
  - Major Industries - A Guide to the BC Economy and Labour Market".
  Guidetobceconomy.org. Archived from the original on 7 September 2011.
  Retrieved 2011-11-02.
[57] Canadian, The (2011-10-04). "Aluminum heavyweights to make $15-billion
  Quebec investment". Canadian Manufacturing. Archived from the original on
  13 October 2011. Retrieved 2011-11-02.
[58] Lee Greenberg (2011-07-20). "Growing Equalization Payments to Ontario
  Threaten Country". National Post.
[59] Michel Beine; Charles S. Bos; Serge Coulombe (January 2009). "Does the
  Canadian economy suffer from Dutch Disease?" (PDF).
[60] "The Relative Position of Canada in the World Grain Market".
  Dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca. 2002-10-02. Retrieved 2011-02-22.
[61] "Canada's Free Trade Agreements". International.gc.ca. Retrieved
  2013-12-18.
[62] "Canada's Free Trade Agreements". International.gc.ca.
[63] The Canadian Press (2011-02-24). "Canada, Japan study free-trade
  pact". CBC News. Retrieved 2011-02-28.
[64] "The Daily, Friday, January 5, 2007. Labour Force Survey". Statcan.ca.
  2007-01-05. Archived from the original on 28 May 2008. Retrieved
  2011-02-22.
[65] "Imports, exports and trade balance of goods on a balance-of-payments
  basis, by country or country grouping". 0.statcan.gc.ca. 2011-02-11.
  Archived from the original on 2011-04-28. Retrieved 2011-02-22.
[66] FTDWebMaster, [Name of person creating HTML]. "FTD - Statistics -
  Trade Highlights - Top Trading Partners". Census.gov. Retrieved
  2011-02-22.
[67] FTDWebMaster, FTD Data Dissemination. "FTD - Statistics - Country Data
  - U.S. Trade Balance with European Union". Census.gov. Retrieved
  2011-02-22.
[68] FTDWebMaster, FTD Data Dissemination. "FTD - Statistics - Country Data
  - U.S. Trade Balance with South and Central America". Census.gov.
  Retrieved 2011-02-22.
[69] Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada / Agriculture et Agroalimentaire
  Canada Archived September 28, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.
[70] "HowStuffWorks "The St. Lawrence Seaway"".
  Geography.howstuffworks.com. 2008-03-30. Retrieved 2011-02-22.
[71] Archived July 6, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
[72] "Foreign Direct Investment in the United States: An Economic Analysis"
  (PDF). Retrieved 2011-02-22.
[73] "The Canada-U.S. trade and investment partnership".
  Canadainternational.gc.ca. 2008-10-28. Retrieved 2011-02-22.
[74] "Overview of Canadian Foreign Direct Investment (PRB-0833E)".
  .parl.gc.ca. 2008-06-17. Archived from the original on 2 May 2010.
  Retrieved 2011-02-22.
[75] Central Government Debt (Report). OECD. 2011. Retrieved 13 June 2013.
[76] "Fiscal balances and public indebtedness | OECD Economic Outlook".
  Find Articles. 2011-10-27. Retrieved 2011-11-02.
[77] "CIA - The World Factbook". Cia.gov. Retrieved 13 June 2013.
[78] International Monetary Fund, 9 March 2015 Missing or empty |title=
  (help);
[79] Cooper, Laura (July 2015). July 2015 (PDF) (Report). Canadian Credit.
  RBC Economics. Retrieved 7 August 2015.
[80] "Canadian consumer debt levels up 21%, RBC survey shows: Many
  Canadians say they have postponed purchases to keep spending in check",
  CBC News, 29 October 2013
[81] "RBC Debt Omni 2013" (PDF), Ipsos (13-059755)
[82] Canadians paying off their debt the good old-fashioned way – spending
  less: RBC poll: Financial Fitness regime is the key to healthy spending,
  Toronto, Ontario, 29 October 2013, retrieved 7 August 2015
[83] Philip Cross (May 2015), A Longer-term Perspective on Canada's
  Household Debt (PDF), retrieved 7 August 2015
[84] Canada household debt-to-income ratio hits a record high, Ottawa,
  Ontario: Reuters, 15 December 2014, retrieved 7 August 2015
[85] Alexandra Posadzki (15 December 2015), Household Debt In Canada Hits
  Record 162.6% Of Income After StatsCan Revisions, Canadian Press via
  Huffington Post, retrieved 7 August 2015
[86] Danielle Webb; Tavia Grant (8 May 2015), Debt: Canada's borrowing
  binge: Canada's households now owe a record $1.8-trillion, The Globe and
  Mail, retrieved 7 August 2015
[87] Paul Krugman (13 December 2010). "Block those Metaphors". New York
  Times. Retrieved 13 June 2013.
[88] Krugman, Paul (2011-12-28). "Debt Is (Mostly) Money We Owe to
  Ourselves". The New York Times.
[89] Greg Quinn Bloomberg News (15 March 2013). "Canadians turns deaf ear
  to Carney's warnings as household debt hits fresh record at 165%".
  Financial Post. Retrieved 13 June 2013.
[90] Dealing with household debt (PDF) (Report). International Monetary
  Fund IMF. April 2012.
[91] Wright, Craig; Desjardins, Dawn; Ferley, Paul; Janzen, Nathan (March
  2016). Fear versus Fundamentals (PDF). RBC (Report). Economic and
  Financial Market Outlook. Toronto, Ontario. Retrieved 14 March 2016.

Bibliography

- Howlett, Michael and M. Ramesh. Political Economy of Canada: An
  Introduction. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1992.
- Wallace, Iain, A Geography of the Canadian Economy. Don Mills: Oxford
  University Press, 2002.

Further reading

Main article: Bibliography of Canadian economic history
- "OECD Economic Surveys: Canada 2010", Organización para la Cooperación y
  Desarrollo Económicos, Paris : OECD economic surveys, 2010, ISBN
  978-92-64-08325-7
- Baldwin, John Russel (2003), Innovation and knowledge creation in an open
  economy, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-81086-8
- Easterbrook, William Thomas; Aitken, Hugh G. J (1988). Canadian Economic
  History. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-6696-8.
- Hessing, Melody; Michael Howlett, Tracy Summerville (2005), Canadian
  natural resource and environmental policy, UBC Press, ISBN 9780774851459
- Kealey, Gregory S (1995), Workers and Canadian history, McGill-Queen's
  University Press, ISBN 0-7735-1352-3
- Levi, Michael A (2009), The Canadian oil sands : energy security vs.
  climate change, Council on Foreign Relations, Center for Geoeconomic
  Studies, ISBN 978-0-87609-429-7
- Lipsey, Richard G; Alice Nakamura, Canada. Industry Canada (2006),
  Services industries and the knowledge-based economy, University of
  Calgary Press, ISBN 1-55238-149-8
- Pomfret, Richard (1981), "The Economic Development of Canada", revised
  2005, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-37976-2
- Quarter, Jack; Laurie Mook, Ann Armstrong (2009), Understanding the
  Social Economy: A Canadian Perspective, University of Toronto Press, ISBN
  978-0-8020-9695-1
- Tavidze, Albert (2007), Progress in Economics Research, Volume 12,
  Gardners Books, ISBN 978-1-60021-720-3

External links

- Economic indicators - Statistics Canada
- List of Economic Surveys of Canada 1961-present - (OECD)
- Canada Economy 2011 – CIA World Factbook
- Comprehensive current and historical economic data via Quandl
- World Bank Canada 2012 Trade Summary Statistics
- Economy of Canada: data, national statistics, data visualizations - World
  Data Atlas
- Tariffs applied by Canada as provided by ITC's Market Access Map, an
  online database of customs tariffs and market requirements
-  This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World
  Factbook website
  https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html.

Comparison of Canadian and American economies

The economies of Canada and the United States are similar because they are
both developed countries and are each other's largest trading partners.
However, key differences in population makeup, geography, government
policies and productivity all result in different economies.

Government

Taxation

Main articles: Taxation in Canada and Taxation in the United States

In Canada total tax and non-tax revenue for every level of government
equals about 38.4% of GDP,¹ compared to the U.S. rate of 28.2%.²

A significant portion of this tax differential is due to spending
differences between the two countries. While the US is running deficits of
about 4% of GDP,³ Canada's Federal government posted a budget surplus of
around 1% of GDP per year from the mid-1990s until 2008, and under Stephen
Harper's Conservative Party reached surplus again in 2015.⁴ During the 2015
election now incumbent Justin Trudeau of the Liberal Party of Canada
pledged to run $40,000,000,000 in deficits over the next four years of his
leadership, although after three months in office he has predicted his
government will exceed this amount and won't reach surplus by 2019.⁵ The
deficit patterns and indebtedness of Canada's individual provinces vary as
they do in the US among different states. Considered in a revenue-neutral
context, the differential is much smaller - Canada's total governmental
spending was about 36% of GDP⁶ vs. 31% in the US.³ In addition, caution
must be used when comparing taxes across countries, due to the different
services each offers. Whereas the Canadian healthcare system is 70%
government-funded, the US system is just under 50% government-funded
(mostly via Medicare and Medicaid); adding the additional
healthcare-spending burden to the above figures to obtain comparable
numbers (+3% for Canada, +7% for the US) gives adjusted expenditures of
38–39% of GDP for each of the two nations.

The taxes are applied the same as well. Canada's income tax system is more
heavily biased against the highest income earners, thus while Canada's
income tax rate is higher on average, the bottom fifty percent of the
population is roughly taxed the same on income as in the United States.
However, Canada has a national goods and services tax (GST) of 5% on most
purchases, while the U.S. federal government does not, increasing the tax
burden on Canadian low-income earners due to the proportional nature of a
sales tax. Canadian GST does not tax food and other essentials and a GST
rebate for low-income earners mitigates regressiveness.⁷

In addition to the 5% GST levied on most purchases, some Canadians also pay
a provincial sales tax at a rate that varies by province from 0-10%. There
are some purchases which are PST exempt, such as children's clothing. In
the U.S., most states impose a sales tax, and cities and counties are often
permitted to levy taxes as well, which can exceed 10% on purchases but
realistically average at about 6-8%. Five U.S. states do not have any sales
tax imposed.⁸ The Canadian province of Alberta and all three territories
have no provincial or territorial sales tax on top of the GST.

Government Spending

Government spending at all levels (federal, state/provincial and local) has
traditionally been higher in Canada than the United States. In Canada,
government spending as a percentage of GDP peaked at 53% in 1992. Since
1992 spending has steadily declined in Canada to just below 40 percent in
2008.⁹

Spending in the United States fluctuated narrowly around 34-38 percent of
GDP over the same period.¹⁰ However, starting in 2008 US spending has
turned sharply upwards to reach an estimated 42.7% of GDP in 2009 and
stabilize at that level.

Social programs

See also: Canadian and American health care systems compared

For its higher taxes Canada has a larger system of social programs than the
United States. This includes having a national broadcaster in the CBC, a
largely government-funded health care system, and having all major
universities receive partial government funding. The United States,
however, does have most of its major universities subsidized by state
government. The US also has two national public broadcasters which receive
partial government funding, PBS (television) and NPR (radio).

The greatest difference in social programs is in health care. Contrary to
popular belief, the U.S. Government spends as much on health care, 7% of
GDP, as the Canadian government does,¹¹ and total healthcare spending is
much higher - 14.6% of GDP in the US vs. 10% in Canada.¹² Canadians,
however, receive better care to those Americans who receive treatment, and
result measures.¹³ The Canadian health care system is said by some also to
be attractive to employers, as in Canada health care is mostly paid through
employee income taxes, while in the United States most companies choose to
extend health benefits to full-time employees. Many employers in Canada do
offer employees some additional medical coverage, for non-necessary
treatments, and for pharmaceuticals which are not universally covered by
the government-paid health insurance system. The most common complaint
regarding the Canadian system are the long lines and waiting periods that
have appeared for minor and non-life-threatening procedures over the last
15 years, since the introduction of widespread cuts to public funding.
Separately, a number of medical tests and screenings are not covered (or
due to increasing costs, are no longer covered) by the Canadian health
system, forcing patients to pay for these services out of their own
pockets. For these reasons, some relatively wealthy Canadians undergo
treatment at private healthcare facilities at their own expense, either in
Canada, in India, or in other nations¹⁴ to avoid waiting for medical
treatment, joining "medical tourists" from many nations, including the
US.¹⁴ Despite these sporadic problems, Canada's healthcare performance has
been of higher quality on most factors.¹⁵ ¹⁶ Efforts were made to reduce
wait times by many provincial governments in the 1990s and 2000s, in an
effort to improve care. Furthermore, healthcare coverage is universal for
Canadians, and transferable outside a home province within Canada. In the
United States, however, the most common complaint is that approximately 50
million people are uninsured, and thus do not have access to even the most
basic healthcare services which Canadians have access to. This puts a
burden on the emergency room services in the States and causes increases in
healthcare costs significantly.

Anti-trust

Main articles: Competition Act and United States antitrust law

The United States has since the Sherman Anti-Trust Act been strongly
opposed to monopolies. In Canada this has been far less of an issue, and
Canada has never had rigorously enforced rules against monopolization, and
in certain situations the government has even encouraged monopolies.
However, the Canadian government is more willing to interfere in the
operations of large, integrated firms where they appear to be acting
against the public interest, offsetting in part one reason that American
law prevents large-scale monopolization. Historical transport policy led to
the promotion of one railway operator & one dominant flag carrier and the
promotion of bus carriers through the suppression of other bus-like
services. In telecommunications policy, oligopoly conditions are reinforced
through the actions of the Canada Radio and Telecommunications (CRTC).
Foreign ownership has been banned in Canada's cell phone market (Though one
Egyptian-owned entrant, WIND mobile, has led to a possibility of a
liberalization of telecommunications) Banking policy has been regulated
through Bank Acts passed by Parliament.

Fiscal and monetary policy

See also: Fiscal policy of the United States and Monetary policy of the
United States

Canada is generally forced to follow American monetary policy quite
closely, any large difference in interest rates could quickly lead to large
problems for the Canadian economy. The U.S. Federal Reserve and the Bank of
Canada both staunchly believe in fighting inflation while neither
aggressively pursue policies of full employment. One difference that has
emerged recently is that while Canada is still hewing closely to the
balanced budgets policies of the 1990s the United States has moved into a
heavy deficit, a policy both countries followed in the 1970s and 1980s.

Prices

In Canada prices have long tended, on average, to be higher than in the US.
While some items are as much as 40% higher,¹⁷ others are similar in price
or even cheaper in Canada. (For example, the Big Mac Index shows that in
January 2006 a Big Mac cost $3.15 in the States and only $3.01 in Canada ¹⁸
(both figures in USD)). There are numerous reasons given for the price
disparity, which were reported on in early 2013 by the Canadian Senate
committee on national finance, including:

- different tariff rates on imported items. Examples of such consumer
  products include cotton T-shirts and cotton trousers and shorts, sports
  footwear, bed linen and ice skates, which carry an 18% tariff in Canada.
- Canadian retailers may import smaller number of goods, due to smaller
  market size, which means they do not have the same discounts as large US
  orders,
- American retailers are often much larger than Canadian retailers, and
  thus benefit from economies of scale,
- the costs of starting and running a business in Canada may be higher,
- "country pricing" — the practice of some large multinational suppliers of
  charging Canadian retailers more than U.S. merchants,
- higher fuel prices in Canada, due to higher taxes on gasoline and diesel,
  increase delivery charges to a more widely dispersed population,
- a tendency for Canadian shoppers to not press for lower prices,
- greater competition among retailers, and a wider selection of goods in
  the US which tends to keep prices lower,
- fluctuations in the exchange rate between the two currencies which are
  not immediately reflected with price adjustments,
- Different product safety standards between the two countries, where the
  cost for Canadians are spread out over fewer consumers.

Another factor is Canada's Supply Management system for certain food items
such as chicken and milk which ensures farmers are paid fairly but results
in higher retail prices,¹⁹

When asked about "Country Pricing", members of the Retail Council of Canada
were told by manufacturers that there are three main reasons for these
discrepancies: 1) Canadians are used to paying more for products in Canada;
2) the higher prices charged to retailers in Canada subsidize the costs of
maintaining suppliers offices and operations in Canada; and 3) the higher
prices are necessary to compensate Canadian distributors which face higher
costs in Canada.²⁰

One area of particular concern for Canadians is the price of vehicles, even
those built in Canada, which often cost thousands of dollars more. Even the
"Freight and PDI" charge in Canada is usually twice as much for a Canadian
living within view of the car factory, as it is for an American living in
Hawaii, buying the same Canadian-built vehicle.²¹ In an effort to disguise
the price difference, many manufacturers will have a similar price for
their lowest-priced trim-level of a particular vehicle model, but that
trim-level will have less content. For example, in 2015, the lowest price
Honda Fit in Canada was C$16,126 (2015-08 = US$12,215),²² while the lowest
in the US was US$15,790 (2015-08 = C$20,845).²³ However, the Canadian
trim-level was "DX" which did not include automatic transmission, air
conditioning, cruise control or one-step electric windows. This trim-level
was not available in the US.

The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) tracks
price comparisons for industrialized countries, and in June 2015 Canada was
listed as 6% more expensive than the United States, when the US dollar was
used as the reference currency.²⁴ On a Purchasing Power Parity scale, where
the income levels and costs are used to calculate the difference in the
affordability of a similar basket of goods, Canada is rated as 26% more
expensive than the US in 2014.²⁴

Productivity

Canadian workers are estimated to be 82% as productive per hour as their
American counterparts.²⁵ The industries with the largest productivity
advantages for the U.S. are the manufacturing (particularly electronics and
computer), finance, and service sectors. Industries where Canada is more
productive than the U.S. are the construction and natural resources sectors
with Canadian workers achieving 129% relative productivity.²⁶

The productivity gap had been even larger in the 1950s but the difference
has been narrowing, aided by the elimination of the smaller market problem
through free trade. The gap was still closing somewhat in the 1980s but at
a much slower pace than in the 1960s. From 1961 to 1973 labour productivity
rose annually by 3.3 percent in Canada and 1.7 percent in the United
States. From 1973 to 1995 productivity growth was 1.1% in Canada and 0.8%
in the United States.²⁷

The productivity gap began to widen again in the 1990s, particularly in the
manufacturing sector. By 2000, this was called Canada's "Excellence Gap" by
the Chief Economist of Canadian Manufacturers & Exporters.²⁸ The United
States has the second-highest productivity of the G8 countries,²⁹ while
Canada's is 5th based on the 1997 estimate.³⁰

Five main reasons for the productivity gap: the lower capital intensity of
economic activity in Canada; an innovation gap in Canada relative to the
United States; Canada's relatively underdeveloped high-tech sector; less
developed human capital in Canada in terms of proportionately fewer
university graduates and scientists and engineers in research and
development; and more limited economies of scale and scope in Canada.

Organized Labor

Both Canada and the U.S. follow the Wagner Act model of regulating trade
unions and collective bargaining, though legislation regulating organized
labor principally falls under provincial jurisdiction in Canada. That North
American model differs significantly from patterns of organized labor found
in other developed countries.

Unemployment

For several decades Canada typically had reported its unemployment rate as
somewhat higher than the US rate. For example, in June 2008 the reported
unemployment in the US was 5.5 percent and 6.1% in Canada. However, a
closer examination reveals that the two countries measure the unemployment
rate differently. Craig Riddell, a University of British Columbia
economist, found that a 0.9% difference was caused by the differing
measurement systems.³¹ Statistics Canada has also acknowledged this, and it
now publishes a second unemployment rate using the same methodology as the
Americans. Using the American methodology, the June 2008 Canadian
unemployment rate was 5.3%, which was 0.2% lower than the American rate.³²

Prior to the identification of the difference in methodologies, some
politicians claimed that higher income taxes, restrictive labour laws,
unions, universal healthcare, and greater unemployment benefits in Canada
were causing a higher actual unemployment rate. However, when unemployment
insurance and welfare were sharply cut in many parts of Canada during the
1990s there was little gain in employment relative to the Americans. Others
attempted to explain the reported difference in terms of the large number
of seasonal workers in trades such as fishing and logging who are
unemployed for a portion of the year.

Balance of trade

While the United States has in recent years had a large trade deficit,
Canada had for several decades maintained a trade surplus, which turned to
a deficit since 2006.³³ The Canadian surplus had been almost entirely due
to trade with the United States. Canada has trade deficits with Europe and
Asia, just as the Americans do. In 2005, Canada exported about $109 billion
worth of goods more than they imported from the U.S. With the rest of the
world, Canada had a trade deficit of $47 billion creating an overall
surplus of some $62 billion.³⁴

Income

Although wealth is more highly concentrated in the U.S., the median (50th
percentile) worker has about 23% more purchasing power as well. In terms of
purchasing power parity, the most recent statistics from the IMF has Canada
(US $35,494) lower than that in the United States (US $43,444).³⁵

In the late 1990s, the GDP gap widened. In this period, GDP increased by 5%
annually in the United States, and 2% in Canada. Earlier, it had been
narrowing between 1961 and 1995. However, it was closing at a much faster
rate in the 1960s than the early 1990s. From 1961 to 1973, real GDP grew at
an average annual rate of 5.5% in Canada and 4.0% in the United States.
From 1973 to 1995 it was 2.6% in Canada and 2.3% in the USA.³⁶ Canada was
not hit as hard by the economic downturn in 2001, however, so cumulative
growth in real GDP has been almost exactly the same amount in each country
over the last 15 years.

Standard of living

The United Nations Human Development Index ranks the United States (fourth)
higher than Canada (eighth).³⁷ Other independent groups, such as the
Economist have ranked each of Canada's four largest cities as better places
to live than any American city. In their 2005 ranking, Toronto, Montreal,
Vancouver and Ottawa ranked within the top 10 livable cities while the
highest-ranked American cities, Cleveland and Pittsburgh, were tied at 26th
place.³⁸

Canada ranks higher than the U.S. in statistics such as life expectancy
(80.22 years in Canada versus 77.85 in the U.S.) and lower regarding infant
mortality (4.75 Canadian deaths per 1000 versus 6.50 in the States). Both
countries rank highly with 99% literacy rates. The United States has more
major consumer goods per capita than Canada. For instance, while Canada had
only 297 computers per 1000 people in 1996, the United States had 403.

Average income is slightly higher in the United States. However, as of
2009, Canada's median family income surpassed that of the USA by
approximately 10%[citation needed]. In terms of racial disparity, United
States African-Americans and Hispanics have a lower standard of living than
the rest of the population; in Canada, Aboriginal peoples and Black
Canadians are disproportionately likely to live in poverty, although these
groups represent 25% of the US population and only 6% of Canada's. In both
countries, recent immigrants tend to have lower earnings than more
established residents. Canada's French-Canadians also used to be a poorer
group, but since the Quiet Revolution in the 1960s this has been partially
remedied.

