An Investigation into the
Roots of Scottish Modal music with particular reference to the efficacy of modal
music in the Therapeutic Setting
by Sarah
Munro
The following thesis
presents an overview of my investigation into the roots of Scottish modal music
and the efficacy of modal music in a variety of therapeutic settings.
Part 1
We explore how bards used
Ancient Greek modes for healing purposes to cause specific effects. Each mode
and its sequence of tones and semitones was said to affect the listener’s
emotions and thereby encourage positive physical changes. However, it is
claimed that there was little theoretical basis for the tuning of modes and
through history many of these modes and their names changed to a greater or
lesser degree. Yet they remain the backbone of Celtic music and much of ‘roots’
music and religious music worldwide. In opposition to the modal system, the
Ancient Greek physicists developed a cyclic system, according to Pythagoras,
based on harmonics and the interval of a fifth. From this emerged a
standardised tuning system for scales. Pythagoras’ scheme was closely
consistent with the form of ancient Greek modes and similar to the Chinese
system based on fifths. For this reason and for its universality of the
pentatonic scale in Celtic music I have also looked at the pentatonic scale.
In an investigation into
the roots of any musical system we have to take into account man’s physical,
emotional, psychological and social responses to music from the beginning. The
first musical elements the foetus is aware of, for instance, are the sounds in
the womb. We are biologically hardwired to process musical sounds for survival
purposes because the brain is equipped with neural systems that have the
ability to produce and understand both verbal and nonverbal messages.
Even the acoustic
environment affects music and language. As we adapt to our environmental
background we are forced to mould our hearing to the acoustic audition. This
affects our culture, music styles and traditions.
In order to learn language
and intuit emotional communication infants respond to melodic and rhythmic
patterns of speech and sound play. ‘Motherese’ is the term used to describe
this creative interaction between mother and baby and studies have highlighted
the cross-cultural similarities of ‘motherese’. Social signals are learnt from
the start with language and the origins of identity lying in mother-infant
bonding. Learning culture is not a just a cognitive process, it is intuitively
communicated and picked up. In learning to speak, universal intervallic
patterns emerge, suggesting links with the natural order of harmonics and its
contained modes and scales.
The lullaby is one of the
earliest sources of cultural transmission and musical identity. Lullabies from
different cultures share many similar qualities, frequently echoing intervals
found in infant linguistics. Besides encouraging sleep, lullabies also help
mothers bond emotionally, psychologically and physically, with their babies.
These factors in turn contribute to infant survival.
My investigation into modal
music has taken me to the influence of the natural world on music, paramount in
numerous cultures. For instance, there is no dividing line between birdsong and
music in recordings made by the School of Scottish Studies. Birds in general
use similar pitch relationships, harmonic patterns and rhythmic variation as
those found in human composition. Birds sing in phrases and create call and
response patterns. Pentatonic sequences can be found, modal fragments, and
melodic intervals we use in language. Man has communicated with birds for
thousands of years. In 2004, scientists found parallels between human speech
and birdsong that give clues to human speech disorders.
The beginning of musical
instrument-making sheds light on man’s use of music in social and religious
contexts. Many musical instruments have been excavated from the middle of the
Paleolithic period, circa 80-35,000 years ago. In Europe the first
intentionally made instrument was a bone flute. In South America, 30,000 years
old clay pipes have been dug up. These instruments may have been used for music
in ritual or as sound signals. It is suggested that their tunings follow vocal
thought.
What is music after all?
Ethnic groups describe music in different terms. It might consists of one note,
as in vocal over-toning found in Tibet and other parts of the world; two notes,
as in the sounding drone on an Indian tambura; three notes, as in the
recitation of the Rig Vedas (ancient Indian chants) or played as a melodic riff
to accompany a song. Besides, a description of music in a few cultures has long
included sounds of nature such as the flow of water. And water has been used in
composition for therapeutic effect since ancient times.
All music, whether natural
or man-made, is based on the relationship of sound and numbers. Modern
civilizations tend to neglect the way philosophy, metaphysics, psychology and
emotions formed the basis of musical ideas in ancient times in all great
civilisations. I have explored some of these influences.