The United States measures poverty, while Canada does not have an official
measure (see Poverty in Canada#Measures of poverty in Canada), although
Statistics Canada measures something called the Low-Income Cutoffs, the
statistical agency repeatedly states that this is not a poverty measure (it
is an income dispersion measure like the Gini coefficient). In the United
States the poverty line is set at triple the "minimum adequate food
budget." When a common measure is used, such as that of the Luxembourg
Income Study, the United States has higher rates. The LIS reports that
Canada has a poverty rate of 15.4% and the United States 18.7%. In both
countries lower incomes are found in those most affected by poverty include
single-parent families and single elderly people.

It may be said the cost of absorbing lower skilled, poorer workers in the
US skews comparison studies downward for the United States³⁹ (see also
Economic impact of illegal immigrants in the United States). In recent
years, what otherwise would have been a reduction in the low-income cutoff,
was more than offset by the impact of immigration. According to a 2003
study by Statistics Canada "The rise in the low-income rates in the three
major Canadian cities, and in Ontario and B.C. during the 1990s in
particular, was largely concentrated among the immigrant population.
Basically, low-income rates have been falling over the past two decades
among the Canadian born, and rising among immigrants."⁴⁰ A more recent
January 2007 study by Statistics Canada explains that the low-income rates
of new immigrants has deteriorated by yet another significant amount from
2000 to 2004⁴¹ (see also Economic impact of immigration to Canada).

Home ownership

While home ownership rates in both countries are very high compared to
worldwide (or even developed countries), Canada has a slightly higher level
of home ownership at 69.0%⁴² versus 65.3% for the United States⁴³

See also

- Economy of Canada
- Economy of the United States

References

[1] "Index of Economic Freedom 2009: Canada". 2009.
[2] "Index of Economic Freedom 2009: United States". 2009.
[3] Total Revenues From All Levels Of Government Drop To Lowest Share Of
  Economy Since 1968, 1/15/04
[4] "CBC News Indepth: Budget". CBC News.
[5] "Trudeau shies away from Liberals' balanced-budget vow, cites fading
  economy". CBC News.
[6] Consolidated government revenue and expenditures
[7] Fellows, C. Michael et al. Economic Issues: A Canadian Perspective.
  (Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1997) 217.
[8] "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-08-20.
  Retrieved 2010-08-11.
[9] Reducing the size of government
[10] Great Right North
[11] Rising Health Costs U.S. health care: expensive and less effective at
  keeping people healthy
[12] "CBC News In-depth: Health Care". CBC News.
[13] http://www.conferenceboard.ca/hcp/details/health.aspx
[14] "CBC News In-depth: HEALTH CARE". CBC News.
[15]
  http://www.oecd.org/UnitedStates/Health-at-a-Glance-2013-Press-Release-USA.pdf
[16]
  http://www.kingsfund.org.uk/sites/files/kf/field/field_pdf/Library-reading-list-international-health-care-comparisons-Jan2013.pdf
[17] Canadian Senate Report on US Canadian Price Gap
  http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/SEN/Committee/411/NFFN/rep/rep16feb13-e.pdf
[18]
[19] Supply Management not included in Senate study
  http://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/senate-report-calls-for-review-of-tariffs-fees-to-close-canada-u-s-price-gap-1.1145009
[20] Senate Finance Committee Report on US and Canadian Prices.
  http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/SEN/Committee/411/NFFN/rep/rep16feb13-e.pdf
[21] Canadians Pay for Canadian Vehicles than Americans.
  http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/canadians-pay-more-than-americans-for-canadian-made-vehicles-1.1141083
[22] http://honda.ca/buildyourhonda?model_key=fit#!/en/BC/fit
[23] http://automobiles.honda.com/fit/price.aspx
[24] http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=CPL
[25] Measuring the Canada-U.S. Productivity Gap: Industry Dimensions
[26] Measuring the Canada-U.S. Productivity Gap: Industry Dimensions
[27] http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/1997/12/pdf/salgado.pdf
[28] Microsoft Word - Excellence Gap.DOC
[29] New Page 2
[30] http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/pics/pr/livstand.pdf
[31] Microsoft Word - Can-US unem 2003.doc
[32] Scoffield, Heather. "Unemployment levels fall below U.S. rate" The
  Globe and Mail. June 6, 2008
[33] Merchandise trade of Canada, balance of payments basis, seasonally
  adjusted — Constant dollars, 2002
[34] Imports, exports and trade balance of goods on a balance-of-payments
  basis, by country or country grouping. Statistics Canada.
[35] List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita
[36]
[37] "HDR_2010_EN_Table1" (PDF).
[38] "Vancouver is 'best place to live'" BBC News, Tuesday, 4 October 2005
[39] The Impact of Immigration on Labour Markets in Canada, Mexico, and the
  United States, Statistics Canada, Update on Family and Labour Studies,
  May 2007, URL Accessed 26 May 2007
[40] The rise in low-income rates among immigrants in Canada, Analytical
  Studies Branch research paper series, Statistics Canada, June 2003, URL
  accessed 20 September 2006
[41] Chronic Low Income and Low-income Dynamics Among Recent Immigrants,
  Statistics Canada, January 2007, URL accessed 30 January 2007
[42] "Stats Canada".
[43] "US Census" (PDF).

Economic impact of immigration to Canada

Political and civic engagement among visible minorities, while not at the
level of that of some other groups, is substantial in Canada. This activity
sends a message to the newly arrived immigrant that participation in the
political system is possible and to the country that visible-minority group
members play an important and active role within the state. The economic
impact of immigration is an important topic in Canada. While the
immigration rate has declined sharply from its peak early in the 20th
century, Canada is still among the countries in the world that accept most
immigrants per capita.

The per capita immigration rate to Canada has been relatively constant
since the 1950s, and recent years have seen a steady increase in the
education and skill level of immigrants to Canada. However, over the last
25 years the economic position of newcomers to Canada relative to the
native population has steadily declined. A 2007 Statistics Canada study
shows that the income profile of recent facsimile s deteriorated by a
significant amount from 2000 to 2004.¹ Recent immigrants themselves are far
more likely than native born Canadians to initially have low incomes, with
income and employment rates increasing towards the national average with
more time spent in Canada.

Overview

Immigration to Canada

Main article: Immigration to Canada

According to Canada's Immigration Program (October 2004), Canada has one of
the highest per capital immigration rate in the world,³ although statistics
in the CIA World Factbook shows that a number of city states and small
island nations, as well as some larger countries in regions with refugee
movements, have higher per capita rates.⁴ In 2004, Canada received 235,824
immigrants.⁵ Canada is also unusual among western nations in the widespread
popular support for high rates of immigration, and in recent years support
for immigration has increased in Canada.⁶ All of Canada's major political
parties support either sustaining or increasing the current level of
immigration.⁷

Economic rationale for immigration

There is no agreed view on the net impact of immigration in current times.
Historically, Canada's unusually high immigration rates can be traced to
the nation's unique economy. One factor is that Canada has one of the
world's largest supplies of natural resources such as oil, metals, and
lumber. It also has a sparse population spread over a vast landscape.
Canada has thus faced acute labour shortages and has responded by actively
searching for immigrants.⁸ In the late 19th century this included bringing
Chinese migrants to build the Canadian Pacific Railway and actively
advertising in Europe to find farmers with the Last Best West campaign.
Today similar recruitment efforts are needed to staff the oil sands
projects in Alberta.⁹

Another factor that contributes to the immigration question is Canada's low
birth rate (see List of countries by birth rate). The theory is that new
residents can assist in meeting future government obligations relating to
pay-as-you-go liabilities.

In 1995 economic research firm DRI-McGraw Hill Inc. reacted with alarm to
proposed reductions in immigration levels. They acknowledged that
immigration comes with short term costs, but argued that in the long run
immigration boosts employment and economic output.¹⁰

The economic dangers of population decline are not universally accepted.
Organizations like the Fraser Institute question whether a declining
population would reduce or increase per capita income, noting that in the
short term, with a stable economy, fewer people would increase the per
capita income simply because you divide the income among fewer people. The
study's authors conducted a series of studies using large amounts of census
data (844,476 individuals) and conclude that immigrants who arrived from
1987-2004 paid only 57% of the taxes paid by average Canadian in 2006, with
the effect that taxes from immigrants do not exceed the government expenses
relating to them (a gap of $23 billion annually according to their
numbers).¹¹ A study by the C. D. Howe Institute suggests that immigration
cannot keep Canada's population young and could possibly contribute to
population ageing in the near term.¹² Employment statistics also bring into
question whether skilled worker immigrants, with a 34% unemployment rate,¹³
are successfully meeting existing labour market needs in Canada. Many
developed nations have much lower fertility rates than Canada but have not
embraced immigration.

The first detailed analysis of Canadian immigration policy came from the
Economic Council of Canada; it called for immigration to be increased to
eventually bring Canada's population to 100 million. While it found that
the economic benefits to Canada of immigration were fairly small, noting
that "a historical perspective gives little or no support to the view that
immigration is needed for national prosperity", it also concluded that the
benefits to the newcomers themselves were extremely large. The report
concluded that "it would be hard not to recommend an increase when
immigrants can gain so much and Canadians not only do not lose but actually
make slight economic gains".¹⁴ ¹⁵ In 2005 a report by the Royal Bank of
Canada called for boosting Canada's immigration rate by 30% to 400,000 per
year to ensure continued economic growth.¹⁶

Immigrant well being

Education levels

The Canadian system puts great emphasis on finding skilled immigrants.¹⁷
Immigrants to Canada are more skilled than immigrants to the United States.
George J. Borjas compared immigrants to Canada and the United States
finding those to Canada being better educated and receiving higher wages
once settled. He accredits this to Canada's points based immigration
system, and argues for the United States to more closely emulate the
Canadian method.¹⁸

Within the Canadian economy, immigrants are mostly found at the highest
education levels. In Canada, 38% of male workers with a post-graduate
degree are immigrants to the country.¹⁹ 23% of Canadians are foreign born,
but 49% of doctorate holders and 40% of those with a master's degree were
born outside Canada.²⁰ A persistent problem for skilled immigrants is the
recognition of foreign credentials. While Canada recruits people to come
based on their degrees, many newcomers arrive to find employers and
professional organizations not recognizing their foreign education.²¹ As
the percentage of skilled newcomers as a share of total migrants has
increased, so has this problem. From 2001 to 2006 56% of immigrants who
arrived in Canada held a university degree, a sharp increase over the 28%
who arrived prior to 2001.²² In other nations immigrants also find
difficulties getting their credentials recognized. An international study
by the Migrant Integration Policy Index, sponsored by the research division
of the British Council and 100 other signatories, assigned its highest
score (3 out of 3) to Canada for the "State facilitation of recognition of
skills and qualifications" indicator in their 2006 study of 27 European
countries and Canada.²³ The sheer number of skilled migrants to Canada does
make the problem a more significant one in that country and politicians of
all parties have called for change in this area.²¹ ²⁴ ²⁵

The setting of standards for, or recognition of, almost all professional
credentials does not fall within the federal government's control and are
therefore not determined by either federal laws or Citizenship and
Immigration Canada policies,²⁵ but Citizenship and Immigration Canada
established the Foreign Credentials Referral Office to provide something
like a directory assistance service for immigrants.²⁶ The Government of
Ontario enacted the Fair Access to Regulated Professions Act, 2006 to help
immigrants qualify for 34 provincially regulated professions.²⁷ The Act
also established the position of Fairness Commissioner (Ontario). In 2007,
the Government of Alberta signed an agreement with federal government that
will accelerate the process of foreign credential recognition for new
immigrants by licensing bodies in that province.²⁸ Other provinces have
made similar commitments.

Wages

In terms of the impact of immigration to economy-wide wage levels,
Statistics Canada estimates that for every 10% increase in the population
from immigration, wages in Canada are now reduced by 4% on average (with
the greatest impact to more skilled workers, such as workers with
post-graduate degrees whose wages are reduced by 7%).²⁹

In part because of the credential issue, many immigrants are forced to find
work below their education level and at lower wages. However, even for
doing work of the same skill level, immigrants are much less well
compensated than their native born counterparts. Immigration scholar
Jeffrey Reitz calculated that in 2001 native Canadian employers were
benefiting from, and immigrant employees were losing out on, between $2 and
3 billion per year due to this imbalance.³⁰

There are a number of possible explanations for why newcomers earn less
than native Canadians in the same jobs with the same skills. Lower hourly
wages might be an indication that the labour productivity of immigrants is
lower, and employers thus have reason to pay them less. New workers are
also less familiar with the Canadian labour market and will thus not be
able to maximize their salaries. Employers will also be less familiar with
an immigrant's background and thus less willing to offer the same salary as
to a native.³¹ Immigrants, especially visible minorities have different
values than native-born Canadians as they tend to favour living in Toronto,
Montreal and Vancouver as opposed to other places much more than
native-born Canadians. Due to lower mobility, they do not access better
paying jobs, such as in Alberta and Saskatchewan. This has been changing
with Calgary already surpassing Montreal in terms of percentage of visible
minorities. Visible minorities in Saskatchewan earn higher wages than
native-born Canadians.

Employment

In recent years the unemployment rate for newcomers has also increased. In
1981 those who had just arrived had a high rate of unemployment, but those
who had been in the country five years were more likely than average to be
employed. By 2001 the transition period had expanded, and now it takes ten
years before newcomers reach the same employment rate as those born in
Canada.³² In 2006, the unemployment rate of recently arrived immigrants
year was 11.5%, considerably above the native Canadian average of 4.9%. For
more established immigrants who had been in Canada between 5 and 10 years
the rate fell to 7.3%³³

  Data source: Labour market outcomes of immigrants aged 25 to 54, by sex
  and period of landing, CanadaFor clarity: Employment Rate = Participation
  Rate * (1 - Unemployment Rate)

Income

Higher rates of unemployment and lower wages combine to give newcomers less
income than the Canadian average. Analysis of census data as of 2000 shows
that immigrant incomes were at 80% of the national average after 10 years
of residing in Canada.³⁴ In previous decades, immigrant income levels did
rise to the national average after 10 years, but in recent years the
situation has deteriorated. A 2003 study published by Statistics Canada
noted that "in 1980 recent immigrants had low-income rates 1.4 times that
of Canadian born, by 2000 they were 2.5 times higher, at 35.8%."³⁵ The
study noted that the deterioration was widespread and affected most types
of immigrants. The 2003 study explains that the low-income rate among
non-immigrants declined in the 1990s, but this was more than offset by the
income profile of new immigrants, resulting in a net rise in Canada's total
low-income rate. An updated January 2007 study by Statistics Canada,
explains that the deterioration continued into the next decade, with the
low-income rate of recent immigrants reaching rates of 3.5 times that of
Canadian born in 2002 and 2003, before edging back to 3.2 times in 2004.¹
The 2007 study explains that this deterioration has occurred even though
Canada implemented changes in 1993 to encourage more highly educated
immigrants, with 45% of new immigrants having university degrees as of
2004.

In 1991 the Economic Council of Canada found that periods of immigration
were not directly linked to periods of high growth. They noted that "a
historical perspective gives little or no support to the view that
immigration is needed for economic prosperity. In the 19th and early 20th
centuries, the fastest growth in per capita real incomes occurred at times
when net immigration was nil or negative. Later in the 20th century, the
opposite linkage is seen but, clearly, there is no long-term correlation."
However, the same report found that a high rate of immigration was good for
Canada's future, and recommended expanding immigration rates to bring
Canada's population to 100 million.¹⁴ A University of Montreal study
published in 2002 by professor Marc Termote used different methods and
studied different countries and concluded that immigration has no
statistically significant impact to the per capita income of a country.³⁶

Decline in economic well being

Over the last 25 years the economic position of newcomers to Canada
relative to the native population has steadily declined. A number of
hypotheses have been advanced to explain these issues.

- The selection process is flawed;¹¹
- Government and corporate policies deliberately shift immigrants to
  secondary sector occupations. These are jobs characterized by high
  instability, hazardous work environments, and low pay. Inherently those
  involved in these sectors will have lower wages and more periods of
  unemployment. In several European countries the immigration system is
  almost fully designed to try to fill these positions. This is less the
  case in Canada, but significant recruitment programs for sectors such as
  agriculture and oil and gas recruit many workers to perilous jobs.³⁷
- Newer immigrants from outside of Europe are victims of racial
  discrimination.³⁸
- Canada's social programs create incentives that conflict with the
  employment objective;¹¹ and/or
- Increased job competition among even native-born Canadians has increased
  the importance of relying on networking to access the "hidden market,"
  putting immigrants at a disadvantage given their lack of deep and broad
  networks.³⁹

A January 2007 study by Statistics Canada analyzed the drop in income of
economic immigrants from several perspectives.¹ Economic immigrants are now
more likely to begin their stay in Canada with a "low-income" (less than
50% of the median income) than an immigrant in any of the other immigration
classes (see Table 16 in the study). This drop occurred during the 1990s
and early 2000s despite the percentage of immigrants arriving with degrees
in the economic class (including principal applicants, spouses, and
dependents) rising from 29% in 1992 to 56% in 2003.

Stating an intention to reduce a backlog of immigration applicants of all
classes, and to better target the required skills needed in Canada, the
federal government passed a law in 2008 that gave the immigration minister
new powers to alter immigrant selection. Many expected that these powers
would be used to favour workers in skilled trades over immigrants selected
on the basis of education through the points system.⁴⁰

While the well being of immigrants has declined in recent years, this has
not affected second generation immigrants, or those who came to Canada as a
child. This group is one of the most successful in Canada, with education
and earning levels well above that of their parents and also above the
Canadian average.⁴¹

Long term outcomes

One of the most important studies of the economic impact of immigration to
Canada is Morton Beiser's Strangers at the Gate. This study looked at the
arrival of the Vietnamese boat people who began to arrive in Canada in 1979
to much controversy. The total number of refugees was 60,000, the largest
single group of refugees to ever arrive in Canada. Beiser first studied the
boat people upon their arrival, finding that few spoke English or French,
that most were farmers with few skills useful in Canada, and that they had
arrived with no assets with which to establish themselves. Beiser then
followed the progress of the boat people to see what effect they would have
on Canada. Within ten years of arrival the boat people had an unemployment
rate 2.3% lower than the Canadian average. One in five had started a
business, 99% had successfully applied to become Canadian citizens, and
they were considerably less likely than average to receive some form of
social assistance.⁴² ⁴³

Wider effects

Government and social assistance

The government has a large department and a number of programs to try to
ensure the well being of immigrants to Canada, and ameliorate their
economic condition. The Citizenship and Immigration Canada department
employs 5,000 staff,⁴⁴ which on a per capita basis is 3 times more than the
15,000 U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services employees. Citizenship and
Immigration Canada recoups some of its department costs through landing
fees. In 2006, the Canadian government reduced the landing fee per
immigrant by 50%.⁴⁵

New immigrants are also entitled to settlement assistance such as free
language training under provincial government administered programs usually
called Language Instruction for Newcomers to Canada (LINC), for which the
federal government budgeted about $350 million to give to the provinces for
the fiscal year 2006-2007.⁴⁶ The majority of the $350 million was allocated
to Quebec under the Canada-Quebec Accord, at $196 million per year,⁴⁷ even
though immigration to Quebec represented only 16.5% of all immigration to
Canada in 2005.⁴⁸ The $350 million is budgeted to increase by an additional
$90 million by 2009.⁴⁹ Provincial governments in Canada have established
citizenship and immigration departments, such as the Ministry of
Citizenship and Immigration (Ontario).

Support for immigrants was also one of the key issues that formed the basis
of the New Deal for Cities between Toronto (and other urban centres), the
Province of Ontario, and the Government of Canada,⁵⁰ because 43% of new
immigrants settle in the Greater Toronto Area resulting in certain
challenges for that region.⁵¹ ⁵² A paper published by Statistics Canada
noted that "Over the 1990s (1990 to 2000) the city's low-income rate rose
1.9 percentage points. All of this increase was associated with
deteriorating outcomes among immigrants, which tended to increase the
city's low-income rate by 2.8 percentage points."³⁵ In other words, the
low-income rate among non-immigrants fell, but the income profile of new
immigrants resulted in a net widening of the income inequality gap in
Toronto during the 1990s.

The needs of immigrants prompted the United Way of Greater Toronto, the
largest United Way charity in Canada, to identify immigration services in
Toronto as a top priority for their $100 million 2006 campaign to combat
poverty and social exclusion.⁵³ In 2006, the Daily Bread Food Bank in
Toronto reported that over 40% of its clients are foreign-born, and that
almost half of that group had been in the country for less than 4 years.⁵⁴
While the less than 4 year group shows far above average need, the over 40%
figure is in line with the general population as 44% of Torontonians are
foreign-born.⁵⁵

Government finances

There is no consensus on the net impact of immigration to government
finances. A 1990 study found that an average immigrant household paid
$22,528 in all forms of taxes and on average each household directly
consumed $10,558 in government services. By contrast an average native
Canadian household paid $20,259 in tax and consumed $10,102 dollars in
services. Across the country this means that immigrant households
contributed $2.6 billion more than their share to the public purse.⁵⁶ A
1996 study found that over a lifetime a typical immigrant family will pay
some forty thousand dollars more to the treasury than they will consume in
services.⁵⁷ Explanations for this include that immigrant households tend to
be larger, and have more wage earners, increasing taxes. Newcomers are also
less likely to make use of many social services. Immigrants are less likely
than native Canadians to receive employment insurance, social assistance,
and subsidized housing.⁵⁸ Immigrants are also much less likely to become
homeless or suffer from mental illness.⁵⁹ Recent immigrants are also less
likely to make use of subsidized housing than native Canadians of the same
income level. In 2004 22.5% of low-income native Canadians lived in
subsidized housing, but only 20.4% of low income recent immigrants did so,
though this number was considerably higher among more established
immigrants.⁶⁰ Results from a study from the Fraser Institute found that the
immigrants who arrived between 1987 and 2004 cost governments $23 billion
per annum (as of 2006) in excess of taxes raised from those immigrants,
relating to universal social services (e.g., welfare, medicare, public
education).¹¹

International trade

The presence within Canada of people representative of many different
cultures and nations has also been an important boost to Canada's
international trade. Immigrants will often have expertise, linguistic
skills, personal connections with their country of origin that can help
forge international trade ties. Studies have found that Canada does have
greater trade relations with those nations that have provided large numbers
of immigrants.⁶¹ Canada's economy is heavily centered on international
trade, which accounted for 36% of GDP in 2006.⁶² 86.9% of Canadian exports
go to the United States.⁶³

This has been good for the source countries of immigrants to Canada, but
not for Canada. For many years, expanded markets for trade has been a
common rationale and justification for high immigration from the developing
world. However, 2014 data from Statistics Canada reveals⁶⁴ that the trade
balances with countries from which Canada receives most of its immigrants
deteriorates as more immigrants arrive. Total bilateral trade increases,
but to the detriment of Canada. Current data, 2014, shows that only India
has balanced trade with Canada:

[Pakistan]: Canada imports $216,556,026, and exports $119,197,121

[Philippines]: Canada imports $991 million, and exports $527.9 million

[China]: Canada imports $38,054,497,501, and exports $14,224,945,364

[Iran]: Canada imports $1.887 billion, and exports $754,302 million

[South Korea]: Canada imports $7.3 billion, and exports $3.4 billion

[Haiti]: Canada imports $3.983 billion, and exports $2.705 billion

[Mexico]: Canada imports $1,926,537,019, and exports $412,490,687

See also

- Demographics of Canada
- Ethnic groups in Canada
- History of immigration to Canada
- Economy of Canada
- Economic results of migration

References

[1] Chronic Low Income and Low-income Dynamics Among Recent Immigrants,
  Statistics Canada, January 2007, URL accessed 4 January 2011
[2] Statistics Canada – immigration from 1851 to 2001
[3] Canada's Immigration Program (October 2004), Library of Parliament, URL
  accessed 13 July 2006
[4] Field Listing - Net Migration Rate Central Intelligence Agency, The
  World Factbook 2007
[5] Inflow of foreign-born population by country of birth, by year
[6] "Canadians support diversity and immigrants;" Michael Adams. The
  Windsor Star. Windsor, Ont.: 28 November 2007. pg. A.8.
[7] James Hollifield; Philip Martin; Pia Orrenius (2014). Controlling
  Immigration: A Global Perspective, Third Edition. Stanford University
  Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-8047-8627-0.
[8] Wallace, Iain, A Geography of the Canadian Economy. Don Mills: Oxford
  University Press, 2002.
[9] Scotton, Geoffrey. "Alberta worker shortfall could hit 350,000 by
  2025." Calgary Herald. Calgary, Alta.: 11 April 2006. pg. D.3
[10] Beauchesne, Eric. "High cost for low immigration: That's the warning
  from an economic research firm;" Kingston Whig - Standard. Kingston,
  Ont.: 3 January 1995. pg. 4
[11] Immigration and the Welfare State 2011, Herbert Grubel and Patrick
  Grady, Fraser Institute, May 2011, URL accessed 18 May 2011
[12] No Elixir of Youth: Immigration Cannot Keep Canada Young,
  Backgrounder, C. D. Howe Institute, Number 96, September 2006, URL
  accessed 29 November 2006
[13] Immigrants' labour force rates, by immigration category, 2001,
  Statistics Canada, URL accessed 4 January 2011
[14] Economic Council of Canada (1991), Economic and Social Impacts of
  Immigration (Ottawa: Supply and Services Canada)
[15] Hogben, David. "Wanted: 100 million people to make Canada efficient."
  The Vancouver Sun. Vancouver, B.C.: 21 February 1991. pg. E.1
[16] Keung, Nicholas. "Boost immigration, bank's report says; Calls for
  400,000 people a year to maintain growth Critics warn more resources
  needed to handle numbers." Toronto Star. Toronto, Ont.: 20 October 2005.
  pg. A.23
[17] George, Usha. "Immigration and Refugee Policy in Canada." Canadian
  Social Policy: Issues and Perspectives. ed. Anne Westhues.
[18] Brojas, George J. Heaven's Door: Immigration Policy and the American
  Economy.
[19] Bryan, Jay. "Newcomers improve pay equality in Canada;" The Gazette.
  Montreal, Que.: 26 May 2007. pg. C.1.BRE
[20] Fitzpatrick, Meagan. "Majority of recent immigrants to Canada have
  degree." National Post. Tuesday, 4 March 2008
[21] NDP calls for recognition of foreign credentials Archived 4 February
  2008 at the Wayback Machine., CTV News, URL accessed 23 February 2007
[22] Rynor, Becky. "Canadians are better educated than ever, Statistics
  Canada says" National Post. Tuesday, 4 March 2008
[23] Migrant Integration Policy Index, British Council, 15 October 2007,
  URL accessed 15 October 2007
[24] Liberals playing Immigration Card, National Post, 23 February 2007,
  URL accessed 23 February 2007
[25] Immigrants' creds not up to feds:PM, Winnipeg Sun, 20 February 2007,
  URL accessed 24 February 2007
[26] Foreign Credentials Referral Office, Part of Citizenship and
  Immigration Canada
[27] Fair Access to Regulated Professions Act, 2006, Ministry of
  Citizenship and Immigration (Ontario), URL accessed 23 January 2007
[28] Alberta signs immigration deal with Ottawa, CBC News, URL accessed 11
  May 2007
[29] The Impact of Immigration on Labour Markets in Canada, Mexico, and the
  United States, Statistics Canada, Update on Family and Labour Studies,
  May 2007, URL Accessed 4 January 2011
[30] Reitz, Jeffrey. "Immigrant Skill Utilization in the Canadian Labour
  Market: Implications of Human Capital Research," Journal of International
  Migration and Integration 2.3 (2001): 347-78
[31] Nakamur, Alice. "The Potential Impacts of Immigration on Productivity
  in Canada" Canada's Immigration Policy for the 21st Century edited by
  Charles M. Beach, Alan G. Green and Jeffrey G. Reitz, John Deutsch
  Institute: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2003.
[32] The Transition Penalty: Unemployment Among Recent Immigrants to
  Canada, CLBC Commentary, Canadian Labour and Business Centre, July 2003,
  URL Accessed 13 September 2006
[33] Statistics Canada - Study: Canada's immigrant labour market, URL
  accessed 4 January 2011
[34] Immigrants' Declining Earnings:Reasons and Remedies, C.D. Howe
  Institute Backgrounder, C.D. Howe Institute, No. 81, April 2004, URL
  accessed 1 September 2006
[35] The rise in low-income rates among immigrants in Canada, Analytical
  Studies Branch research paper series, Statistics Canada, June 2003, URL
  accessed 4 January 2011
[36] La mesure de l'impact économique de l'immigration internationale.
  Problèmes méthodologiques et résultats empiriques, L'immigration, Volume
  31, numéro 1, 2002, Cahiers québécois de démographie, ISSN 0380-1721
  (imprimé), ISSN 1705-1495 (numérique), URL accessed 3 August 2006
[37] Kazemipur, Abdolmohammed and Shiva S. "Halli Immigrants and 'New
  Poverty': The Case of Canada." International Migration Review. 2001
[38] Siddiqui, Haroon. "Immigrants subsidize us by $55 billion per year."
  Toronto Star. Toronto, Ont.: 14 January 2001. pg. A.13
[39] Help Wanted, CTV News, 19 March 2004, URL accessed 10 July 2007
[40] Businesses applaud proposed immigration law, Globe and Mail, 28 March
  2008, URL accessed 29 March 2008
[41] Boyd, Monica and Elizabeth M. Grieco "Triumphant Transitions:
  Socioeconomic Achievements of the Second Generation in Canada."
  International Migration Review, 1998
[42] Beiser, Martin. Strangers at the Gate: The "Boat People's" First Ten
  Years in CanadaToronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999
[43] Sarick, Lila. "Vietnam boat people prospering, study finds Public
  perception of refugees as drain on society is false, researcher says."
  The Globe and Mail. Toronto, Ont.: 27 September 1994. pg. A.4
[44] About the Department, Citizenship and Immigration Canada, URL accessed
  25 November 2006
[45] Promoting opportunity for new Canadians, Prime Minister of Canada
  website, 12 May 2006, URL accessed 25 November 2006
[46] Canada's New Government Delivers on $307 Million in Settlement
  Funding, Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 10 November 2006, URL
  accessed 25 November 2006
[47] Public Accounts of Canada, 2006, Volume I, Summary Reports and
  Financial Statements, Public Works and Government Services Canada, 19
  September 2006, URL accessed 12 March 2007
[48] Annual Immigration by Province, Citizenship and Immigration Canada,
  URL accessed 2 July 2006
[49] The Budget Plan 2007, Page 219, Department of Finance (Canada), URL
  accessed 24 March 2007
[50] New Deal for Cities, Canada's Cities, URL accessed 12 September 2006
[51] When immigration goes awry, Toronto Star, 14 July 2006, URL accessed 5
  August 2006
[52] Will there be space for your child?, Globe and Mail, 30 July 2007, URL
  accessed 31 July 2007
[53] Campaign starts on a high -- Immigrant services again a top priority
  for United Way, Toronto Star, 11 September 2006, URL accessed 11
  September 2006
[54] BLUEPRINT to fight hunger, Daily Bread Food Bank, 2006, URL accessed 5
  October 2006
[55] Miami tops 'foreign-born' cities, BBC News, 15 July 2004, URL accessed
  13 October 2006
[56] Ather H. Akbari, "The Impact of Immigrants on Canada's Treasury, circa
  1990," in Diminishing Returns, ed. Don J. DeVoretz, Policy Study 24 (C.
  D. Howe Institute, Laurier Institution, 1995)
[57] "The Political Economy of Canadian Immigration Debate: A Crumbling
  Consensus?" RIIM Commentary Series #96-03, Simon Fraser University. 1996.
[58] Baker, Michael and Dwayne Benjamin "The Receipt of Transfer Payments
  by Immigrants to Canada." The Journal of Human Resources 1995
[59] Toronto's white underbelly. Kate Hammer. The Globe and Mail. Toronto,
  Ont.: 17 May 2008. pg. M.4
[60] A Study of Poverty and Working Poverty among Recent Immigrants to
  Canada
[61] Keith Head, John Ries "Immigration and Trade Creation: Econometric
  Evidence from Canada." The Canadian Journal of Economics Vol. 31, No. 1
  (Feb. 1998), pp. 47-6
[62] Share of Trade in GDP source data - Swivel
[63] Canadian Manufacturers & Exporters Portal
[64] http://www5.statcan.gc.ca/cimt-cicm/home-accueil?lang=eng

Further reading

Main article: Bibliography of Canadian economic history
- Myers, Gustavus (1972), A history of Canadian wealth, Lewis and Samue

History of the petroleum industry in Canada

The Canadian petroleum industry arose in parallel with that of the United
States. Because of Canada's unique geography, geology, resources and
patterns of settlement, however, it developed in different ways. The
evolution of the petroleum sector has been a key factor in the history of
Canada, and helps illustrate how the country became quite distinct from her
neighbour to the south.

Although the conventional oil and gas industry in western Canada is mature,
the country's Arctic and offshore petroleum resources are mostly in early
stages of exploration and development. Canada became a natural
gas-producing giant in the late 1950s and is second, after Russia, in
exports; the country also is home to the world's largest natural gas
liquids extraction facilities. The industry started constructing its vast
pipeline networks in the 1950s, thus beginning to develop domestic and
international markets in a big way.

Despite billions of dollars of investment, its bitumen - especially within
the Athabasca oil sands - is still only a partially exploited resource. By
2025 this and other unconventional oil resources - the northern and
offshore frontiers and heavy crude oil resources in the West - could place
Canada in the top ranks among the world's oil producing and exporting
nations. In a 2004 reassessment of global resources, the United States' EIA
put Canadian oil reserves second; only Saudi Arabia has greater proved
reserves. In 2014, the EIA now ranks Canada as third in World Oil Reserves
at around 175 billion barrels, while Saudi Arabia is 2nd with around 268
billion barrels and Venezuela is ranked first with around 297 billion
barrels of reserves.¹ ²

Many stories surrounding the petroleum industry's early development are
colourful. The gathering oilpatch involved rugged adventurers, the
occasional fraud, important innovations and, in the end, world-class
success. Canadian petroleum production is now a vital part of the national
economy and an essential element of world supply. Canada has become an
energy giant.

Early origins

The early uses of petroleum go back thousands of years. But while people
have known about and used petroleum for centuries, Charles Nelson Tripp was
the first Canadian to recover the substance for commercial use. The year
was 1851; the place, Enniskillen Township, near Sarnia, in present-day
Ontario (at that time Canada West). It was there that Tripp started
dabbling in the mysterious gum beds near Black Creek. This led to
incorporation of the first oil company in Canada.

Parliament chartered the International Mining and Manufacturing Company,
with C.N. Tripp as president, on December 18, 1854. The charter empowered
the company to explore for asphalt beds and oil and salt springs, and to
manufacture oils, naphtha paints, burning fluids.

International Mining and Manufacturing was not a financial success, but
Tripp's asphalt received an honourable mention for excellence at the Paris
Universal Exhibition in 1855. Several factors contributed to the downfall
of the operation. Lack of roads in the area made the movement of machinery
and equipment to the site extremely difficult. And after every heavy rain
the area turned into a swamp and the gum beds made drainage extremely slow.
This added to the difficulty of distributing finished products.

North American first

When James Miller Williams became interested and visited the site in 1856,
Tripp unloaded his hopes, his dreams and the properties of his company,
saving for himself a spot on the payroll as landman. The former carriage
builder formed J.M. Williams & Company in 1857 to develop the Tripp
properties. Besides asphalt, he began producing kerosene.

Stagnant, algae-ridden surface water lay almost everywhere. To secure
better drinking water, Williams dug (rather than drilled) a well a few
yards down an incline from his plant. In 1858 at a depth of 15.5 metres (51
ft) the well struck oil. It became the first commercial oil well in North
America, remembered as the Williams No. 1 well at Oil Springs, Ontario.³
The Sarnia Observer and Lambton Advertiser, quoting from the Woodstock
Sentinel, published on page two on August 5, 1858:⁴

Some historians challenge Canada's claim to North America's first oil
field, arguing that Pennsylvania's famous Drake Well was the continent's
first. But there is evidence to support Williams, not least of which is
that the Drake well did not come into production until August 28, 1859. The
controversial point might be that Williams found oil above bedrock while
"Colonel" Edwin Drake's well located oil within a bedrock reservoir.

We do not know exactly when Williams abandoned his Oil Springs refinery and
transferred his operations to Hamilton. He was certainly operating there by
1860, however. Spectator advertisements offered coal oil for sale at 16
cents per gallon for quantities from 4,000 US gallons (15,000 L) to 100,000
US gallons (380,000 L).

By 1859 Williams owned 800 acres of land in Oil Springs. Williams
reincorporated in 1860 as the Canadian Oil Company.⁵ His company produced
oil, refined it and marketed refined products. That mix of operations
qualify Canadian Oil as the world's first integrated oil company.

Exploration in the Lambton county backwoods quickened with the first
flowing well in 1860: Previous wells had relied on hand pumps. The first
gusher erupted on January 16, 1862, when struck oil at 158 feet (48 m). For
a week the oil gushed unchecked at levels reported as high as 3,000 barrels
per day, eventually coating the distant waters of Lake St. Clair with a
black film.⁶ There is historical controversy concerning whether it was John
Shaw or another oil driller named Hugh Nixon Shaw who drilled this oil
gusher; the newspaper article cited below identifies John Shaw.⁷

News of the gusher spread quickly and was reported in the Hamilton Times
four days later:⁸

Following Williams' example, practically every significant producer in the
infancy of the oil business became his own refiner. Seven refineries were
operating in Petrolia, Ontario in 1864 and 20 in Oil Springs - together,
they processed about 80 cubic metres of oil per day. There were also
refineries in Wyoming, where the Great Western Railway (later Grand Trunk
Railway) could take oil to market.⁹

In 1865 oil was selling for $70 per cubic metre ($11.13 per barrel). But
the fields of Ontario delivered too much too quickly, and by 1867 the price
had dropped to $3.15 per cubic metre ($0.50 per barrel). In 1866 the oil
industry in Oil Springs came to an abrupt standstill and the population
plumetted overnight: by 1870, Oil Springs and Bothwell were both dead
fields, but other booms followed as drillers tapped deeper formations and
new fields.¹⁰ Many local drillers moved several kilometers north to
Petrolia, where operations began in earnest after the Oil Springs boom
subsided.¹⁰

Although the industry had a promising start in the east, Ontario's status
as an important oil producer did not last long. Canada became a net
importer of oil during the 1880s. Dependence on neighbouring Ohio as a
crude oil supplier increased after the automobile rolled into Canada in
1898.

Canadian drillers

Canadians developed petroleum expertise in those early days. The Canadian
"oil man" or driller became valued the world over.

Petrolia drillers developed the Canadian pole-tool method of drilling which
was especially useful in new fields where rock formations were a matter for
conjecture. The Canadian technique was different from the American
cable-tool method. Now obsolete, cable-tool drilling uses drilling tools
suspended from a cable which the driller paid out as the well deepened.

Canada's pole-tool rig used rods or poles linked together, with a drilling
bit fixed to the end of this primitive drilling "string." Black-ash rods
were the norm in early Petrolia. Iron rods came later. Like the cable tool
system, pole-tool drilling used the weight of the drill string pounding
into the ground from a wooden derrick to make hole.

The record is not complete enough to show all the locations Canadians
helped to drill. However, Petrolia drillers unquestionably helped drill for
oil in Java, Peru, Turkey, Egypt, Russia, Venezuela, Persia, Romania,
Austria and Germany. One of the best-known Canadian drilling pioneers was
William McGarvey. McGarvey acquired oil properties in Galicia (now part of
Poland) and amassed a large fortune - then saw his properties destroyed
when Russian and Austrian armies swept across the land during the First
World War.

Today, Canadian drillers still move to far away places to practise their
widely respected skills.

Eastern natural gas

The natural gas industry was also born in eastern Canada. Reports from
around 1820 tell of youngsters at Lake Ainslie, Nova Scotia, amusing
themselves by driving sticks into the ground, pulling them out, then
lighting the escaping natural gas.

In 1859 an oil explorer found a natural gas seep near Moncton, New
Brunswick. Dr. H.C. Tweedle found both oil and gas in what became the Dover
field, but water seepage prevented production of these wells.

An offshoot of the oil drilling boom was the discovery of gas containing
poisonous hydrogen sulfide ("sour" gas) near Port Colborne, Ontario. That
1866 discovery marked the first of many gas fields found later in the
southwestern part of the province.

Eugene Coste, a young Paris-educated geologist who became the father of
Canada's natural gas industry, brought in the first producing gas well in
Essex County, Ontario, in 1889. Canada first exported natural gas in 1891
from the Bertie-Humberstone field in Welland County to Buffalo, New York.
Gas was later exported to Detroit from the Essex field through a
20-centimetre pipeline under the Detroit river. In 1897, the pipeline
stretched the Essex gas supply to its limit with the extension of exports
to Toledo, Ohio. This prompted the Ontario government to revoke the licence
for the pipeline. And in 1907 the province passed a law prohibiting the
export of natural gas and electricity.

In 1909, New Brunswick's first successful gas well came in at Stoney Creek
near Moncton. This field still supplies customers in Moncton, although the
city now has a propane air plant to augment the limited natural gas supply.

The year 1911 saw a milestone for the natural gas industry when three
companies using Ontario's Tilbury gas field joined to form Union Gas
Company of Canada, Limited. In 1924, Union Gas was the first company to use
the new Seabord or Koppers process to remove poisonous hydrogen sulfide
from Tilbury gas. Union became one of the largest corporations in Canada
before its acquisition by Duke Energy, a US firm.

Westward move

Those were the early days in Canada's petroleum industry. The cradle was in
the east, but the industry only began to come of age with discoveries in
western Canada, notably Alberta. There, the Western Canadian Sedimentary
Basin is at its most prolific. Alberta's first recorded natural gas find
came in 1883 from a well at CPR siding No. 8 at Langevin, near Medicine
Hat. This well was one of a series drilled at scattered points along the
railway to get water for the Canadian Pacific Railway's steam-driven
locomotives. The unexpected gas flow caught fire and destroyed the drilling
rig.

This find prompted Dr. George M. Dawson of the Geological Survey of Canada
to make a notable prediction. Noting that the rock formations penetrated in
this well were common in western Canada, he prophesied correctly that the
territory would some day produce large volumes of natural gas.

A well drilled near Medicine Hat in 1890 - this time in search of coal -
also flowed natural gas. The find prompted town officials to approach the
CPR with a view to drilling deeper wells for gas. The resulting enterprise
led to the discovery in 1904 of the Medicine Hat gas sand, which is now
recognized as a source of unconventional gas. Later, that field went on
production to serve the city, the first in Alberta to have gas service.
When Rudyard Kipling travelled across Canada in 1907, he remarked that
Medicine Hat had "all Hell for a basement."

In northern Alberta, the Dominion Government began a drilling program to
help define the region's resources. Using a rig brought from Toronto, in
1893 contractor A.W. Fraser began drilling for liquid oil at Athabasca. He
abandoned the well in 1894. In 1897 Fraser moved the rig to Pelican Rapids,
also in northern Alberta. There it struck gas at 250 metres (820 ft). But
the well blew wild, flowing uncontrolled for 21 years. It was not until
1918 that a crew led by A.W. Dingman succeeded in killing the well.

Dingman, who played an important role in the industry's early years, began
providing natural gas service in Calgary through the Calgary Natural Gas
Company. After receiving the franchise in 1908, he drilled a successful
well in east Calgary on the Walker estate (a well which continued producing
until 1948). He then laid pipe from the well to the Calgary Brewing and
Malting Company, which began using the gas on April 10, 1910.

The earliest efforts to develop western Canadian oil were those of Kootenai
Brown. This colourful character - a frontiersman with an Eton and Oxford
education - was probably Alberta's first homesteader. In 1874, Brown filed
the following affidavit with Donald Thompson, the resident solicitor at
Pincher Creek:¹¹

In 1901, John Lineham of Okotoks organized the Rocky Mountain Drilling
Company. In 1902 he drilled the first oil exploration well in Alberta on
the site of these seepages (now in Waterton Lakes National Park). Despite a
small recovery of 34° API sweet oil, neither this well nor seven later
exploration attempts resulted in production. The site is now a National
Historic Site of Canada.¹²

In 1909, exploration activity shifted to Bow Island in south central
Alberta, where a natural gas discovery launched Canada's western gas
industry. The same Eugene Coste who had found gas in Ohio and again in
southern Ontario drilled the discovery well, Bow Island No. 1 (better known
as "Old Glory"). Pipelines soon transported Bow Island gas to Medicine Hat,
Lethbridge and Calgary, which used the fuel for heat and light. Eugene
Coste became the founder of the Canadian Western Natural Gas Company when
he merged the Calgary Natural Gas Company, Calgary Gas Company and his
Prairie Fuel Company in August 1911.

Turner Valley

In early 1914, oil fever swept Calgary and other parts of southern Alberta.
Investors lined up outside makeshift brokerage houses to get in on
exploration activity triggered by the May 14, 1914 discovery of wet gas and
oil at Turner Valley, southwest of Calgary. Reportedly, in one 24-hour
period, investors and promoters formed more than 500 "oil companies."¹³
Incorporated a year earlier, the Calgary Stock Exchange was unable to
control some of the unscrupulous practices that relieved many Albertans of
their savings.

The discovery well that set off this speculative flurry belonged to the
Calgary Petroleum Products Company, an enterprise formed by W.S. Herron,
William Elder and A.W. Dingman. Named Dingman No. 1 after the partner in
charge of drilling, the well produced natural gas dripping with condensate,
sometimes referred to as naphtha. Stripped from the gas, this hydrocarbon
mixture was pure enough to burn in automobiles without refining; it became
known as "skunk" gasoline because of its distinctive odour.

Pioneered in Turner Valley, natural gas liquids extraction eventually
became an important Canadian industry in its own right, as the story of its
development illustrates.

The Dingman well and its successors were really "wet" natural gas wells
rather than true oil wells. The high expectations raised by the initial
discovery gave way to disappointment within a few years. Relatively small
volumes of liquids flowed from the successful wells. By 1917, the Calgary
City Directory listed only 21 "oil mining companies" compared with 226 in
1914.