Indian music based itself
on the foundations of spiritual experience and metaphysical principles. It was
based on Vedic texts from around three thousand years ago. There is no doubt
that the Indian modal system was an influence on Ancient Greek musicians and
many Indian ragas correspond to Greek modes. Indian raga, or passion, developed
in the early years of the first millennium and refers to a group of sounds
representing an emotional state or mood. However, current research suggests
that certain intervals found in ancient Indian music have cross-cultural
emotional significance and may best express human emotion. Ancient Chinese
music shared a common origin with the Indian tradition through different
applications of universal principles but they went their own route. The Chinese
musical scale was developed by the cycle of fifths. Each note of the emerging
pentatonic scale represented a frequency as well as other important
characteristics such as a season, a colour and an internal body organ. Music
was for equilibrium and healing and regulated the yin-yang harmony of a human
with its sound wave.
Ancient Egypt was an
influence on ancient Greek music as well. Egyptian music stretches back over
3000 years and was strongly religious. It was here that Pythagoras studied
before he developed his musical theories. The early music of the Coptic
Christian Church came from the music of the Ancient Egyptians and it is now
thought that two solo chants, recorded from a Coptic Christian enclave in
Ethiopia and from a church in the Western Highlands of Scotland, use the same
pentatonic scale in exactly the same layout.
Roots of a western esoteric
tradition linked with the ancient civilizations and the Celts played a part in
its development. The Celts were highly cultured, steeped in sacred law and
renowned for their craftsmanship. The first wave of Christianity to the British
Isles brought a distinctive religion known as Celtic Christianity and we
discover that the Celtic monks were a strong force in the survival of western
civilisation, its culture and music. They carried their candle and their chants
throughout Europe for a number of years. By this time, many of the Ancient
Greek modal scales had been modified although they were still called by Greek
names and were known as Ecclesiastical modes. We find that Gregorian composers
still honoured their emotional qualities and music was written to this end.
It is interesting to note
that during the Middle-Ages (800-1400) the plaintive Dorian mode was the common
scale. It was the equivalent of our C major scale so the common sound was
plaintive. Dorian modes formed the basis of much Gregorian chant and Celtic
Church music. In Scotland, religious music flourished throughout the
Rennaissance. Robert Carver (1484-1568) was famous for the Carver Choir Book
which contained a prayer for peace set in the Phrygian mode, a mode Carver
frequently used.
In the sixteenth century,
with new theories on consonance and dissonance, Pythagorean tunings were questioned.
The scale was then modified and ultimately emerged as Equal Temperament in the
seventeenth century. However, Equal Temperament also meant that compositions
were thereafter built on harmony rather than melody and the ending of pieces on
consonant intervals no longer became important.
My investigation then
examines Celtic secular music - music based on Ecclesiastical modes and the
gapped scales such as pentatonic and hexatonic; a music influenced by a
religious heritage. We see how Celtic/Norse languages affect rhythm, melody and
phrase. But more is involved. Celtic sound contains other ingredients. It
embodies cultural practice such as dance and work, landscape, isolation and
history. In modern times we snatch phrases from other cultures and graft them
onto our own but whatever happens the modes remain central to ethnic sound.
Modes and gapped scales used in Celtic music also form much of the construction
of European folk music.
Celtic music has always
created music for laughter, sorrow and sleep. This music has always been
efficacious. Today we could interpret these three strains as dance, lament and
lullaby or simply as music for distraction and music for healing. Song, music
and dance, through history, has underpinned the lives of Scottish Highlanders,
despite dark times, and its legacy, which binds Scots living abroad, is a
strong one.
The fact that Scots abroad
have clung to their cultural roots and been strengthened by them has encouraged
me to look at music/culture as an evolutionary advantage. From the beginning of
time music has brought evolutionary advantages. Group music-making would have
helped in perceptual development, intuition and attentive listening skills. It
would have contributed to conflict-reduction, safe time-passing and group
bonding. Emotions such as grief, anger, love, mystery and joy would have been
communally expressed and mutually understood through group musical experience.