Drilling continued in Turner Valley, however, and in 1924 came another
significant discovery. The Calgary Petroleum Products Company, reorganized
as Royalite Oil Company, drilled into Paleozoic limestone. The well blew
out at 1,180 metres (3,870 ft).

The blowout at Royalite No. 4 was one of the most spectacular in Alberta's
history. Initially flowing at 200,000 cubic metres per day, the flow rate
increased to some 620,000 cubic metres per day when the well was shut in.
The shut in pressure continued to rise and, when the gauge read 1,150
pounds per square inch (7,900 kPa), the drillers ran for their lives. In 20
minutes, 939 metres (3,081 ft) of 8 inches (20 cm) and 3,450 ft (1,050 m)
of 6 inches (15 cm) pipe - together weighing 85 tonnes - rose to the top of
the derrick. The well blew wild, caught fire, and destroyed the entire rig.
The fire blazed for 21 days. Finally, wild well control experts from
Oklahoma used a dynamite explosion to blow away the flames. They then
applied the combined steam flow of seven boilers to keep the torch from
lighting again.

Unknown to the explorers of the day, these wells extracted naphtha from the
natural gas cap over Turner Valley's oilfield. After two years of
off-and-on drilling, in 1936 the Royalites No. 1 well finally drilled into
the principal oil reservoir at more than 2,500 metres (8,200 ft).

This well, which established Turner Valley as Canada's first major oil
field and the largest in the emerging British Commonwealth, used innovative
financing. Promoters ordinarily sold shares in a company to finance new
drilling programs, but in the Depression money for shares was hard to come
by. Instead, R.A. Brown, George M. Bell and J.W. Moyer put together an
enterprise called Turner Valley Royalties. That company offered a
percentage share of production (a "royalty") to those willing to put money
into the long-shot venture.

Recoverable oil reserves from the Turner Valley field were probably about
19 million cubic metres. Although locals boasted at the time that it was
"the biggest oil field in the British Empire", Turner Valley was not a
large field by later standards. (By way of comparison, the Pembina field in
central Alberta - Canada's largest - had recoverable reserves of about 100
million cubic metres.) But besides being an important source of oil supply
for the then-small market in western Canada, the field had an important
long-term impact. It helped develop petroleum expertise in Canada's west,
and it established Calgary as Canada's oil and gas capital.

Waste and conservation

Enormous waste of natural gas was a dubious distinction that Turner Valley
claimed for many years. Royalite had a monopoly on sales to Canadian
Western Natural Gas Company, so other producers could not sell their gas.
But all the producers wanted to cash in on the natural gas liquids for
which markets were growing. So the common practice became to pass the gas
through separators, then flare it off. This greatly reduced the pressure on
the oil reservoir, reducing the amount of recoverable oil. But the size of
the problem was not clear until the oil column was later discovered.

The flares were visible in the sky for miles around. Many of these were in
a small ravine known to locals as Hell's Half Acre. Because of the presence
of the flares, the grass stayed green year-round and migrating birds
wintered in their warmth. A newspaper man from Manchester, England,
described the place with these florid words:¹¹

While the flaring continued, the business community seriously discussed
ways to market the gas. For example, in early 1929 W.S. Herron, a Turner
Valley pioneer, publicly promoted the idea of a pipeline to Winnipeg. At
about the same time, an American company made application for a franchise
to distribute natural gas to Regina. The Bank of North Dakota offered to
buy 1.4 million cubic metres per day.

By early 1930, there was talk of a pipeline from Turner Valley to Toronto.
Estimates showed that gas delivery to Toronto would cost $2.48 per thousand
cubic metres. A parliamentary committee looked into ways to force waste gas
down old wells, set up carbon black plants or export the gas to the United
States. Another proposal called for the production of liquefied methane.

The Depression, however, had already gripped Canada, which may have been
more severely affected than any other country in the world. Capital
investment became less and less attractive and drilling at Turner Valley
ground to a halt as the economic situation worsened.

The federal government owned the mineral rights not held by the Canadian
Pacific Railway, the Calgary & Edmonton Corporation, or individual
homesteads. The government tried to curb the flaring of gas, but legal
difficulties made its efforts of little avail. One federal conservation
measure succeeded, however. On August 4, 1930, began operations to store
surplus Turner Valley gas in the depleted Bow Island field.

An earlier effort to control waste resulted in an Order in Council made on
April 26, 1922, prohibiting offset drilling closer than 70 metres (230 ft)
from any lease boundary. Keeping wells spaced away from each other, as this
regulation did, prevents too rapid depletion of a field.

After lengthy negotiations, the federal government transferred ownership of
natural resources to the provinces effective October 1, 1930. Soon after,
the Alberta government enacted legislation to regulate oil and gas wells.
In October 1931, the provincial Legislature passed a bill (based on a
report by a provincial advisory committee) to control the Turner Valley
situation. While most operators supported this act, one independent
operator, Spooner Oils Ltd., launched legal proceedings to have the act
declared ultra vires; this was successful in a Supreme Court of Canada
judgement handed down 3 October 1933.¹⁴ Alberta asked Ottawa to pass
legislation confirming the provincial law; the federal government, however,
shrugged off the request saying natural resources were under provincial
jurisdiction

During 1932, the newly created Turner Valley Gas Conservation Board
proposed cutting production in half and unitizing the field to reduce
waste. But the producers could not reach agreement on this issue, and the
idea fell by the wayside. And so legal wrangling tied up any real
conservation measures until 1938. In that year, the federal government
confirmed the province's right to enact laws to conserve natural resources.

With this backing, in July 1938 the province set up the Alberta Petroleum
and Natural Gas Conservation Board (today known as the Energy Resources
Conservation Board). New unitization rules limited well spacing to about 40
acres (16 ha) per well. The board also reduced oil production from the
field. This reduced the flaring of natural gas, but it came only after the
waste of an estimated 28 billion cubic metres. The lessons of Turner Valley
made an impression around the world as the need for conservation and its
impact on ultimate recovery became better understood. Countries framing
their first petroleum laws have often used the Alberta legislation as a
model.

Besides contributing to conservation, solving Turner Valley's technical
challenges with innovative technology also helped earn the field a place in
early oil and gas history. Uncorrected, drilling holes wandered 22 degrees
or more off course. As the field's high-pressure gas expanded, it cooled
rapidly freezing production equipment. This complicated the production
process. Other problems involved external corrosion, casing failures,
sulfide stress corrosion cracking, corrosion inside oil storage tanks, and
the cold winters.

Early drilling was done by wooden cable tool drilling rigs which pounded a
hole into the ground. These monsters ruled the drilling scene until the
mid-1920s. Rotary drilling (which has since replaced cable tool drilling)
and diamond coring made their appearance in Turner Valley in 1925.
Nitro-shooting came in 1927 to enhance production at McLeod No. 2.
Acidizing made its Canadian debut in 1936 at Model No. 3. Scrubbing gas to
extract hydrogen sulfide started in 1925. Field repressurization began in
1944 and water flooding started in 1948.

Only months after Union Gas completed a scrubbing facility for its Tilbury
gas in Ontario, in 1924 Royalite began sweetening gas from the sour
Royalite #4 well through a similar plant. This process removed H₂S from the
gas, but did not extract the sulfur as a chemical element. This development
waited until 1952, when a sulfur recovery plant at Turner Valley began
producing raw sulfur.

Turner Valley oil production peaked in 1942, partly because the Oil and Gas
Conservation Board increased allowable production as part of the Second
World War war effort. During that period exploration results elsewhere in
western Canada were disappointing. The only significant discoveries were
small heavy oil fields. Natural gas finds were mostly uneconomic, since
Western Canada's few gas pipelines were small and already well supplied.

Small discoveries elsewhere

Natural flows of oil and gas led to the successful early exploration in
Alberta's foothills. Those discoveries were not unique, however. Early
settlers frequently found oil and gas seeps in Western Canada, generally
near rivers, streams and creeks.

At Rolla, British Columbia, for example, such an observation caught
Imperial Oil's attention, and in 1922 the company financed exploration to
investigate. A well was drilled and oil and gas found. However, the
remoteness of the Peace River Country from market and the lack of good
transport hindered commercial exploitation of the area. Today, however,
Northeastern British Columbia is an active exploration and production
region within the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin. Commercial development
dates from the 1950s.

Many small wells were successfully drilled in Western Canada in the pre-war
years, but prior to the Second World War there were no big oil discoveries
outside Turner Valley.

Leduc

That changed in 1947, when Imperial Oil discovered light oil just south of
Edmonton. Imperial's success was inspired by their much earlier discovery
at Norman Wells in the Northwest Territories. The link was that there
appeared to be Devonian reefs in Alberta. At the Norman Wells discovery,
Imperial had located just such a reservoir in the 1920s.

During the 1930s and early 1940s, oil companies tried unsuccessfully to
find replacement for declining Turner Valley reserves. According to legend,
Imperial Oil had drilled 133 dry wells in Alberta and Saskatchewan,
although the records show that many of those wells were natural gas
discoveries that were uneconomic at the time.

In 1946, the company decided on one last drilling program from east to west
in Alberta. The wells would be "wildcats" - exploratory wells drilled in
search of new fields. The first drill site was Leduc No. 1 in a field on
the farm of Mike Turta, 15 kilometres west of Leduc and about 50 kilometres
south of Edmonton. Located on a weak seismic anomaly, the well was a rank
wildcat. No drilling of any kind had taken place within an 80-kilometre
radius.

Drilling started on November 20, 1946. It continued through a winter that
was "bloody cold," according to members of the rig crew. At first the crew
thought the well was a gas discovery, but there were signs of something
more. At 1,530 metres (5,020 ft), drilling sped up and the first bit
samples showed free oil in dolomite, a good reservoir rock. After coring,
oil flowed to the surface during a drill stem test at 1,544 metres (5,066
ft).

Imperial Oil decided to bring the well in with some fanfare at 10 o'clock
in the morning of February 13, 1947. The company invited the mayor of
Edmonton and other dignitaries. The night before the ceremony, however,
swabbing equipment broke down. The crew laboured to repair it all night.
But 10:00 a.m. passed and no oil flowed. Many of the invited guests left.

Finally by 4:00 pm the crew were able to get the well to flow. The chilled
onlookers, now numbering only about 100, saw a spectacular column of smoke
and fire beside the derrick as the crew flared the first gas and oil.
Alberta mines minister N.E. Tanner turned the valve to start the oil
flowing (at an initial rate of about 155 cubic metres per day), and the
Canadian oil industry moved into the modern era. This well marked the
discovery of what became the Leduc/Woodbend field, which has since produced
about 50 million cubic metres (more than 300 million barrels) of oil.

Imperial lost no time. On February 12 the company had started drilling
Leduc No. 2, about three kilometres southwest of No. 1, trying to extend
the producing formation. But nothing showed up at that level and company
officials argued over how to proceed. One group proposed abandoning the
well, instead drilling a direct offset to No. 1; another group wanted to
continue drilling No. 2 into a deep stratigraphic test. But drilling
continued. On May 10 at 1,657 metres (5,436 ft), No. 2 struck the much
bigger Devonian reef, which later turned out to be the most prolific
geological formation in Alberta, the Leduc Formation.

Leduc No. 1 stopped producing in 1974 after the production of some 50,300
cubic metres (320,000 barrels) of oil and 9 million cubic metres (320
million cubic feet) of natural gas. On November 1, 1989, Esso Resources
(the exploration and production arm of Imperial) began producing the field
as a gas reservoir.

Geological diversity

The Leduc discoveries put Alberta on the world petroleum map. News of the
finds spread quickly, due in large part to a spectacular blowout in the
early days of the development of this field. In March 1948, drillers on the
Atlantic Leduc #3 well lost mud circulation in the top of the reef, and the
well blew out.

In one journalist's words,"The well had barely punched into the main
producing reservoir a mile below the surface when a mighty surge of
pressure shot the drilling mud up through the pipe and 150 feet (46 m) into
the air. As the ground shook and a high-pitched roar issued from the well,
the mud was followed by a great, dirty plume of oil and gas that splattered
the snow-covered ground. Drillers pumped several tons of drilling mud down
the hole, and after thirty-eight hours the wild flow was sealed off, but
not for long. Some 2,800 feet (850 m) below the surface, the drill pipe had
broken off, and through this break the pressure of the reservoir forced oil
and gas into shallower formations. As the pressure built up, the oil and
gas were forced to the surface through crevices and cracks. Geysers of mud,
oil, and gas spouted out of the ground in hundreds of craters over a
10-acre (40,000 m²) area around the well." ¹¹ Atlantic #3 eventually caught
fire, and the crew worked frantically for 59 hours to snuff out the blaze.

It took six months, two relief wells and the injection of 160,000 cubic
metres of river water to bring the well under control, an achievement which
the crews celebrated on September 9, 1948. Cleanup efforts recovered almost
180,000 cubic metres of oil in a series of ditches and gathering pools. The
size of the blowout and the cleanup operation added to the legend. By the
time Atlantic #3 was back under control, the whole world knew from
newsreels and photo features of the blowout that the words "oil" and
"Alberta" were inseparable.

Exploration boomed. By 1950, Alberta was one of the world's exploration hot
spots, and seismic activity grew until 1953. After the Leduc strike, it
became clear that Devonian reefs could be prolific oil reservoirs, and
exploration concentrated on the search for similar structures. A series of
major discoveries followed, and the industry began to appreciate the
diversity of geological structures in the province that could contain oil.
Early reef discoveries included Redwater in 1948, Golden Spike in 1949,
Wizard Lake, Fenn Big Valley and Bonnie Glen in 1951 and Westerose in 1952.
In 1953, Mobil Oil made a discovery near Drayton Valley, in a sandstone
formation. By 1956, more than 1,500 development wells dotted what became
the Pembina oil field (the largest field in western Canada) with hardly a
dry hole among them, and the oil bearing Cardium Formation was dubbed the
Cardium Freeway. The Swan Hills field, discovered in 1957, exploited a
carbonate rock formation.

Before Leduc, the petroleum industry had long been familiar with the oil
sand deposits. A number of companies were already producing heavy oil in
Alberta and Saskatchewan. The Turner Valley petroleum reservoirs near
Calgary had been on production for nearly 35 years, and the Devonian reef
at Norman Wells in the Northwest Territories had been discovered a quarter
of a century earlier.

In the decade after Leduc, the industry identified many more reservoir
types, including those at Daly, Manitoba in 1951, at Midale, Saskatchewan
in 1953 and at Clarke Lake, B.C. in 1956. And in the years since, the
sector has found many more petroleum traps in the Western Canada Basin,
especially within Alberta's borders. The region has great geological
diversity.

Foreign Interest

At its recent peak in 1973, more than 78 per cent of Canadian oil and gas
production was under foreign ownership and more than 90 per cent of oil and
gas production companies were under foreign control, mostly American. It
spurred the National Energy Program under the Trudeau government.¹⁵

Pipeline networks

In 1853, a small gas transmission line in Quebec established Canada as a
leader in pipeline construction. A 25-kilometre length of cast-iron pipe
moved natural gas to Trois-Rivières, Quebec, to light the streets. It was
probably the longest pipeline in the world at the time. Canada also boasted
the world's first oil pipeline when, in 1862, a line connected the Petrolia
oilfield to Sarnia, Ontario. In 1895, natural gas began flowing to the
United States from Ontario's Essex field through a 20-centimetre pipeline
laid under the Detroit River.

In Western Canada, Eugene Coste built the first important pipeline in 1912.
The 274-kilometre natural gas line connected the Bow Island gas field to
consumers in Calgary. Canada's debut in northern pipeline building came
during World War II when the short-lived Canol line delivered oil from
Norman Wells to Whitehorse (964 kilometres), with additional supply lines
to Fairbanks and Skagway, Alaska, USA, and to Watson Lake, Yukon. Wartime
priorities assured the expensive pipeline's completion in 1944 and its
abandonment in 1946.

By 1947, only three Canadian oil pipelines moved product to market. One
transported oil from Turner Valley to Calgary. A second moved imported
crude from coastal Maine to Montreal while the third brought American
mid-continent oil into Ontario. But the Leduc strike and subsequent
discoveries in Alberta created an opportunity for pipeline building on a
grander scale. As reserves increased, producers clamored for markets. With
its population density and an extensive refining system that relied on the
United States and the Caribbean for crude oil, Ontario was an excellent
prospect. The west coast offered another logical choice - closer still,
although separated from the oilfields by the daunting Rocky Mountains. The
industry pursued these opportunities vigorously.

Crude oil arteries

Construction of the Interprovincial Pipeline system from Alberta to Central
Canada began in 1949 with surveys and procurement. Field construction of
the Edmonton/Regina/Superior (Wisconsin) leg began early in 1950 and
concluded just 150 days later. The line began moving oil from Edmonton to
the Great Lakes, a distance of 1,800 kilometres, before the end of the
year. In 1953, the company extended the system to Sarnia, Ontario, in 1957
to Toronto. Other additions have extended the pipe to Montreal, Chicago and
even Wood River in southern Illinois. The Interprovincial crude oil
pipeline (now part of Enbridge Inc.) was the longest oil pipeline in the
world when it was first constructed; the longest oil pipeline is now the
Druzhba pipeline from Siberia. Until the completion of the TransCanada gas
pipeline, it was also the longest pipeline in the world.

The IPL line fundamentally changed the pricing of Alberta oil to make it
sensitive to international rather than regional factors. The wellhead price
reflected the price of oil at Sarnia, less pipeline tolls for shipping it
there. IPL is by far the longest crude oil pipeline in the western
hemisphere. Looping, or constructing additional lines beside the original,
expanded the Interprovincial system and allowed its extension into the
American midwest and to upstate New York. In 1976, it was 3,680 kilometres
through an extension to Montreal. Although it helped assure security of
supply in the 1970s, the extension became a threat to Canadian oil
producers after deregulation in 1985. With Montreal refineries using
cheaper imported oil, there was concern within the industry that a proposal
to use the line to bring foreign oil into Sarnia might undermine
traditional markets for Western Canadian petroleum.

The oil supply situation on the North American continent grew critical
during the Korean War and helped enable construction by Trans Mountain Oil
Pipe Line Company¹⁶ of a transmission facility from Edmonton to Vancouver
and, later, to the Seattle area. Oil first moved through the
1,200-kilometre, $93 million system in 1953. The rugged terrain made the
Trans Mountain line an extraordinary engineering accomplishment. It crossed
the Rockies, the mountains of central British Columbia, and 98 streams and
rivers. Where it crosses under the Fraser River into Vancouver at Port
Mann, 700 metres (2,300 ft) of pipe lie buried nearly 5 metres (16 ft)
below the river bed. At its highest point, the pipeline is 1,200 metres
(3,900 ft) above sea level.

To support these major pipelines, the industry gradually developed a
complex network of feeder lines in the three most westerly provinces. A
historic addition to this system was the 866-kilometre Norman Wells
pipeline, which was in effect an extension of the Interprovincial line.
This pipeline accompanied the expansion and water flooding of the oilfield,
and began bringing 600 cubic metres of oil per day to Zama, in northwestern
Alberta, in early 1985. From Zama, Norman Wells oil travels through other
crude oil arteries to markets in Canada and the United States.
Interprovincial Pipeline was the foundation from which the large Canadian
corporation Enbridge grew.

Gas pipelines and politics

Through much of the 20th century, Canadians viewed natural gas as a
patrimony, an essential resource to husband with great care for tomorrow.
By contrast, they generally viewed oil as just another commodity. Only in
special circumstances was there much public debate about crude oil exports.

Canadian attitudes about gas date back to the late 19th century, when
Ontario stopped exports. The province began exporting natural gas in 1891
to Buffalo, N.Y. from the Bertie-Humberstone field near Welland, Ontario.
Another pipeline under the Detroit River transported gas from the Essex
field to Detroit. And by 1897, a pipeline to Toledo, Ohio began taxing the
Essex gas field to its limits. As a result, the Ontario government revoked
the pipeline licenses and passed a law prohibiting the export of both gas
and electricity.

The reasons behind Canada's protectionist policies toward natural gas are
complex, but closely tied to the value gas has for space heating in a cold
climate. These issues were not finally resolved in favour of continentalism
until the implementation of the North American Free Trade Agreement in the
1990s.

By the late 1940s, Alberta's Conservation Board had eliminated most of the
wasteful production practices associated with the Turner Valley oil and gas
field. As new natural gas discoveries greeted drillers in the Leduc-fueled
search for oil, the industry agitated for licenses to export natural gas.
That was when they discovered that getting permits to export Alberta
natural gas was politically more complex than getting permits to export
oil. Before giving approval, the provincial government appointed the
Dinning Natural Gas Commission to inquire into Alberta's likely reserves
and future demand.

In its March 1949 report, the Dinning Commission supported the principle
that Albertans should have first call on provincial natural gas supplies,
and that Canadians should have priority over foreign users if an exportable
surplus developed. Alberta accepted the recommendations of the Dinning
Commission, and later declared it would only authorize exports of gas in
excess of a 30-year supply.

Shortly thereafter, Alberta's Legislature passed the Gas Resources
Conservation Act, which gave Alberta greater control over natural gas at
the wellhead, and empowered the Conservation Board to issue export permits.
This led to the creation of the Alberta Gas Trunk Line, which gathered gas
from wells in the province and to delivered it to exit points.

There were many reasons for the creation of AGTL. One was that the
provincial government considered it sensible to have a single gathering
system in Alberta to feed export pipelines, rather than a number of
separate networks. Another was that pipelines crossing provincial
boundaries and those leaving the country fall under federal jurisdiction.
By creating a separate entity to carry gas within Alberta, the provincial
government stopped Ottawa's authority at the border. Incorporated in 1954,
AGTL issued public shares in 1957. The company later restructured as NOVA
Corporation, sold its pipeline assets (now primarily operated by
TransCanada Corporation), and transformed itself into NOVA Chemicals.

The federal government's policy objectives at the time reflected concern
for national integration and equity among Canadians. In 1949, Ottawa
created a framework for regulating interprovincial and international
pipelines with its Pipe Lines Act. The federal government, like Alberta,
treated natural gas as a resource that was so important for national
security that domestic supply needed to be guaranteed into the foreseeable
future before exports would be allowed.

Although Americans were interested in Canadian exports, they understandably
wanted cheap gas. After all, their natural gas industry was a major player
in the American economy, and American policy-makers were not eager to allow
foreign competition unless there was clear economic benefit. Consequently,
major gas transportation projects were politically and economically
uncertain.

Construction

Among the first group of applicants hoping to remove natural gas from
Alberta was Westcoast Transmission Co. Ltd., backed by British
Columbia-born entrepreneur Frank McMahon. The Westcoast plan, eventually
achieved in a slightly modified form, took gas from northwestern Alberta
and northeastern B.C. and piped it to Vancouver and to the American Pacific
northwest, supplying B.C.'s interior along the way. Except for a small
export of gas to Montana which began in 1951, Westcoast was the first
applicant to receive permission to remove gas from Alberta.

Although turned down in 1951, Westcoast received permission in 1952 to take
50 billion cubic feet (1.4×10⁹ m³) of gas out of the Peace River area of
Alberta annually for five years. The company subsequently made gas
discoveries across the border in B.C. which further supported the scheme.
However, the United States Federal Power Commission (later the Federal
Energy Regulatory Commission) rejected the Westcoast proposal in 1954 after
three years of hearings and 28,000 pages of testimony.

Within eighteen months, however, Westcoast returned with a revised
proposal, found a new participant in the venture, and received FPC
approval. Construction began on Canada's first major gas export pipeline.

The Canadian section of the line cost $198 million to build and at the time
was the largest private financial undertaking in the country's history.
Built in the summer seasons of 1956 and 1957, the line moved gas from the
Fort St. John and Peace River areas 1,250 kilometres to Vancouver and the
American border.

TransCanada PipeLines Limited also applied early for permission to remove
natural gas from Alberta. Two applicants originally expressed interest in
moving gas east: Canadian Delhi Oil Company (now called TCPL) proposed
moving gas to the major cities of eastern Canada by an all-Canadian route,
while Western Pipelines wanted to stop at Winnipeg with a branch line south
to sell into the midwestern United States. In 1954 C.D. Howe forced the two
companies into a shotgun marriage, with the all-Canadian route preferred
over its more economical but American-routed competitor.

This imposed solution reflected problems encountered with the construction
of the Interprovincial oil pipeline. Despite the speed of its construction,
the earlier line caused angry debate in Parliament, with the Opposition
arguing that Canadian centres deserved consideration before American
customers and that "the main pipeline carrying Canadian oil should be laid
in Canadian soil". By constructing its natural gas mainline along an
entirely Canadian route, TCPL accommodated nationalist sentiments, solving
a political problem for the federal government.

The regulatory process for TCPL proved long and arduous. After rejecting
proposals twice, Alberta finally granted its permission to export gas from
the province in 1953. At first, the province waited for explorers to prove
gas reserves sufficient for its thirty-year needs, intending to only allow
exports in excess of those needs. After clearing this hurdle, the federal
government virtually compelled TCPL into a merger with Western pipelines.
When this reorganized TCPL went before the Federal Power Commission for
permission to sell gas into the United States, the Americans greeted it
coolly. The FPC proved sceptical of the project's financing and unimpressed
with Alberta's reserves.

Engineering problems made the 1,090-kilometre section crossing the Canadian
Shield the most difficult leg of the TransCanada pipeline. Believing
construction costs could make the line uneconomic, private sector sponsors
refused to finance this portion of the line. Since the federal government
wanted the line laid for nationalistic reasons, the reigning Liberals put a
bill before Parliament to create a crown corporation to build and own the
Canadian Shield portion of the line, leasing it back to TCPL. The
government restricted debate on the bill in order to get construction
underway by June, knowing that delays beyond that month would postpone the
entire project a year. The use of closure created a furore which spilled
out of Parliament and into the press. Known as the Great Pipeline Debate,
this parliamentary episode contributed to the Louis St. Laurent
government's defeat at the polls in 1957. But the bill passed and
construction of the TransCanada pipeline began.

A stock trading scandal surrounding Northern Ontario Natural Gas, the
contractor for the Northern Ontario leg of the pipeline, also implicated
Sudbury mayor Leo Landreville and Ontario provincial cabinet ministers
Philip Kelly, William Griesinger and Clare Mapledoram between 1955 and
1958.¹⁷

The completion of this project was a spectacular technological achievement.
In the first three years of construction (1956–58), workers installed 3,500
kilometres of pipe, stretching from the Alberta-Saskatchewan border to
Toronto and Montreal. Gas service to Regina and Winnipeg commenced in 1957
and the line reached the Lakehead before the end of that year. In late
1957, during a high pressure line test on the section of the line from
Winnipeg to Port Arthur (today called Thunder Bay), about five and a half
kilometres of pipeline blew up near Dryden. After quick repairs, the line
delivered Alberta gas to Port Arthur before the end of the year, making the
entire trip on its own wellhead pressure.

Building the Canadian Shield leg required continual blasting. For one 320
metres (1,050 ft) stretch, the construction crew drilled 2.4 metres (7.9
ft) holes into the rock, three abreast, at 56-centimetre intervals.
Dynamite broke up other stretches, 305 metres (1,001 ft) at a time.

On October 10, 1958, a final weld completed the line and on October 27, the
first Alberta gas entered Toronto. For more than two decades, the
Trans-Canada pipeline was the longest in the world. Only in the early 1980s
was its length finally exceeded by a Soviet pipeline from Siberia to
Western Europe.

With these events - the discovery and development of oil and gas reservoirs
and of processing and transportation infrastructure - Canada's petroleum
industry established its foundations. However, over the decades that
followed the industry began to develop other domestic petroleum resources.
These included oil sands and heavy oil deposits, and the northern and
offshore frontiers. Also, the natural gas sector constructed extensive
natural gas liquids extraction facilities. Taken together, these
developments helped Canada create one of the world's largest and most
complex petroleum industries.

See also

- Technological and industrial history of Canada
- History of Canada
- Energy policy of Canada
- Natural gas processing
- Science and technology in Canada
- History of petroleum

References

[1] "Proved Reserves of Crude Oil". US Energy Information Administration.
  Retrieved 18 November 2014.
[2] "30 countries with highest proven oil reserves Last updated on: March
  1, 2012 08:31 IST". rediff.com. Retrieved 18 November 2014.
[3] May, Gary. Hard oiler! Dundurn Press, 1998, p 33.
[4] Sarnia Observer and Lambton Advertiser, "Important Discovery in the
  Township of Enniskillen," 5 August 1858, p 2.
[5] Petroleum History Society, Petroleum History: Canadian Beginnings.
[6] Earle Gray. Ontario's Petroleum Legacy: The birth, evolution, and
  challenges of a global industry (Edmonton: Heritage Community Foundation)
  2008
[7] Johnson, Dana. The Shaw Investigation: A Review of Sources to Determine
  Who Drilled Canada's First Oil Gusher, Oil Museum of Canada, 2010.
[8] Extraordinary Flowing Oil Well, Hamilton Times, Author Unknown,
  "Extraordinary Flowing Oil Well," 20 January 1862, p 2.
[9] Elford, Jean Turnbull. Great West's Last Frontier – A History of
  Lambton (Wyoming excerpt), Lambton County Historical Society, 1967.
[10] Oil Springs: boom and bust, Oil Museum of Canada
[11] Quoted in Peter McKenzie-Brown, Gordon Jaremko, David Finch, The Great
  Oil Age, Detselig Enterprises Ltd., Calgary; 1993
[12] Dormarr, Johan; Watt, Robert A. (2007). "First Oil Well in Western
  Canada National Historic Site of Canada". Parks Canada. Retrieved 18 June
  2010.
[13] Ward, Tom (1975). Cowtown : an album of early Calgary. Calgary: City
  of Calgary Electric System, McClelland and Stewart West. p. 214. ISBN
  0-7712-1012-4.
[14] Supreme Court
[15] Peter Tertzakian (Jul 25, 2012). "Canada again a focus of a new Great
  Scramble for oil". The Globe and Mail.
[16] Peter Meiszner (Oct 14, 2013). "Pipeline history: Opening of the Trans
  Mountain pipeline in 1953". Global Online News.
[17] Bad Judgment: The Case of Justice Leo A. Landreville, William Kaplan,
  1996.

External links

- Map of Canadian Oil and gas infrastructure

Further reading

- Allan Anderson (1981). Roughnecks and wildcatters: hundreds of first-hand
  exciting stories by Canadian rigbuilders. Macmillan.
- Robert Bott; David M. Carson; Jan W. Henderson; Shaundra Carvey (2004).
  Our petroleum challenge: sustainability into the 21st century. Canadian
  Centre for Energy Information. ISBN 978-1-894348-15-7.
- David Breen (January 1993). Alberta's petroleum industry and the
  Conservation Board. University of Alberta. ISBN 978-0-88864-245-5.
- David Finch (1 March 2005). Hell's Half Acre: Early Days In The Great
  Alberta Oil Patch. Heritage House Publishing Co. ISBN 978-1-894384-82-7.
- Earle Gray (1 August 2008). Ontario's petroleum legacy: the birth,
  evolution and challenges of a global industry. Heritage Community
  Foundation. ISBN 978-0-9739892-2-9.
- George De Mille (1969). Oil in Canada West, the early years. Printed by
  Northwest Printing and Lithographing.
- Gary May (1 October 1998). Hard Oiler!: The Story of Canadians' Quest for
  Oil at Home and Abroad. Dundurn Press Ltd. ISBN 978-1-55002-316-9.
- Peter McKenzie-Brown; Gordon Jaremko; David Finch (15 November 1993). The
  great oil age: the petroleum industry in Canada. Detselig Enterprises.
  ISBN 978-1-55059-072-2.

Metric conversion

- Canada's oil measure, the cubic metre, is unique in the world. It is
  metric in the sense that it uses metres, but it is based on volume so
  that Canadian units can be easily converted into barrels. In the rest of
  the metric world, the standard for measuring oil is the metric tonne. The
  advantage of the latter measure is that it reflects oil quality. In
  general, lower grade oils are heavier.
- One cubic metre of oil = 6.29 barrels. One cubic metre of natural gas =
  35.49 cubic feet (1.005 m³). One kilopascal = 1% of atmospheric pressure
  (near sea level).

Science and technology in Canada

Science and technology in Canada consists of three distinct but closely
related phenomena:

- the diffusion of technology in Canada,
- scientific research in Canada
- innovation, invention and industrial research in Canada

The diffusion of technology in Canada

Main article: Diffusion of technology in Canada

Scientific research in Canada

Main article: Scientific research in Canada

Innovation, invention, and industrial research in Canada

Main article: Invention in Canada

Technological and industrial history of Canada

Main article: Technological and industrial history of Canada
See also: Technological and industrial history of 20th-century Canada
See also: Technological and industrial history of 21st-century Canada

See also

Further reading

Main article: Bibliography of Science and technology in Canada
- Council of Canadian Academies (2012). The State of Science and Technology
  in Canada, 2012. Council of Canadian Academies. ISBN 978-1-926558-47-9.

External links

- Science and Technology for Canadians - Government of Canada
- Canada Science and Technology Museum - Government of Canada
- Canadian Institute for Advanced Research: Science
- Canadian Encyclopedia: Science

Technological and industrial history of Canada

The technological and industrial history of Canada encompasses the
country's development in the areas of transportation, communication,
energy, materials, public works, public services (health care),
domestic/consumer and defense technologies. Most technologies diffused in
Canada came from other places; only a small number actually originated in
Canada. For more about those with a Canadian origin, see Invention in
Canada.

The terms chosen for the "age" described below are both literal and
metaphorical. They describe the technology that dominated the period in
question but are also representative of a large number of other
technologies introduced during the same period. Also of note is the fact
that the period of diffusion of a technology can begin modestly and can
extend well beyond the "age" of its introduction. To maintain continuity,
the treatment of its diffusion is dealt with in the context of its dominant
"age". For example, the "Steam Age" here is defined as being from 1840 to
1880. However, steam-powered boats were introduced in 1809, the CPR was
completed in 1885 and railway construction in Canada continued well into
the 20th century. To preserve continuity, the development of steam, in the
early and later years, is therefore considered within the "Steam Age".

Technology is a major cultural determinant, no less important in shaping
human lives than philosophy, religion, social organization, or political
systems. In the broadest sense, these forces are also aspects of
technology. The French sociologist Jacques Ellul defined "la technique" as
the totality of all rational methods in every field of human activity so
that, for example, education, law, sports, propaganda, and the social
sciences are all technologies in that sense.¹ At the other end of the
scale, common parlance limits the term's meaning to specific industrial
arts.

The Stone Age: Fire (14,000 BC – AD 1600)

The diffusion of technology in what is now Canada began with the arrival of
the first humans about 14,000 BC.

These people brought with them stone and bone tools. These took the form of
arrowheads, axes, blades, scrappers, needles, harpoon heads and fishhooks
used mostly to kill animals and fish for food and skins. They also brought
fire, which they used for heating their dwellings and for cooking which was
done on open fires. There were no clay pots or ovens.

In the Arctic, the Innu used stick frames covered with animal skins for
shelter during the summer months, while they built houses made of snow or
igloos during the harsh winter. On the plains, native peoples used the well
known teepee. This consisted of a number of poles arranged to form a
conical structure which was in turn covered with animal skins. In central
Canada, the long house was popular. This large structure was built from
interwoven branches and could house 70 to 80 people. Several of these
structures would be built together to form a village which was often
surrounded by a palisade of logs stuck vertically into the ground as
protection from hostile tribes. On the west coast, native peoples
constructed dwellings made from heavy timber. These structures were built
near the water's edge and were often decorated with elaborate and elegant
carved images.

Transportation techniques were simple. The aboriginal peoples did not have
the wheel, horses or the sail. The paddle powered canoe was the most common
means of transport and was especially practical during the summer,
considering the large number of lakes and rivers that characterized the
topography. The dugout was favoured in the waters off the west coast.
Summer travel also saw use of the travois, a simple type of sled that was
pulled over the ground by a dog and used to transport a light load. In the
winter snow shoes made walking in the deep snow practical. Winter transport
in the Arctic made use of dog teams, and in warmer summer months, use of
kayaks was common.

Clothing was made of animal skins, which were cut with stone and bone tools
and sewn with bone needles and animal sinews. Native peoples did not have
textiles.

For the most part native peoples were hunters and gatherers, chasing large
animals, and fishing for a source of protein. Wild plants and fruits that
also an important food source. A common, easily stored and readily
transportable food was pemmican, dried powdered meat mixed with fat,
berries and "vegetables". In central Canada, there was limited agriculture
which allowed the storage of some food during times of privation. Of note
was the fact that they did not have the plough or draught animals.

The first peoples had techniques for dealing with disease. Medicines
included those made from high bush cranberries, oil of wintergreen and
bloodroot. A type of tea made from the bark of the spruce or hemlock could
prevent or cure scurvy.

The first peoples did not have a written language. Their extensive
knowledge of the natural world and information relating to their customs
and traditions was passed orally.

Weapons of war were made by hand from wood and stone. The long range weapon
of these times was the bow and arrow with an effective range of up to 100
metres. Close in fighting was conducted with a range of simple armaments
including stone-tipped spears, stone axes (tomahawks), stone blades used as
knives and stone and wooden clubs of various types. Because there was no
knowledge of metalworking with the exception of some small items of jewelry
made from copper, weapons such as swords and metal knives were not part of
this early arsenal.²

The Age of Sail (1600-1830)

The arrival of white explorers and colonists in the 16th century introduced
those technologies popular in Europe at the time, such as iron making, the
wheel, writing, paper, printing, books, newspapers, long range navigation,
large ship construction, stone and brick and mortar construction, surgery,
firearms, new crops, livestock, the knife fork and spoon, china plates and
cups, weed, cotton and linen cloth, horses and livestock.

Transportation: shipbuilding and the wheel

The use of wind and water as sources of power were major developments in
the technological history of the new colonies. Ships with large masts and
huge canvas sails maintained the link between the coloniesureJean Talon
established the Royal Dockyard on the St. Charles River in Quebec City and
the first 120-ton vessel was launched there in 1666. Three other ships,
including a 450-ton "galiotte", were built before Talon's departure for
France in 1672 and four more were built in Quebec between 1704 and 1712
followed by another nine between 1714 and 1717. Work at the Royal Dockyard
recommenced in 1739 and by 1744, twelve vessels had been constructed there,
including the Canada, a 500-ton merchantman. Demand for ships was such that
a second Royal Dockyard was established in 1746, on the St. Lawrence at the
foot of Cap Diamante, where the largest vessel of the French Regime, a 72
gun, 800 ton war ship was built. The fall of New France to the British in
1759 put an end to these activities.³

However, the beginning of the 19th century witnessed a revival. The British
loss of the American colonies with their associated shipbuilding industry,
the subsequent British loss of Baltic sources of timber, as well as
Canada's abundant supply of wood along with the tradition of shipbuilding
established in New France made British North America an ideal location for
a renewed shipbuilding industry. Quebec City and Saint John, New Brunswick,
both centres of timber export also became dominant centres for this
activity not only in Canada but worldwide. The ships intended for trade,
mostly with Britain and common designs, included the two-masted brig and
brigantine, and the popular barque, with three masts or more. Designs of
between 500 and 1000 tons, which sacrificed speed in favour of a voluminous
hold, were well-suited to the carriage of timber and therefore preferred.
The Californian and Australian gold rushes of 1848 and 1851 respectively
further fed the demand for Canada's large ocean vessels. However, the
arrival of the iron and steel-hulled steamship associated with the Canadian
inability to adapt to this new technology eventually bankrupted the
industry in the latter years of the century.

Inland travel by the coureurs de bois was by way of an Indian invention,
the canoe. The York boat and bateau were also popular for travel on inland
waters. The York boat was used by traders working for the Hudson's Bay
Company and was named after the fur trading post at York Factory on Hudson
Bay. The York boat was larger, more stable, and had a greater carrying
capacity than the canoe. The first was built in 1794 and numbers of these
craft navigated the rivers of the northern prairie region as far west as
Fort Chipewyan until replaced by the steamboat in the 19th century. The
flat-bottomed bateau was another craft used on Canada's inland waters by
both British and French colonists in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Within settlements, transport was often simply a matter of walking around
town. The horse, introduced by the new arrivals in 1665, also provided a
new and convenient mode of transport. The wooden cart, wagon and carriage,
made possible by the introduction of the wheel in combination with the
horse, dramatically improved the transport of people and goods. The first
graded road in Canada was built by Samuel de Champlain in 1606 and linked
the settlement at Port Royal to Digby Cape, 16 kilometres away. By 1734
Quebec City and Montreal were connected by a road, Le chemin du roi, along
the north shore of the St. Lawrence. The 267 km distance could be traversed
with great difficulty and discomfort by horse-drawn carriage in four to
five days. Most roads were of very poor quality especially in wet weather.
To overcome this problem logs were often placed side by side crosswise to
cover ruts, puddles and mud holes. The result was a more solid but very
bumpy surface that was referred to as a corduroy road. Work on what would
be called the, "longest street in the world", formally known as Yonge
Street, began in York (Toronto), in 1795 under the direction of Deputy
Surveyor General Augustus Jones. Initially a trail, it ran from Eglington
Avenue to St. Albans (Holland Landing) and later much further north. The
task of widening the path into a road fell to local farmers.⁴ The period
also saw the construction a number of important canals, including the
Rideau Canal, Ottawa–Kingston, 1820, the Lachine Canal, Montreal, 1825, the
Ottawa River Canals at Grenville and Carillon, Quebec, 1834 and the Chambly
Canal, Chambly, Quebec, 1843.

Communication, symbolic language

The introduction of written language and mathematics to the new world was
of paramount importance. The 26-letter, Roman-based alphabet that formed
the basis for French and English words was arguably much more flexible that
the pictographs that characterized eastern languages. The pen along with
ink and paper made written communication possible and allowed private
individuals, businessmen, the clergy and government officials to produce
the documents essential for social, commercial, religious and political
intercourse. This created a need for mail service. Messages were originally
carried between settlements on the St. Lawrence by canoe. After 1734, the
road between Montreal and Quebec was used by a special courier to carry
official dispatches. In 1755 a post office was opened in Halifax by
Benjamin Franklin, the Post Master of the British colonies, as part of a
trans-Atlantic mail service that he established between Falmouth, England
and New York. In 1763, Franklin opened other post offices in Quebec City,
Trois-Rivières and Montreal with a link from the latter city to New York
and the trans-Atlantic service. The War of American Independence seriously
disrupted mail service in Canada but by 1783 peace had been restored and
Hugh Finlay was appointed Post Master for the northern colonies in 1784.
That same year Finlay hired Pierre Durand to survey an all-Canadian mail
route to Halifax. The path chosen took 15 weeks for a round trip!

Although the written word was a vital part of communications, French
colonial policy opposed the establishment of newspapers in New France.
Canada's first paper, the Halifax Gazette, produced on a simple printing
press, began publication in 1752 under the watchful eye of John Bushell. In
1764, the Quebec Gazette was established in Quebec City by William Brown
and Thomas Gilmore. The Montreal Gazette was founded in that city in 1785
by Fleury Mesplet. Other newspapers followed including the Upper Canada
Gazette at Newark (Niagara-on-the-Lake) in 1793, the first newspaper in
what is now Ontario, the Quebec City Mercury, 1805, the Montreal Herald,
1811, Le Canadien 1806, La Minerve, 1826, and the Colonial Advocate and
Novascotian both in 1824. These publications were simple affairs, typeset
by hand, consisting of only a few pages, produced in limited quantities on
simple presses and of limited distribution.

Energy

Wind power was used to some to turn the sails of the windmill, which did
not come into widespread use. However water power was used extensively to
power grist mill in both New France and later, Quebec and Upper Canada and
Lower Canada. Animal power in the form of the horse or ox was used to work
the fields. The first horses were introduced to New France in 1665. Fire
from a wood or oil fuel source was not new but the use of stone fireplaces
and ovens along with metal pots and pans dramatically changed the nature of
cooking.

Industry

Between the 1530s and 1626, Basque whalers (whaling) frequented the waters
of Newfoundland and the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence from the
Strait of Bell Isle to the mouth of the Sagenuay River. They constructed
stone ovens ashore for fires to melt whale fat. However, as whales became
scarce, the cod fishery (fishing) off the Grand Banks of Newfoundland
became hotly contested by the British and French, in the 16th and 17th
centuries. The British used small boats close to shore from which they
caught the cod with hook and line. They practised the "dry fishery"
technique which involved shore based settlements for the drying of cod on
flakes or racks placed in the open air for their subsequent transport back
to Europe. The French on the other hand practised the "green fishery" which
involved processing the catch with salt aboard ship. At the same time a
fleet of schooners fishing for cod, halibut, haddock, and mackerel became
prominent off the Atlantic coast. The use of the long line and purse seine
net increased the size of the catch.

It is ironic that a phenomenon as fickle as fashion would be responsible
for the economic development and exploration of half a continent, but such
was the case with the fur trade in North America between 1650 and 1850. The
subject of bitter rivalry between the British and French Empires and
inter-corporate rivalry among a number of business organizations, notably
the Hudson's Bay Company and the North West Company, the technology of the
trade was the picture of simplicity. Traders, be they French or British,
would set out in birch bark canoes loaded with trade goods (knives, axe
heads, cloth blankets, alcohol, firearms and other items) and travel west
along Canada's numerous rivers, streams and lakes in search of Indians and
exchange these items for beaver skins. The skins came from animals trapped
by the native peoples and worn as clothing during the long cold Canadian
winter. The skins were worn with the fur side next to the skin, and by the
spring the long hairs would be worn away, leaving the short hairs which
were used to make felt. The skins were then carried by the traders in their
canoes back to trading posts in Montreal or on Hudson Bay and transported
by sailing ship to England or France. There they were processed by a
technique involving mercury, and the felt that resulted from the treatment
was used to make beaver hats. This coincidentally gave rise to the
associated phenomenon of the mad hatter. A combination of diminishing
beaver stocks and a change in fashion that saw a decline in the popularity
of the beaver hat put an end to the trade.

Agriculture was an essential colonial activity. The settlers who founded
Port Royal in Acadia in 1605 drained coastal marshes with a system of dikes
and grew vegetables, flax and wheat and raised livestock. After 1713, the
British promoted the Maritimes as a source of hemp for rope for the Royal
Navy, with moderate success. Mixed farming, the growing of wheat and the
raising of livestock would characterize the nature of maritime agriculture
well into the mid-19th century. In 1617, Louis Hebert a colonist in Quebec
began to raise cattle and grow peas, grain and corn on a very small plot.
In the 1640s, charter companies promoted agriculture and settlers cleared
forested land with the use of axes, oxen, horses and asses. In 1663, Louis
XIV, through his colonial administrators Colbert and Jean Talon took steps
to promote the cultivation of hops and hemp and the raising of livestock.
By 1721, the harvest of the farmers of New France consisted predominantly
of wheat and the census of horses, pigs, cattle and sheep registered
30,0000 animals. In the latter part of the century, the British promoted
the cultivation of potatoes. The arrival of the Loyalists in Upper Canada
(where they were given the title United Empire Loyalists) in the late 18th
century resulted in the cultivation of hemp but agriculture was dominated
by the wheat culture well into the mid-19th century.

The techniques for the production of beer were quickly introduced to
colonial life. The first commercial brewery in Canada was built in Quebec
City in 1668 by Jean Talon. This was followed by the construction of other
breweries including those of John Molson in Montreal, 1786, Alexander
Keith, Halifax, 1820, Thomas Carling, London, 1840, John Kinder Labatt,
London, 1847 and Eugene O'Keefe in Toronto in 1891. Of note is the fact
that the first patent awarded by the government of Canada went to Mr. G.
Riley in 1842 for "an improved method of brewing ale, beer, porter, and
other maltliquors".

Money, then as now was of vital interest to individuals and to the
functioning of the economy. The first coin produced for use in New France
was the "Gloria Regni", a silver piece struck in Paris in 1670. The first
paper money in New France consisted of playing cards signed by the governor
and issued in 1685 to help deal with the chronic shortage of coins. After
1760, the British introduced the sterling, which officially stood as
Canada's currency for almost a century. However, the monetary system was a
chaotic affair and the British coins and paper were circulated along with
Spanish dollars, Nova Scotia provincial money, US dollars and gold coins
and British paper "army bills" used to buy supplies in the War of 1812. In
1858 the government of the Province of Canada began keeping its accounts in
Canadian dollars and to circulate its own paper currency alongside the
paper dollars circulated by the Bank of Montreal and other banks.

Materials

The Europeans brought with them metal and textiles and the knowledge of the
means to make them. Les Forges de St. Maurice, which began producing iron
in 1738 at facilities near Trois-Rivières and the Marmora Ironworks
(established in 1822 near Peterborough), were the first iron works in
Canada. Both ceased operations in the latter part of the 19th century.

Early 16th century female settlers along the St. Lawrence and in Acadia
were almost all were familiar with the techniques of spinning yarn and
weaving cloth for everyday clothes and bedding and the home production of
textiles eventually became an important cottage industry. The spinning
wheel and loom were features of many colonial homes and weaving techniques
included the "à la planche" and "boutonné" methods. Loyalist women settling
in Upper and Lower Canada grew flax and raised sheep for wool to make
clothing, blankets and linen. The Jacquard loom, introduced in the 1830s,
featured a complex system of punch cards to control the pattern and was the
first programmable machine in Canada. With the arrival of industrial
textile mills in Montreal and Toronto in the late 19th century, the
economic advantage of home weaving faded.

Wood ash became a significant export during this period. Potash made from
the ashes of burnt wood was used as a bleaching and dying agent in textile
production in Britain. Wood ash and pearl ash (potash mixed with lime) were
shipped overseas as early as 1767 and export reached a peak in the mid-19th
century. In 1871, there were 519 asheries in operation in Canada. Wood ash
was also used in the home by colonials to make soap.⁵

Medicine

Medical treatment at this time reflected techniques available in France and
was provided by a barber-surgeon. The first in New France was Robert
Giffard, who arrived in Quebec City in 1627 and "practiced" at Hotel-Dieu,
Canada's first hospital, a very modest four-room structure founded by the
church. The panacea was bleeding, which involved the use of a knife to cut
open a blood vessel and drain away a quantity of the patient's blood. There
was some surgery, but it was undertaken with primitive instruments and
without anesthetic or any familiarity with the concept of infection. Both
the procedure and results were usually quite gruesome. Another figure of
repute, Michel Sarrazin, a botanist as well as doctor, arrived from France
in the latter half of the 17th century and served as the surgeon-major for
the French troops in New France. He, too, practised at Hotel-Dieu and while
there treated hundreds of patients infected during a typhus epidemic.
Eyeglasses for the correction of vision became available at this time. The
mercury thermometer, invented in 1714, became a useful diagnostic tool for
doctors as did the stethoscope invented in 1816. Because doctors were few
and far between people with medical problems often had to treat themselves.
They used Indian medicines or home remedies based on the internal and
external application of various herbal and animal products. Advances in
surgery came in the early 19th century with the innovative work of Dr.
Christopher Widmer who practised at York Hospital (later known as Toronto
General Hospital) and R.W. Beaumont made a name as a noted inventor of
surgical instruments. The early part of the 19th century also witnessed the
first halting steps with respect to the use of inoculation in Nova Scotia,
in this case against smallpox. However, it would take another one hundred
years for the practice to become widespread. General hospitals were
established in Montreal in 1819 and York ( now Toronto) in 1829.

Domestic technology

The first houses in Canada were constructed at Port Royal on the Annapolis
River in what is now Nova Scotia in 1605. The colonists built simple wooden
frame homes with peaked roofs around a central courtyard. This established
a house-building tradition that lasts to this day, for by far the most
common domestic structure in Canada for the last 400 years has been the
wood-frame peak-roofed house. Most domestic homes in New France from about
1650 to 1750, both urban and rural, were simple wooden structures. Wood was
inexpensive, readily available and easily worked by most residents. Rooms
were small, usually limited to a living/dining/kitchen space and perhaps a
bedroom. Roofs were usually peaked to deflect the rain and very heavy snow.
After fires in Quebec City in 1682 and Montreal in 1721, building codes
emphasized the importance of stone construction, but these requirements
were mostly ignored except by the most affluent. The most popular type of
domestic dwelling in Loyalist Upper Canada in the late 18th century was the
log house or the wood frame house (or, less commonly, the stone house).
When homes were heated, it was by a fireplace burning wood or a cast-iron
wood stove, which was also used for cooking, and they were lit by
candlelight or whale oil lamp. Kerosene lamps became popular in the 1840s,
when Gesner of Halifax developed an effective way to manufacture that
product. Water for drinking and washing was carried to the home from an
outside source. Tables and chairs, items unknown to Canada's native
peoples, were introduced and had an important place in the home.

The new arrivals also brought new eating habits. Meat from animals such as
cows, sheep, chickens and pigs was common, as were new types of fruits and
vegetables. These items were eaten fresh but could be stored for later
consumption if salted, pickled or frozen. Grain was ground to flour at the
local grist mill and baked in the home oven with yeast to make bread.
Hopps, grain and fruit were fermented to make beer, hard alcohol and wine.
Meals were served on pewter or china plates and eaten with a metal knife,
fork and spoon. The places were set on a simple wooden table with wooden
chairs often made by the man of the house.

Musical instruments did much to enliven the colonial life. In the
well-known documents The Jesuit Relations, there is reference to the
playing of the fiddle in 1645 and the organ (music) in 1661. Quebec City
boasted of Canada's first piano in 1784.

Waste disposal

Sewage and garbage disposal were simple tasks in the mostly rural parts of
the colonies. Sewage was dumped into a stream or left in pits and buried.
Scrap food was fed to farm animals and any other garbage or waste was
burned or placed in a quiet corner of the property and left to deteriorate.
However, in towns such as Halifax, Quebec City, Montreal and York
(Toronto), these tasks became more difficult due to lack of space and the
concentrated population, and the result was very unpleasant. Streets reeked
with the smell of decaying garbage as well as pig, horse and cow excrement.
Markets were places of animal blood, rotting animal carcasses and fish
heads and other decaying organic matter. Human excrement was stored in
pails in buildings and then dumped into the streets. Not until the mid-19th
and early 20th centuries would these problems be effectively addressed
through the installation of sewer systems and the organization of municipal
garbage collection.

Military technology

The Europeans introduced extremely important innovations relating to
warfare: gunpowder, the cannon and the musket. The cannon was used to arm a
number of important military structures, including the Citadel of Quebec,
Quebec City, Quebec (1745), the Fortress of Louisburg, Louisburg, Nova
Scotia (1745), and Fort Henry, Kingston, Ontario, 1812. They were also the
primary weapon aboard the warships of the era. French regular soldiers
stationed in New France and British regulars stationed in British North
America after 1763 were equipped with a musket and bayonet. Ironically, in
the Battle of Quebec, the French General Montcalm ordered his troops out of
the ultra-modern stone-walled Citadel with its heavy defensive cannon and
onto the adjacent Plains of Abraham where they were felled by a single
volley of musket fire from the British line. Both the
British/Canadian/Native troops and American troops were equipped with
cannons and muskets when invading American armies attacked Canada in 1775
and again during the period from 2000 to 2001 with the intent of
annexation. In both cases, the invaders were defeated.

The Steam Age (1830–1880)

The pace of diffusion quickened in the 19th century with the introduction
of such technologies as steam power and the telegraph. Indeed, it was the
introduction of steam power that allowed politicians in Ottawa to entertain
the idea of creating a transcontinental state. In addition to steam power,
municipal water systems and sewer systems were introduced in the latter
part of the century. The field of medicine saw the introduction of
anesthetic and antiseptics.

Steam power

Steam power was first introduced to Canada via the paddle-powered
steamboat. The Accommodation, a side-wheeler built entirely in Montreal by
the Eagle Foundry and launched in 1809, was the first steamer to ply
Canadian waters, making its maiden voyage from Montreal to Quebec that same
year in 36 hours. Other paddle-wheel steamboats included the Frontenac,
Lake Ontario (1816), the General Stacey Smyth, Saint John River (1816), the
Union, lower Ottawa River (1819), the Royal William, Quebec to Halifax
(1831), and the Beaver, BC coast (1836).

One of the largest trans-Atlantic steamship lines was established in
Montreal in 1854. The Allan Line Royal Mail Steamers company, founded by
Sir Hugh Allan, operated a fleet of over 100 oceangoing steam ships, plying
the route between Montreal and Britain from that date until 1917, when it
was sold to Canadian Pacific Ocean Services Limited.

The first steam locomotive-powered railway service in Canada was offered by
the Champlain and St. Lawrence Railroad, Quebec, in 1836. Other railway
systems soon followed, including the Albion Mines Railway, Nova Scotia
(1839), the St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railroad (1853), the Great Western
Railway, Montreal to Windsor (1854), the Grand Trunk Railway, Montreal to
Sarnia (1860), the Intercolonial Railway (1876), the Chignecto Marine
Transport Railway, Tignish, Nova Scotia (1888), the Edmonton, Yukon &
Pacific Railway (1891), the Newfoundland Railway, St. John's, Newfoundland
and Labrador (1893), the White Pass and Yukon Railway, Whitehorse, Yukon
Territory (1900), the Kettle Valley Railway, British Columbia (1916) and
Canadian National Railways (1917).⁶

One of the great engineering works of the world, the Canadian Pacific
Railway and its associated Canadian Pacific trans-Canada telegraph system,
was completed in 1885. Between 1881 and 1961, CPR would operate 3,267 steam
locomotives.

The stagecoach came into its own in the mid-19th century. Roads in early
colonial Canada were poor and not well-suited to long distance travel by
horse-drawn coach. For this reason, the stage coach was used mostly for
short distance travel and long distance inter-city passenger service was
mostly by water. With the introduction of the steam locomotive, long
distance inter-city passenger service boomed. However, a means of
conveyance was required serve small towns that found themselves short
distances from "the end of the line" or beyond the reach of local public
horse car service. The stage coach was well-suited to this role. From about
1850 until 1900, in parallel with the explosive growth of the rail network
all across Canada, the service grew. However, the ever-expanding reach of
the rail network spread eventually even to small towns. The small size of
the markets served and arrival of cars and buses put an end to this
colourful means of transportation in the early 20th century.

In Western Canada throughout the 19th century, the Carlton Trail served as
an important land transportation route over its 1500 km length from
Winnipeg (Fort Garry) to Edmonton, (Upper Fort des Prairies). The simple
horse-drawn Red River Cart was a common sight on the road. Another overland
series of roads, the Red River Trails, connected Fort Garry to the US.

Manned flight came to Canada during these years. On 4 August 1840, a hot
air balloon took to the air for the first time in Canada when the "Star of
the East", piloted by aeronaut Louis Lauriat, rose into the sky over Saint
John, New Brunswick.

Universal time

The measurement of time before the coming of the railways was a local
matter with towns and cities establishing their own "time zones". There was
little coordination of times between cities or regions in Canada or
elsewhere in the world. Train travel revealed the shortcomings of this
arrangement for it quickly led to problems related to the scheduling of
arrivals and departures from different cities. A Canadian engineer,
Sandford Fleming, proposed a coordinated world-wide time system at a
meeting in Toronto of the Royal Canadian Institute in 1879. His idea was
accepted at the International Meridian Conference of 1884.

Communication

Canada's initial telegraph service, introduced in 1846, was offered by the
Toronto, Hamilton and Niagara Electro-Magnetic Telegraph Co. Others soon
followed, including the telegraph system of the Montreal Telegraph Company,
1847 and the telegraph system of the Dominion Telegraph Company, 1868. The
production and transmission of the signal was by means of analog
technology, and its introduction would form the backbone of communication
and computing technology in Canada for the next 140 years.

In 1856, the first underwater telegraph cable in Canada was laid, linking
Cape Ray, Newfoundland and Aspy, Nova Scotia. Ten years later, in 1866, the
first transatlantic telegraph cable was laid between Heart's Content,
Newfoundland and Foilhommerum, Valentia Island, in western Ireland. The
first trans-Canada telegraph service was established by Canadian Pacific
Railway in 1885. In 1902, Canadian Pacific completed a trans-Pacific cable
telegraph, linking Vancouver with Australia and New Zealand.

The newspaper benefited from the introduction of the telegraph and the
rotary press. The latter device, invented in the US, was first used in
Canada by George Brown in Toronto starting in 1844 to print copies of the
Globe. This process permitted the printing of thousands of copies of each
daily paper rather than the mere hundreds of copies possible with previous
technologies.

Energy and oil

Drilling for oil was first undertaken in Canada in 1851 in Enniskillen
Township in Lambton County by the International Mining and Manufacturing
Company of Woodstock, Ontario. There was fierce competition for oil
drilling, refining and distribution in southern Ontario until 1880 when 16
oil refineries merged to form Imperial Oil. This company was in turn
acquired in 1898 by John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Trust. Oil discovery
and development in the west dates from the early 20th century, with
Imperial becoming a major player by 1914 at Turner Valley, Alberta and in
1920 at Norman Wells, NWT. British based corporations such as Royal Dutch
Shell and Anglo-Persian Oil (British Petroleum) also became involved in oil
exploration in the west at this time.

Oil refining required sulfuric acid, and two entrepreneurs, T.H. Smallman
and W. Bowman, established the Canadian Chemical Company in London, Ontario
in 1867 to manufacture this product for the region's oil industry. This
marked the beginning of the mass production of heavy industrial chemicals
in Canada.

The discovery of oil and gas led to the construction of Canada's first
energy pipelines. In 1853, an iron pipeline from the Maurice River area
carried natural gas 25 kilometres to Trois-Rivières, Quebec, where it was
used to provide street lighting. In 1862 a pipeline was built to carry oil
from wells in Petrolia, Ontario to Sarnia for refining and in 1895 another
natural gas pipeline, 20 centimetres in diameter, linked wells in Essex
County, Ontario to Windsor and passed under the Detroit River to Detroit.

Coal gas public street lighting systems were introduced in Montreal in
1838, in Toronto in 1841 and in Halifax in 1850. Coal gasification plants
were built in these cities and others to provide the gas for the lighting
systems. Most remained in operation until the 1950s when they were phased
out due to a loss of demand in favour of the more practical and inexpensive
natural gas. The decommissioning of these sites was often problematic due
the accumulation of toxic coal tar in the ground.

Materials and products

Glass manufacturing was introduced at this time. Glass was manufactured at
Mallorytown, Upper Canada beginning in 1825. Window glass was produced at
the Canada Glass Works in St. Jean, Canada East (Quebec) from 1845 to 1851
and the Ottawa Glass Works at Como in Ottawa, Canada West (Ontario) from
1847 to 1857. Glass was blown to form tubes which were cut lengthwise,
unrolled and flattened. Glass bottles were produced starting in 1851 by the
Ottawa factory and Foster Brothers Glass Works, in St. Jean starting in
1855. Other manufacturers included: the Canada Glass Works, Hudson, Quebec,
1864–1872 and the Hamilton Glass Company, Hamilton, Ont, 1865–96, which
produced "green" glass and the St. Lawrence Glass Company, Montreal,
1867–73 and Burlington Glass Company of Hamilton, Ont, 1874–98 which
produced "flint" or clear glass.⁷ Rubber footwear was produced by the
Canadian Rubber Company in Montreal starting in 1854.

Industrial textile production also took its first steps during these years.
In 1826, Mahlon Willett established a woollen cloth manufacturing factory
in L'Acadie, Lower Canada and by 1844 the Sherbrooke Cotton Factory in
Sherbrooke was producing cotton cloth. This establishment also had powered
knitting machines and may therefore have been Canada's first knitting mill
before burning down in 1854. There were cloth manufacturing mills in
operation at Ancaster, Ontario by 1859, as well as Merritton, Ontario (the
Lybster Mills, 1860). In Montreal a cotton mill operated on the banks of
the Lachine Canal at the St-Gabriel Lock from 1853 until at least 1871 and
Belding Paul & Co., operated Canada's first silk cloth manufacturing
factory in that city starting in 1876.

The safety match became available to Canadians about mid-century. The
technology, which separated the chemicals for match ignition, some on the
match head and some on the striking surface, was invented by J.E. Lumdstrom
in Sweden in 1855. Canadian production began in 1856 when Ezra Butler Eddy
began to manufacture safety matches in Hull, Quebec. The E. B. Eddy Company
became one of the largest producers of matches in the world.

Industrial techniques and processes

The lumber industry grew to become one of Canada's most important economic
engines during this period. A market for Canadian wood developed in Britain
where access to traditional sources of lumber for the construction of ships
for the Royal Navy, as well as industrial structures, was blocked by
Napoleon in 1806. As a result, Britain turned to her colonies in North
America to supply masts for her ships as well as sawn lumber and square
timber. Other wood products included barrel staffs, shingles, box shooks
and spool wood for textile factories. Growth during this period was
staggering. In 1805, 9000 loads of lumber arrived in Britain from Canada.
In 1807, the total number rose to 27,000 loads, in 1809, 90,000 and by
1846, 750,000 loads.

Water was necessary for the transport of lumber to saw mill and ports as
well as providing the power for the saw mills themselves and as a result
the forest industry developed along the rivers of New Brunswick, Quebec and
Ontario, including the Mirimachi, St. John, Ottawa and Gatineau. The
logging itself was a winter activity and began with the first snowfall when
roads and camps were built in the forest. Trees were cut with steel axes
until about 1870 when the two-man crosscut saw was introduced. The felled
trees had their branches removed and were hauled over the snow roads by
teams of oxen or horses to the nearest frozen stream or river. In the
spring melt they would be carried by the rushing water downstream to the
mills. Often the logs "jammed" and on the way the lumberjacks would
undertake the very dangerous lob of breaking the "jam". Where there were
rapids or obstacles, special timber "slides" were constructed to aid
transport. Large numbers of logs were often assembled into rafts to aid
their movement or into very large booms which drifted down river to mills
and market. A number of large firms appeared as a result of this activity
including, Cunard and Pollok, Gilmour and Co. in New Brunswick, William
Price in Chicoutimi, Quebec and J.R.Booth in Ottawa. The introduction of
the railway at mid-century served to decrease the importance of water
transport for the industry.

The industry in western Canada and in particular British Columbia did not
develop as quickly as in the east but with the exhaustion of the eastern
forests and the opening of the Panama Canal in 1914, it eventually overtook
the scale of activity in eastern Canada. Different conditions there
required different logging techniques. Because the trees were much larger
and heavier, three times as many horses or oxen were required to haul them.
The more moderate climate meant that the winter snow roads could not be
used and instead necessitated the use of log skid roads. Trees were so tall
that springboards were wedged into notches cut into the trunk to serve as
work platforms for two loggers using heavy double bit steel axes. Human and
animal muscle, powered the industry until 1897 when the steam-powered
"donkey engine" was introduced in B.C. from the US. This stationary machine
drove a winch connected to a rope or wire which was used to haul logs up to
150 metres across the forest floor. A series of such engines placed at
intervals could be used to haul large numbers of logs, long distances in
relatively short periods of time. The "high lead system" in which a wire or
lead suspended in trees was used to haul logs, was also introduced about
this time.

Other manufacturing capabilities began to develop during this period, in
parallel with shipbuilding. Canada's first paper mill was built in St.
Andrews, Quebec in 1805 by two New Englanders and produced paper for sale
in Montreal and Quebec City. By 1869 Alexander Burtin was operating
Canada's first groundwood paper mill in Valleyfield, Quebec. It was
equipped with two wood grinders imported from Germany and produced
primarily newsprint. North America's first chemical wood-pulp mill was
constructed in Windsor mills, Quebec in 1864 by Angus and Logan. C.B.Wright
& Sons began to make "hydraulic cement" in Hull, Quebec in 1830. Leather
tanning gained prominence and James Davis among others made a mark in this
field in Toronto beginning in 1832. Canada became the world's largest
exporter of potash in the 1830s and 1840s. In 1840 Darling & Brady began to
manufacture soap in Montreal. E.B.Eddy began to produce matches in Hull,
Quebec in 1851. Explosives were manufactured by an increasing number of
companies including the Gore Powder Works at Cumminsville, Canada West,
1852, the Canada Powder Company, 1855, the Acadia Powder Company 1862, and
the Hamilton Powder Company established that same year. In 1879 that
company built Canada's first high explosives manufacturing plant in
Beloeil, Quebec. The first salt well was drilled at Goderich, Canada West
in 1866. Phosphate fertilizer was first made in Brockville, Ontario in
1869.

The mass production of clothing began at this time. Livingstone and
Johnston, later W.R. Johnston & Company, founded in Toronto in 1868, was
the first in Canada to cut cloth and sew together the component pieces with
the help of the newly introduced sewing machine, as part of a continuous
operation.

The technology of photography was introduced during these years. Eleven
daguerreotypists were listed in Lovell's Canadian Directory of 1851 while
the Canada Classified Directory listed 360 in 1865. Most used the wet
collodion process invented by F. Scott Archer in England in 1851.

The growing agricultural activity in southern Ontario and Quebec provided
the basis for farm mechanization and the manufacturing industry to meet the
demand for agricultural machinery. The area around Hamilton had become
attractive for iron and steel industries based on railway construction and
the source of this raw material made the same area attractive to aspiring
farm implement manufacturers. By about 1850 there were factories producing
ploughs, mowers, reapers, seed drills, cutting boxes, fanning mills
threshing machines and steam engines, established by entrepreneurs
including the well known Massey family, Harris, Wisner, Cockshutt, Sawyer,
Patterson, Verity and Willkinson. Although the industry was located mostly
around Hamilton there were other smaller manufacturers in other locations
including, Frost and Wood of Smith Falls, Ontario, Herring of Napanee,
Ontario Ontario, Harris and Allen of Saint John and the Connell Brothers of
Woodstock, both in New Brunswick and Mathew Moody and Sons of Terrebonne
and Doré et Fils of La Prairie both in Quebec.

Meat processing had been a local undertaking since the beginning of the
colony with the farmer and local butcher providing nearby customers with
product. Health concerns were evident from the start and regulations for
the butchering and sale of meat were promulgated in New France in 1706 and
in Lower Canada in 1805. Activity grew to reach an industrial scale by the
middle of the 19th century. Laing Packing and Provisions was founded in
Montreal in 1852, F.W. Fearman began processing operations in Hamilton,
Ontario and in Toronto William E. Davies established Canada's first large
scale hog slaughter house in Toronto in 1874.

The founding of the Canadian Manufacturers Association in 1871 was
symptomatic of the growth of this sector of the economy with its related
technologies.

The retail industry also experienced considerable innovation during these
years at the hands of Timothy Eaton of Toronto. He offered for sale large
numbers of "consumer" goods such as clothes, shoes and household items
under the roof of one large store and sold them at fixed prices eliminating
the concept of barter. This had become possible because of the recent
stabilization of the Canadian currency through the creation of the Canadian
dollar and the simultaneous appearance of mass-produced goods which allowed
uniform pricing for any particular product. In 1884 he created the iconic
Eaton's catalogue which formed the basis for his catalogue sales operation
which allowed rural dwellers to order and receive by mail or train the
products that were available to those who had access to his growing chain
of giant urban department stores.

Medicine

There were dramatic developments in the field of medicine during these
years. In 1834, a British surgeon with the Royal Navy suggested a link
between sanitation and disease. This led to the establishment of
departments of public health across the country by the end of the century
and provided an impetus to municipalities to supply clean water to their
citizens as noted above. The use of the hypodermic syringe, invented in
1853, was quickly adopted by Canadian doctors. Two other medical
innovations also appeared at this time, anesthetic and antiseptic. The use
of ether and chloroform as anaesthetics became common in England and the US
after 1846. In Canada, Dr. David Parker of Halifax is credited as the first
to use anaesthesia during surgery. Antiseptic was being used in the
operating rooms of the Montreal and Toronto General hospitals by 1869.

In many cases the only technique for dealing with infectious disease was
quarantine and this was the case for leprosy. Canada's first leper colony
was established on Sheldrake Island in New Brunswick and operated there
from 1844 to 1849 when patients were transferred to a facility at Tracadie,
New Brunswick. On the west coast a leper colony was established on D'Arcy
Island off the coast of Vancouver Island and patients were treated there
until 1924 when it was closed. A number of patients on the island tried to
escape by swimming to the larger Vancouver Island.

Public works, water, civil engineering and architecture

Water distribution systems also became a feature of many Canadian cities
during this period and their installation represented the most significant
development in public health in Canada's history. Gravity feed systems were
in operation in Saint John, New Brunswick in 1837 and Halifax, Nova Scotia
in 1848. Steam powered pumping stations were in service in Toronto in 1841,
Kingston, Ontario in 1850 and Hamilton, Ontario in 1859. Quebec City had a
system by 1854 and Montreal by 1857. Most large cities had steam powered
municipal systems by the 1870s. Sewer systems necessarily followed, and
with them, the flush toilet in the 1880s, made popular by Crapper in Great
Britain at that time.

Coal gas public street lighting systems were introduced in Montreal in
1838, in Toronto in 1841, and in Halifax in 1850. Horse-drawn street rail
coaches for public transport were introduced in large Canadian cities about
his time. In Montreal the Montreal City Passenger Railway Company, formed
in 1861, offered horse car service from 1861 to 1891 when it was replaced
by electric streetcar service. Horse car service began in Toronto in 1861
as well and was offered by the Toronto Street Railways until 1892, when it
was also replaced by electric streetcar service.

The technology of incarceration was refined during these years. Prisons
were built in Quebec City in 1809 and Montreal in 1836. One of the world's
largest and most modern prisons, the fortress-like Provincial Penitentiary
of the Province of Upper Canada, Kingston Penitentiary, opened in that city
in 1835. Based on a design by William Powers a deputy warden at the prison
in Auburn, New York State, the facility, surrounded by high walls, could
hold up to 800 prisoners in minuscule cells measuring 6 feet by 2 feet,
separated from each other by stone walls two feet thick. Other prisons of
similar design included those at Saint John, New Brunswick, 1839, Halifax,
Nova Scotia, 1854, St. John's, Newfoundland, 1859, the Don Jail, Toronto,
1866, the Toronto Central Prison, Toronto, 1873, Saint-Vincent-de-Paul,
Montreal, 1873, Stony Mountain, Manitoba, 1877, New Westminster, British
Columbia, 1878 and Dorchester Penitentiary, New Brunswick, 1880. Civilians
convicted of capital crimes (capital punishment in Canada) were hung by the
neck. This technique included both the "short" and "long" drop. The short
drop, killed by suffocation while conscious, while the "more humane" long
drop immediately broke the neck, thus rendering the person unconscious
before subsequent death by suffocation. Those convicted of capital military
offences were shot by firing squad.

Notable works of civil engineering realized during this period included the
Chaudière Bridge, Ottawa, in 1828, 1844, and 1919, the Reversing Falls
Bridge, St. John, New Brunswick, 1853 and 1885, the Niagara Falls
Suspension Bridge, 1855, The Halifax Citadel, Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1856,
Victoria Bridge, Montreal, Quebec, 1859, Canada's first tunnel, the
Brockville Railway Tunnel, Brockville, Ontario, 1869, the Kettle Creek
Bridge, St. Thomas, Ontario, 1871 and the Grand Rapids Tramway, Grand
Rapids, Manitoba, 1877.

The grand hotel made its first appearance during these years with the
opening of the Clifton Hotel in Niagara Falls, Upper Canada in 1833. Other
hotels of note included St. Lawrence Hall, Montreal, 1851, the Queen's
Hotel, Toronto, 1862 and the Tadoussac Hotel, Tadoussac, Quebec, 1865.

Church architecture and construction advanced with the completion of
Notre-Dame Basilica (Montreal) in 1843, the Cathedral Church of St. James
(Toronto) in 1844 and St. Michael's Cathedral (Toronto) in 1848.

Defence

The Militia Act of 1855 passed by the Legislature of the Province of Canada
established the basis for the Canadian military. The act established seven
batteries of artillery, which grew to ten field batteries and 30 batteries
of garrison artillery by 1870. Weapons used by these units included the
7-pound smooth-bore muzzle-loading and the 9-pound rifled muzzle-loading
(RML) guns.

The early Electric Age (1880–1900)

Energy and electricity

Public electric lighting received its first Canadian demonstration in
Manitoba at the Davis House hotel on Main Street, Winnipeg, March 12, 1873.
In 1880, the Manitoba Electric and Gas Light Company was incorporated to
provide public lighting and power and in 1893 the Winnipeg Electric Street
Railway Company was established. Halifax had electric lights installed by
the Halifax Electric Light Company Limited in 1881. The year 1883 saw the
introduction of electric street lighting in Victoria, the first city in
British Columbia to get public electric power. Vancouver got electricity in
1887. In 1884, the Royal Electric Company began offering commercial power
to Montreal. Also in 1884, Saint John, New Brunswick was the first city in
that province to have commercially available power delivered by the Saint
John Electric Light Company. Edmonton's first power company was established
in 1891 and placed street lights along the city's main street, Jasper
Avenue. The power company was purchased by the Town of Edmonton in 1902 and
to this day remains a municipal government enterprise known as EPCOR.⁸

Initially electricity was generated using a technique that produced direct
current to DC. This type of current had the unfortunate property of being
difficult to transmit long distances over wires. In 1897 Westinghouse
established a manufacturing facility in Hamilton and began producing heavy
alternating current (AC) generators and AC motors (based on
Serbian-American inventor Nikola Tesla's induction motor) for the Canadian
market. AC had an advantage in that it was more amenable to transmission
over long distances. The competitor of that company, General Electric of
Canada (1892), with production facilities in Peterborough, Ontario
eventually followed suit. AC technology has been used for electrical
transmission since that time.

Transportation

With the electrification of cities, large and small, came the electric
streetcar. In Montreal, the horse car was withdrawn from service in 1894
and replaced with the electric streetcar, operated by the Montreal Street
Railway Company from that date until 1911. Many of the streetcars were
manufactured by Canadian Car and Foundry of Montreal and the Ottawa Car
Company. In Toronto, the horse car gave way to the electric streetcar in
1892, with that service being offered by the Toronto Railway Company from
1891–1921.

The bicycle made its appearance at this time. The "boneshaker", with pedals
connected directly to the front wheel, appeared in the Maritimes in 1866
followed by the penny-farthing bicycle after 1876. The machine evolved and
was improved with the addition of pneumatic tires, a central crank for the
pedals and a coasting back wheel with brake. The increasing popularity of
bicycles led to the formation of a national bicycle club, the Canadian
Wheelsman in London, Ontario in 1879. In 1899, five important Canadian
bicycle manufacturers, Gendron, Goold, Massey-Harris, H.A. Lozier, and
Welland Vale, combined to form what would become the very well known
Canadian Cycle and Motor Company (CCM), with 1700 employees and an annual
production of 40,000 bicycles.

In 1891, the newly formed Canadian Pacific Steamship Lines began offering
trans-Pacific steamship service from Vancouver with three large
steel-hulled ships, the "Empress", liners, India, China and Japan. A fleet
of smaller "Princess" steam ships was used for coastal service and the
Great Lakes. Of note is the fact that Canadian Pacific, with its
combination of steam ships and steam locomotives, built a transportation
empire that spanned more than half the globe. Few other companies anywhere
in the world at that time could boast of such an accomplishment.

Communication

The telephone began to make its mark in Canada, modestly at first. The
production, transmission and reception of the sound signal was by means of
analog technology which would form the basis of the telephone system for
the next century. The telephone system of the Bell Telephone Company of
Canada (Bell Canada) was established in 1880.

New printing technologies and the availability of this new material,
newsprint, had a dramatic effect on the newspaper industry. By the 1880s,
the rotary press had evolved into a high speed machine and with the use of
stereotyping allowed the production of large numbers daily papers. In 1876,
daily newspaper circulation in Canada's nine major urban centres stood at
113,000 copies. By 1883, it had more than doubled. The introduction of
typecasting machines such as the Linotype typesetting machine in the 1890s
led to an expansion in size of the individual paper from 8 to 12 pages to
32 or 48 pages. This was also made possible by the availability of cheap
newsprint manufactured in huge continuous rolls that could be fitted
directly into the high speed presses.

The techniques for book publishing were also firmly established during
these years. Publishers of note included, Beauchemin of Montreal, 1842, and
Musson Book Co., 1894, and G.N. Morang, 1897.

The techniques of filmmaking were introduced to Canada in 1897. In that
year, Manitoban James Freer made a series of films about farm life in
western Canada. In 1889–1899, the Canadian Pacific Railway sponsored a
successful tour by Freer to present these films in Britain to encourage
immigration from that country for the development of the prairies and
therefore boost the business of the railway. This inspired the railway to
finance the production of additional films and hire a British firm, which
created a Canadian arm, the Bioscope Company of Canada, and produced 35
films about Canadian life.

In Montreal in 1900, Emile Berliner, inventor of the gramophone sound
recording technique, established the Berliner Gramophone Company and began
to manufacture the first phonograph records in Canada, first produced as
seven-inch single-sided discs. These records were played on a gramophone,
also manufactured by Berliner. They produced sound through purely
mechanical means, by rotating the discs on a platter turning at 78 r.p.m.
and "reading" the grooves with a metal needle, which caused substantial
wear and tear.

Heavy manufacturing

The first of these companies, CLC, had its origins in the formation of the
"Ontario Foundry" established in 1848, but with the production of its first
locomotive in 1854, it became known as the Kingston Locomotive Works. It
produced 36 locomotives mostly for the new Grand Trunk Railway (GTR) before
going broke in 1860. Through a series of corporate reorganizations, the
company manufactured locomotives for both the GRT and the Canadian Pacific
Railway. In 1901, further reorganization led to the formation of the
Canadian Locomotive and Engine Company Ltd. with the company producing one
steam locomotive per week. The company was a significant supplier of stream
locomotives until the arrival of the diesel in the fifties when it went
into decline.

The Montreal Locomotive Works originated with the formation of the
Locomotive and Machine Company of Montreal Limited in 1883 to supply the
GRT, the CPR and the Intercolonial Railway with locomotives and rolling
stock.

The manufacture of streetcars by companies such as Ottawa Car Company,
founded in 1891, in Ottawa, and Canadian Car and Foundry established in
Montreal in 1909, was also of note. Dominion Bridge Company established in
Montreal in 1886, became a well-known heavy engineering firm in the field
of bridge building and the construction of steel frames for skyscrapers.

GE Canada, founded by Thomas Edison in Peterborough in 1892, contributed to
heavy manufacturing techniques through the fabrication of large electric
generators and electric motors at that facility, which were used to supply
the rapidly growing Canadian market for electrical generating equipment.
Similar heavy electrical products were manufactured by Westinghouse Canada
established in Hamilton, Ontario, in 1897.

The growth of western agriculture stimulated the growth of the eastern farm
implement industry. Companies such as Bell, Waterloo, Lobsinger, Hergott
and Sawyer-Massey were soon shipping their large metal threshing machines
and other types of equipment via the CPR to western farms. Arguably the
most notable of these corporations was Massey-Harris Co. Ltd. of Toronto,
created in 1891 through the merger of Massey Manufacturing Co. (1847) and
A. Harris, Son & Co Ltd. (1857) which became the largest manufacturer of
farm machinery in the British Empire.

Industrial processes and techniques

Metal mining also became a significant industry during this period. The
invention of the electric dynamo, electroplating and steel in the 1870s
created a strong demand for copper and nickel. Hard rock mining became a
practical consideration because of the concurrent development of the hard
rock drill and dynamite. A copper mine was established in Orford County
Quebec in 1877, by the Orford Company while the Canadian Copper Company was
founded in 1886 to exploit copper deposits at Sudbury made accessible by
the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway. The ore from that mine
was found to contain nickel as well as copper and a technique known as the
Orford process using nitrate cake (acid sodium sulphate) was developed to
separate the metals. Hard rock gold mining became practical in 1887, with
the development of the potassium cyanidation process, by Scott MacArthur,
which was used to separate the gold from the ore. This technique was first
used in Canada at the Mikado Mine in the Lake-of-the-Woods Region again
made accessible by the CPR. The CPR also provided access the B.C. interior
where lead, copper, silver and gold ores had been discovered in the
Rossland area in 1891. The ores were transported to Trail, B.C. where they
were roasted. After CPR built the Crowsnest Pass it purchased the Trail
roasting facility and in 1899 built a blast furnace to smelt lead ore.

The techniques of coal mining were introduced to Canada in 1720 in what is
now Cape Breton, on a coal seam on the north side of Cow Bay. The coal was
used as fuel for the inhabitants at Louisburg. Large scale mining developed
the Sydney area in particular and continued until 1876 by which time easily
reached deposits had been exhausted. However mining continued with tunnels
extending out under the sea. The coal was used to power steam locomotives
and in latter years to make steel, provide fuel for central heating and
provide the volatile gases that formed the basis for the coal gasification
and related chemical industries. In 1893, a number of Nova Scotia
collieries including the Bridgeport, Caledonia, Clyde, Gardiner, Glace Bay,
Gowrie, Lingan, Lorway, Schooner Pond and Victoria were united to form the
Dominion Coal Company which by 1912 produced 40% of Canada's total coal
output.⁹

The wheat economy developed on the prairies during these years. Agriculture
in that region had begun around the Red River Colony in 1812, based on
French Canadian survey techniques for land division and Scottish farming
practices. The "infield" consisting of long narrow strips of land rising
from the Red River Valley gave way to the "outfield" of pasture lands.
Confederation spurred interest in western agriculture with the government
of Canada subsequently purchasing Rupert's Land from the Hudson's Bay
Company in 1870 and suppressing Metis resistance to eastern intervention
with armed force that included the use of the Gatling gun in 1885.
Conditions were best suited for the growing of wheat but a naturally dry
climate and a short growing season as well as low grain prices made the
1890s difficult. However the difficulties were overcome. Reduced rail
transportation costs which helped ease the burden of getting wheat to
market and a rise in wheat prices served to encourage the development of
the industry. In the 1870s and 1880s, ranching gained prominence as well in
southern Saskatchewan and Alberta where dry and even drought-like
conditions were eventually overcome after the introduction of irrigation in
1894.

The dairy industry with its associated techniques took root in Canada in
the 1860s. The process for the factory production of cheese was developed
by Jesse Williams in New York in 1851. The first Canadian cheese factory
was built in Oxford County, Ontario in 1864 and was followed by a factory
in Dunham, Quebec in 1865. By 1873, Canada was home to about 200 cheese
factories. The first creamery of note was built at Helena, Quebec in 1873,
while in 1883, the first Canadian producer of condensed milk began
operation in Truro, Nova Scotia. The large scale home delivery of milk
began in Toronto, Ottawa and Montreal in 1900.

Materials

Railway and locomotive construction in the latter 19th century created a
huge demand for steel.

Portland cement was imported from England to Canada in barrels during the
19th century complimenting the modest production of hydraulic cement that
began in Hull, Quebec in 1830. By 1889 there were noted increases in the
output of cement in Hull and other cement factories were built in Montreal,
Napanee and Shallow Lake Ontario and in Vancouver in 1893.

The industrial use of asbestos became notable during these years. Asbestos
was discovered and mined in a number of places around the world, including
Thetford Mines, Quebec beginning in 1879 and found its way into a
bewildering variety of products including, insulation, automobile
brake-pads, siding, shingles and fireproofing. At the turn of the 20th
century, a number of asbestos related health concerns were identified.

The pulp and paper industry also developed during these years. The sulfite
pulp process developed in the US in 1866 became the basis for the Canadian
industry. The first sulfite pulp mill in Canada, the Halifax Wood Fibre
Company, was established in Sheet Harbour, Nova Scotia in 1885. Others
followed including plants in Cornwall, Ontario, 1888, Hull, Quebec, 1889,
Chatham, Quebec, 1889, the biggest, the Riordon Company in Merritton,
Ontario in 1890 and in Hawkesbury, Ontario in 1898.

The first plastics became available during this period. The distillation of
products from wood characterized the transition from the use of natural
chemical products (chemical industry) to that of fully synthetic products.
The Rathburn Company of Toronto began to produce distillates including,
wood alcohol and calcium acetate, used to make acetic acid or acetone, in
1897. The Standard Chemical Company of Toronto established in 1897,
initiated the production of acetic acid in 1899 and formaldehyde, from the
oxidation of wood alcohol, in 1909. This later product was an essential
element in the production of the fully synthetic, phenol-formaldehyde
plastic (Bakelite).

Light manufacturing

The Bell Telephone Company of Canada established a manufacturing department
to meet some of its equipment needs when it began to offer telephone
service in 1882. In 1895, the operation became a separate company known as
Northern Electric and Manufacturing Co. Ltd., which was in turn merged with
Imperial Wire and Cable Co. in 1914 to form Northern Electric Co. By the
twenties the company was manufacturing a variety of electrical products,
with much of the telephone equipment being produced under license from AT&T
in the US. All equipment was based on analog technology.

The very popular and practical tin can was introduced during this period.
In the 1880s, George Dunning built Canada's first canning factory in Prince
Edward County, Ontario, for the canning of fruits and vegetables. By 1900
there were eight such factories in Canada, four of which were in that same
county and within a few years canning factories were found all across the
country. In the forties, high-temperature canning, which sterilized the
contents of the can and permitted long-term storage, was introduced.

The cigarette began to make its mark during these years. D. Ritchie and Co.
began to manufacture the Derby brand in a factory on Dalhousie Street in
Montreal in the late 19th century. About the same time the American
Cigarette Company also of Montreal began to produce cigarettes in a factory
on Cote Street. In 1895, the American Tobacco Company, a US owned
organization, acquired both of these operations, which were then spun off
to a newly formed Canadian subsidiary, the American Tobacco Co. of Canada
Ltd., which produced the popular Sweet Caporal brand.

With the coming of the railways and the introduction of Standard Time, a
market for clocks developed in Canada. The Canadian Clock Company (Whitby,
1872) and the Hamilton Clock Company (Hamilton, 1876) were the first in
Canada to manufacture these new devices.¹⁰ The Singer Manufacturing
Company, established in 1851 in the US, began manufacturing its very
popular line of sewing machines for the Canadian market at a factory built
in St. Jean, Quebec in 1882.

Industrial textile production became important at this time. Large powered
automatic looms were able to produce vast quantities of fabric. The most
notable Canadian venture in this field was Dominion Textile. The company
had its roots in the formation of the Dominion Cotton Mills Company in
Montreal in 1880 from eight small inefficient mills.

Public works and civil engineering

Notable works of civil engineering realized during these years included:
the Lakehead Terminal Grain Elevators, 1882, the Naden First Graving Dock,
Esquimalt, British Columbia, 1887, the St. Clair Railway Tunnel, Sarnia,
Ontario, 1890, the Whirlpool Rapids Bridge, Niagara Falls, 1897 and the
Alexandra Bridge, Ottawa, Ontario – Hull, Quebec, 1900.

Baseball in Canada received its first permanent home with the construction
in 1877 of Tecumseh Park, built in London, Ontario for the London Tecumsehs
baseball team. Other fields followed including Sunlight Park, in Toronto,
1886, Atwater Park, Montreal, in 1890 and Hanlan's Point Ball Field, 1897,
in Toronto home of the Maple Leafs.

The steam shovel became an essential item of construction equipment during
these years. Invented by William Otis in 1839, it was used widely in
Canada, for the excavation of railway right-of-ways and the digging of
basements and foundations for skyscrapers and domestic housing, in the late
19th century.

Waste disposal (sewers)

Sewerage systems were built in substantial numbers, but were not as common
as water supply systems. Some of the first included Vancouver, B.C. in 1886
and Charlottetown, PEI in 1898. While the systems collected sewage and
liquid waste from homes, public and commercial buildings and industrial
sites, in most cases they merely displaced the problem for they emptied
their contents into a nearby river or lake (or in the case of coastal
cities, the ocean), without treatment.

The disposal of solid waste became a considerable problem as towns and
cities grew. By the mid-19th century, a number of Canadian municipalities
used horse-drawn wagons for curbside garbage collection. The refuse was
usually taken to a field or dump or in some instances piled along the bank
of a nearby river or lake. With the arrival of motor power, the use of the
garbage truck became common although the method of disposing of the garbage
remained the same.

The introduction of the flush toilet in the US and Canada in the 1880s
created a market that inspired the invention of rolled toilet paper. The
product was first produced in the US by the Albany Perforated Wrapping
Paper Company in 1877.

Skyscrapers and architecture

It was the age of the skyscraper. The first in Canada was the eight-storey
New York Life Insurance Co Building in Montreal, 1887–89, although it did
not have a steel frame. The first self-supporting steel framed skyscraper
in Canada was the Robert Simpson Department Store at the corner of Yonge
and Queen in Toronto with its six floors and electric elevators, built in
1895.

A number of grand hotels also opened during these years, including the
Banff Springs Hotel, Banff, Alberta, 1888, the Algonquin, St. Andrews, New
Brunswick, 1889, the Chateau Frontenac, Quebec, City, 1893, the Queen's,
Montreal, 1893, the "new" Chateau Lake Louise, Lake Louise, Alberta, 1894,
and the Manoir Richelieu, Point-au-Pic, Quebec, 1899.

Church architecture and construction was also notable as seen in the
completion of Mary, Queen of the World Cathedral, a half scale replica of
St. Paul's Cathedral in Rome, in Montreal in 1894.

Central heating

The construction of skyscrapers, grand hotels and other large buildings led
to the development of central heating, an essential feature in Canada's
cold climate. Up to that time large buildings and homes were heated with
fireplaces and iron stoves that used wood or coal as fuel. The construction
of large multi-story buildings made this impractical. Fireplaces and stoves
on the lower floors would have long flues and would not draw properly. On
the upper floors, it would be necessary to transport fuel and to remove
ashes up and down many flights of stairs or with an elevator. Central
heating solved these problems. In 1832, British inventor Angier March
Perkins developed a steam heating system for domestic use. This inspired
the use of closed circuit hot water systems for large buildings. A metal
furnace in the basement burning wood or coal was used to heat water in a
tank, which in turn was circulated by an electric pump through a system of
iron pipes throughout the building to radiators in rooms where heat was
lost to the ambient air. The cooler water then returned to the water heater
with the help of gravity, where it was reheated and recirculated.

Defence

In 1885, the newly introduced Gatling gun was first used by Canadian troops
during the Riel Rebellion. The 12-pound field gun was used by Canadian
soldiers in the Boer War. To provide the Canadian Militia with a source of
Canadian manufactured munitions, the government established the
crown-operated Dominion Arsenal in Quebec City in 1882. This factory
produced bullets and shells.

A reflection of this intense engineering activity as described above is
seen in the founding of the Canadian Society for Civil Engineering in 1887.

The 20th century

Main article: Technological and industrial history of 20th-century Canada

The 21st century

Main article: Technological and industrial history of 21st-century Canada

End note

In the earlier parts of Canada's history, the state often played a crucial
role in the diffusion of these technologies, in some cases through a
monopoly enterprise, in others with a private "partner". In more recent
times, the need for the role of the state has diminished in the presence of
a larger private sector.

In the latter part of the 20th century, there is evidence that Canadian
values prefer public expenditures on social programmes at the expense of
public spending on the maintenance and expansion of public technical
infrastructure. This can be seen in the fact that in 2008, the Federation
of Canadian Municipalities estimated that it would take $123 billion to
restore and repair aging urban infrastructure across Canada.

See also

- Canadian government scientific research organizations
- Canadian industrial research and development organizations
- Canadian inventions
- Canadian Mining Hall of Fame
- Canadian scientists
- Canadian space program
- Canadian university scientific research organizations
- CP Ships
- Economic history of Canada
- Energy policy of Canada
- History of the petroleum industry in Canada
- Internet in Canada
- List of aircraft of the Canadian Air Force
- List of airlines of Canada
- List of airports in Canada
- List of bridges in Canada
- List of Canadian Navy ships
- List of infantry weapons and equipment of the Canadian military
- List of reservoirs and dams in Canada
- Nuclear power in Canada
- Science and technology in Canada
- Scientific research in Canada

References

[1] Ellul, Jacques. The Technological Society, trans. John Wilkinson (New
  York: Random House, 1964)
[2] Wright, J.W., A History of the Native Peoples of Canada: Volumes
  I(2001) and II(1999), Canadian Museum of Civilization, Ottawa
[3] Wilson, Garth, A History of Shipbuilding and Naval Architecture in
  Canada, Transformation Series 4, National Museum of Science and
  Technology, Ottawa, 1994
[4] Guillet, Edwin C., The Story of Canadian Roads, University of Toronto
  Press, Toronto, 1967
[5] Bliss, Michael, Northern Enterprise: Five Centuries of Canadian
  Business, McClelland and Stewart, Toronto, 1987, p. 111.
[6] McDonnell, The History of Canadian Railroads, New Burlington Books,
  London, 1985
[7] Warrington, Newbold, Chemical Canada: Past and Present, The Chemical
  Institute of Canada, Ottawa, 1970
[8] Ball, Norman R. ed., Building Canada: A History of Public Works,
  University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1988
[9] Muise, McIntosh, Coal Mining in Canada: A Historical and Comparative
  Overview, Transformation Series 5, National Museum of Science and
  Technology, Ottawa, 1996
[10] web site, www.clockscanada.com

Further reading

Main article: Bibliography of Science and technology in Canada

External links

- Canadian Institute for Advanced Research: Science
- Canadian Encyclopedia: Science
- Canadian Science and Technology Historical Association
- Innovation in Canada

Tourism in Canada

Canada has a large domestic and foreign tourism industry. The second
largest country in the world, Canada's incredible geographical variety is a
significant tourist attractor. Much of the country's tourism is centred on
Canada's five largest metropolitan areas, Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver,
Calgary, and Ottawa, well known for their culture, diversity, as well as
the many national parks and historic sites.

In 2012, over 16 million tourists arrived in Canada, bringing US$17.4
billion in international tourism receipts to the economy.¹ Domestic and
international tourism combined directly contributes 1% of Canada's total
GDP and supports 309,000 jobs in the country.

Statistics

Most visitors arriving to Canada in 2015 came from the following countries
of residence :²

World Heritage Sites in Canada

Main article: List of World Heritage Sites in Canada

There are 17 World Heritage sites in Canada, including one of the oldest,
Nahanni National Park, Northwest Territories, and one of the newest, the
Red Bay Basque Whaling Station, Newfoundland and Labrador.³ Of these 17
sites, 8 of them are Cultural Heritages and 9 are Natural Heritages.⁴

Canada's provinces and territories

British Columbia

British Columbia is Canada's westernmost province and touches the Pacific
Ocean. The winters in the coastal areas are relatively warm in comparison
to the rest of Canada. British Columbia is divided into 6 regions:

- Vancouver, Coast & Mountains
- Thompson Okanagan
- Cariboo Coast Chilcotin
- Northern British Columbia
- Kootenay Rockies
- Vancouver Island

British Columbia (BC) is Canada's most mountainous province and has some of
the most spectacular mountain scenery in the world. Alpine skiing is a
major draw for the province. The province has about 33 large ski resorts
spread out from Vancouver Island to the Alberta border. Whistler, British
Columbia, nestled in the rugged Coast Mountains, is consistently ranked as
the #1 ski resort destination in North America and co-hosted the 2010
Winter Olympic Games.

Vancouver, the largest Canadian metropolitan area west of Toronto, is one
of Canada's most multi-cultural cities. There is a large community of
people of Asian origin . Vancouver is a harbour city and provides beautiful
landscapes of mountains and ocean.

Sites of interest in Vancouver

- Capilano Suspension Bridge, a 136m long bridge 70m above the Capilano
  River
- Stanley Park, a large forested park near downtown, the largest city owned
  park in Canada. 8 million visitors each year.
- Granville Island, a small island near downtown with a public market,
  marina, shopping and theaters.
- Chinatown, Vancouver, one of the largest in North America.
- Robson Street, a bustling upscale shopping district with a good selection
  of restaurants.
- Gastown, a mix of tourist-oriented businesses, restaurants and
  nightclubs.
- Vancouver Art Gallery
- Vancouver Maritime Museum
- Museum of Anthropology at UBC
- Vancouver Museum
- Science World at Telus World of Science

Vancouver is home to the

- BC Lions, Canadian Football League
- Vancouver Canucks, National Hockey League
- Vancouver Whitecaps FC, Major League Soccer

Victoria, British Columbia, located on scenic Vancouver Island, is a major
Canadian tourist destination attracting millions of visitors each year.
Popular activities for tourists are whale watching, enjoying the busking in
the inner harbour area and visiting world-famous Butchart Gardens.

Long Beach (Pacific Rim National Park) and the communities of Tofino and
Ucluelet are popular tourist areas. Tofino, a town of only a few thousand,
hosts more than one million visitors each year. Many new resorts are being
built in the area to accommodate surfers, beach lovers, storm watchers and
golfers.

Whale watching is common along the coastal areas of BC as is Pacific storm
watching along the west coast of Vancouver Island during the winter months.

Wine tours are common in the Okanagan Valley, BC's wine and orchard
country. The Okanagan valley area has some of the best beaches and warmest
summer temperatures in Canada, as well as Canada's only hot desert around
the town of Osoyoos. There are 53 golf courses and two major ski resorts in
the valley.

British Columbia is also a popular location for the production of many
Hollywood films, it is the third largest film centre in North America only
trailing California and New York.

Alberta

Main article: Tourism in Alberta

Alberta is a province in Canada's western prairies next to the Rocky
Mountains. Its two major cities are Calgary, and Edmonton, the provincial
capital. Edmonton is well known for West Edmonton Mall, the largest mall in
North America, formerly the largest in the world. Edmonton is also known as
Canada's festival city, with over 60 festivals happening year round.
Edmonton is home to the area of Old Strathcona, a historical district with
boutique shopping, music, arts, and many restaurants. Another world-class
attraction is the Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology in Drumheller,
housing the largest collection of dinosaur fossils under one roof in the
world. Alberta also contains significant natural scenery, including 5 of
Canada's 17 UNESCO World heritage sites. These are Banff and Jasper
National Parks, Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park, Wood Buffalo
National Park, Dinosaur Provincial Park and Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump.
In the southeast, Alberta shares with Saskatchewan the Cypress Hills
Interprovincial Park, a geographic region of importance both to aboriginal
history and to the North-West Mounted Police. Alberta has no provincial
sales tax.

Alberta is an important skiing destination for tourists. It has several
world-class ski resorts. Canada Olympic Park, with its downhill ski and ski
jumping facilities, is located in the city of Calgary.

See also: List of attractions and landmarks in Edmonton, List of
attractions and landmarks in Calgary, List of attractions and landmarks in
Stirling, and Festivals in Alberta

Saskatchewan

Main article: Tourism in Saskatchewan

Saskatchewan offers two major cities, Regina and Saskatoon. Regina is home
to one of Canada's most significant attractions, the Royal Canadian Mounted
Police (RCMP) Academy at Depot Division where visitors can view the
Sergeant Major's Parade held weekdays and the seasonal Sunset Retreat
Ceremonies. Regina is also home to the RCMP Heritage Centre which opened in
May 2007. Saskatoon is home to the largest branch of the Western
Development Museum, which houses important artefacts and recreations of the
early settlement of the Canadian prairies.

The prairie province also has the most golf courses and water bodies per
capita of any other province. Statistically the warmest summers with the
most sunlight hours in Canada occur in Saskatoon. Natural attractions
include Cypress Provincial Park, the Great Sand Hills, Scottie the Dinosaur
(the largest intact Tyrannosaurus Rex found in North America).

Manitoba

Manitoba was the 5th province to enter confederation in 1870. The province
is home to many lakes and rivers with over 14.5% of the land area covered
by lakes. This offers many opportunities for outdoor recreation, hunting,
fishing, boating, and some of the finest beaches in North America. The
province is a four season travel destination offering cross-country and
downhill skiing opportunities, as well as many miles of groomed ski-doo
trails. Churchill on the Hudson Bay is a popular attraction due to the
large polar bear and beluga whale population. The capital city Winnipeg,
with a population of near 700 000, offers many cultural and artistic
events, museums and year round festivals. Other cities with more than
10,000 people are Brandon, Thompson, Portage la Prairie, Selkirk and
Steinbach.

Sites of interest in Winnipeg

- Assiniboine Park and Zoo
- Costume Museum of Canada
- Fort Gibraltar
- La Maison Gabrielle Roy
- Le Musée de Saint-Boniface Museum
- Dalnavert Museum
- Louis Riel statue near the Manitoba legislative building. See a figure of
  Manitoba's leadership.
- Manitoba Children's Museum
- Manitoba Museum
- Naval Museum of Manitoba
- Royal Canadian Mint
- The Fire Fighters Museum
- Transcona Historical Museum
- The Forks
- Upper Fort Garry
- Western Canada Aviation Museum
- Winnipeg Art Gallery
- Winnipeg Railway Museum

Winnipeg is also home to:

- Winnipeg Blue Bombers of the Canadian Football League
- Winnipeg Jets Of the National Hockey League
- Winnipeg Goldeyes of the baseball American Association

Other sites of interest in the Province

- Canadian Fossil Discovery Centre in Morden
- Commonwealth Air Training Plan Museum in Brandon
- Lower Fort Garry in St. Andrews
- Manitoba Agricultural Museum in Austin
- Manitoba Amateur Radio Museum in Austin
- Manitoba Antique Automobile Museum in Elkhorn
- Marine Museum of Manitoba in Selkirk
- Mennonite Heritage Village in Steinbach
- New Iceland Heritage Museum in Gimli
- Oak Hammock Marsh in Stonewall
- Sam Waller Museum in The Pas

Festivals and Events

- Festival du Voyageur held every February in Winnipeg
- Folklorama held annually every August in Winnipeg
- Jazz Winnipeg Festival
- Red River Exhibition held annually late June in Winnipeg
- Winnipeg Fringe Theatre Festival
- Winnipeg International Writers Festival
- Winnipeg Music Festival
- Winnipeg Folk Festival

Ontario

Ontario is the most populous and second largest province in Canada.
Southern Ontario is home to the Nation's capital, Ottawa and Canada's
largest city, Toronto, which is the provincial capital and one of the most
multicultural cities in the world. The forests and numerous lakes of
Central Ontario and Northern Ontario also provide popular hiking and
camping destinations.

Sites of interest in Ottawa

- List of attractions in Ottawa
- Parliament Hill
- National War Memorial (Canada)
- Rideau Canal
- National Art Gallery
- Chateau Laurier
- ByWard Market
- Canadian War Museum
- Canadian Aviation Museum
- Canadian Museum of Nature
- Canadian Museum of History
- Canadian Museum of Science and Technology
- Canada Agriculture Museum
- TD Place Stadium
- Canadian Tire Centre

Sites of interest in Toronto

- List of attractions in Toronto
- Rogers Centre (formerly SkyDome)
- Fort York
- Air Canada Centre
- Hockey Hall of Fame
- CN Tower
- Ontario Place
- Royal Ontario Museum
- Toronto Eaton Centre
- St. Lawrence Market
- Queen Street West
- Bata Shoe Museum
- Art Gallery of Ontario
- Kensington Market
- Casa Loma
- Ontario Science Centre
- Toronto Zoo
- Canada's Wonderland
- See also: Hotels in Toronto

Other sites of interest in Ontario

- List of attractions in Hamilton, Ontario
- Ontario Tourist Routes
- Science North and Dynamic Earth in Sudbury, Ontario
- Niagara Falls
- Niagara-on-the-Lake
- Marineland
- Muskoka Lakes
- Algonquin Park
- Fallsview Indoor Water Park, an indoor park in Niagara Falls, Ontario
- Fort Henry
- Kingston's Old Town
- Upper Canada Village
- The Thousand Islands
- Boldt Castle
- Stratford Festival
- Shaw Festival in Niagara-on-the-Lake
- Pelee Island

Quebec

Main article: Tourism in Quebec

Quebec, a majority francophone province, is a major tourist draw. Quebec
City is a taste of old France in the new world and a UNESCO World Heritage
site. Montreal, the second largest francophone city in the world, has
several tourist attractions.

Sites of interest in Montreal

- Olympic Stadium
- Juste pour rire
- Old Montreal
- Festival International de Jazz de Montréal
- Opéra de Montréal
- Montreal Museum of Fine Arts
- McCord Museum
- Crescent Street
- St. Lawrence Boulevard
- Canadian Grand Prix
- McGill University
- Mount Royal
- Parc Jean-Drapeau
- Underground city, Montreal
- Biosphère
- Redpath Museum
- Canadian Centre for Architecture
- La Ronde
- Saint Joseph's Oratory
- Underground City

Sites of interest in Quebec City

- Musée national des beaux-arts du Québec
- Musée de la civilisation
- Musée de l'Amérique française
- Espace Félix Leclerc
- Musée naval de Québec
- Choco-Musée Erico
- Musée des Ursulines de Québec
- Musée du Royal 22e Régiment/La Citadelle de Québec
- Musée de l'Abeille
- Plains of Abraham Exhibition Centre
- Parc Aquarium du Québec
- Jardin zoologique du Québec
- Château Frontenac

Other sites of interest in Quebec

- Canyon Sainte-Anne

New Brunswick

Main article: Tourism in New Brunswick

New Brunswick is renowned for its sandy beaches especially along the
Northumberland Strait which in summer has the warmest water north of
Virginia.

Saint John, The largest city in New Brunswick and the oldest Incorporated
in Canada at the mouth of the Saint John River. Steeped with history from
Irish immigration to a great fire in the 19th century. The port city has
numerous Victorian houses and amazing 18th and 19th century architecture in
the Uptown area. The Saint John port welcomes close to 80 cruise ships a
year with sites including:

- The Bay of Fundy
- Saint John River
- Partridge Island
- Reversing Falls
- Market Square
- Saints Rest Beach
- New Brunswick Museum
- Saint John Jewish Historical Museum
- Prince William Street

Moncton, the province's second largest city and the recreational centre of
the province. With tourist attractions such as,

- Magnetic Hill Zoo
- Casino New Brunswick
- Magic Mountain
- Tidal bore, twice daily on Petitcodiac River

Fredericton, the province's capital and third largest city, is a cultural
and educational centre housing the University of New Brunswick and St.
Thomas University, and is filled with neighbourhoods featuring large
Victorian-style homes.

Other attractions include:

- Cape Enrage
- Kouchibouguac National Park
- New Brunswick Potato Museum
- Whale watching and the Confederation Bridge to Prince Edward Island are
  also draws.

Prince Edward Island

Prince Edward Island (PEI) is the birthplace of Lucy Maude Montgomery's
character, Anne of Green Gables, and a recreation of her literary home
serves as a museum to the character. PEI is also famous around the world
for its potato farms and rich red mud beaches.

Newfoundland and Labrador

Newfoundland and Labrador attracts many tourists because of its icebergs
and fjords. It was settled by Leif Ericsson, an Icelandic sailor, in 1000
A.D. Remains of this settlement can still be found in L'Anse aux Meadows,
northern Newfoundland. Europeans settled in 1497, headed by an expedition
by John Cabot.

The province's capital, St. John's, is the oldest city in North America,
founded in 1497 by John Cabot. It contains many historical locations, such
as Cabot Tower, receiver of the first wireless trans-Atlantic message in
1901. Steeped in a long, proud history and home to a rich, unique culture –
St. John's residents are known for their hospitality, and their city is a
major travel destination in Newfoundland both domestically and for foreign
travellers. In recent years, St. John's has become a popular stop for
cruise ships originating from ports in Canada, the United States and
Europe. The cruise industry has brought tens of thousands of tourists to
the St. John's area. In the city's downtown core, George Street, renowned
for its nightlife, is home to the most bars and pubs per square foot in
North America.

Just outside St. John's lies Cape Spear, the most eastern point in North
America. From this point, London in the UK is closer than Vancouver.

Nova Scotia

Nova Scotia is known for its lovely scenery; most renowned is the Cape
Breton Highlands. The historic 18th century Fortress Louisbourg is also a
major draw .

Halifax, the provincial capital, has several major attractions, such as the
Pier 21 museum, Citadel Hill, and the Public Gardens. The Halifax Metro
Centre is home to numerous events both sport-related and otherwise, such as
the Nova Scotia International Tattoo. Downtown Halifax is considered the
prime tourism district in Halifax, with most historic attractions located
here as well as the waterfront harbourwalk, a continuous 3 km (2 mi)
stretch of boardwalk home to street vendors, entertainers, the Casino Nova
Scotia, and the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic. Downtown Halifax is also
the location of several major hotels.

Yukon Territory

With its history of the Klondike Gold Rush, First Nations culture and
spectacular wilderness, the Yukon Territory has an extensive tourism
industry, welcoming over 300,000 visitors a year. Tourist attractions
include the gold rush town of Dawson City, Kluane National Park and Reserve
and a number of attractions in Whitehorse and other communities.
Opportunities for wilderness adventure tourism and ecotourism abound
(hiking, canoeing, kayaking, skiing, dog-sledding), but the territory is
also served by a well-developed road network, with most places accessible
by road.

Northwest Territories

Northwest Territories attractions include:

- Aurora Borealis
- Northern Life Museum
- N.W.T. Mining Heritage Society
- Wood Buffalo National Park
- Tuktut Nogait National Park
- Nahanni National Park Reserve
- South Nahanni River
- Canol Heritage Trail
- Aulavik National Park
- Coppermine River
- Mackenzie River

Nunavut Territory

Main article: Tourism in Nunavut

Nunavut is probably the most expensive of all the tourist destinations in
Canada. Attractions in Nunavut include:

- Auyuittuq National Park
- Quttinirpaaq National Park
- Sirmilik National Park
- Ukkusiksalik National Park
- Ovayok Territorial Park

Neighbouring countries

- Canada shares the world's longest undefended border with the United
  States.
- A marine border is shared with both Greenland (a Danish territory) and
  Saint-Pierre and Miquelon (a French overseas collectivity).

See also

- Visa policy of Canada
- Backpacking (Canada)
- Canadian Tourism Commission

References

[1] "The Canadian Tourism Industry - A Special Report (2012)" (PDF). TIAC.
[2] Service bulletin International Travel: Advance Information, December
  2015
[3]
  http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/united-nations-world-heritage-sites/#h3_jump_1
[4] http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/ca

External links

- Canadian Tourism Commission (Official Government Website)
- Ontario Tourism (ON)
- Tourism Québec (QC)
- Tourism British Columbia (BC)
- Tourism Vancouver (BC)
- Tourism Victoria (BC)
- Travel Alberta (AB)
- Banff Lake Louise Tourism (AB)
- Edmonton Tourism (AB)
- Tourism Calgary (AB)
- Travel Manitoba (MB)
- Destination Winnipeg (MB)
- Tourism Toronto (ON)
- Tourism Montreal (QC)
- Tourism Yukon (YT)
- Annapolis Valley Tourism (NS)
- Nunavut Tourism
- Travel Canada
- Canadian Travel Site
- Popular Canadian Travel Destinations