Music in all societies was
primarily functional. It accompanied social
functions from birth to death.
Primal people make no distinction between art, craft, music and even religion.
They live in harmony with the physical/spiritual world and believe in
interconnectedness. African society, in many areas, still sets music in a
central social context and associates it with expressive activities. It is a
normal part of everyday life. Many African melodies are based on Ancient Greek
modes and pentatonic scales.
The BaAka tribe of the
Congo are a good example of a group who place the communal, inclusive spirit of
African music in a central social context. Music for the BaAka enhances all
aspects of community welfare: social, psychological, emotional, biological,
spiritual and educational. The notion that participatory music-making can be
therapeutic takes its source from music-making in primal cultures.
From the sixteenth century
onwards, African music spread with the slave trade. We find it is the basis of
many musical fusions in the West. An Afro/American fusion influenced jazz.
Spanish, British, French and even Asian music influenced early calypso. In
Scotland today we find an Afro/Celt fusion. Musical fusions create musical
hybrids yet as we saw earlier, the modes remain a central ingredient.
Part 2 –
Music as Healing
The therapy that lies in
music is connected to the innate responsiveness to music found universally in
everyone. I have explored the human response to sound, music and the modes in
general as well as in: music therapy, sound healing, Music as Medicine,
community music, education and religious use.
We find that work on
psycho-immunology records that nerve fibres are present in the immune system.
There is, therefore, a direct link between nerve endings and a person’s
thoughts, attitudes, perceptions and emotions and the health of the immune system.
Music impacts on a number of human functioning areas: sensory, cognitive,
intellectual, motor/psychomotor, social/interpersonal. It is an effective
communication. It is able to stimulate or suppress. It can also induce
spiritual experience.
In this section we do a
basic exploration of the brain and find how music stimulates networks across
the brain and how specific areas are stimulated for various activities such as
timbre, pitch and melody. The Triune brain theory divides the brain system into
three parts: the reptilian brain, the paleomammalian brain and the neomammalian
brain. All three parts are involved with the processing of music but the
paelomammalian brain is the most important. Here, the limbic system plays a
crucial part in the emotional processing of music.
We find that emotions are
now placed at the intellectual centre of human thought and the evolution of
mentality. I explore emotions in depth. Emotion involves homeostasis,
expressive tendencies and subjective experiences. Major neurobiological
components involved in emotion consist of the automatic nervous system, the
reticular formation in the brain and the limbic system. Perception of emotions
begins with mother-infant bonding. Bonding may be precipitated by the hormone
oxytocin and oxytocin, it is believed, affects neurophysiological responses
throughout life. The strongest effects occur during ecstasy and trauma. The
addition of music would strengthen bonding and communion.
Musically-induced emotions
are processed in brain regions overlapping those in general emotional
processing. Happiness is the emotion most frequently associated with musical
listening but group processes can strongly influence happiness. Negative
emotions can also be generated by music. However, a sad feeling within a person
might allow them to express their sorrow. Theories on emotional responses to
consonance and dissonance in music have changed throughout history. All kinds
of reactions and influences are at work here, such as cultural, personal and
historical.
Music may be a cue for a
significant event in a person’s life. Music therapy uses such cues to help
patients bring order to their emotions. In areas where ‘roots’ music is strong,
traditional music can link the elderly back to happy times in their lives.
Modal music is a good inducer of emotions and music that stirs and stimulates
is more likely to have an impact.
The study of the
physiological response to music is drawn from the fields of physiology,
anatomy, neurology and biochemistry. We are well aware of physiological changes
when we listen to music. Scottish traditional music has the potential to
stimulate and relax in a variety of ways. Rhythm is the basis of all neural
activity. It doesn’t rely solely on the auditory pathway mechanism. People with
hearing impairments report that rhythm is the ingredient that provides a means
of comprehending music.
Music therapy uses
entrainment in healing work. Entrainment is a phenomenon that was discovered in
the sixteenth century. It is a term used to describe how something can lock
into step with another object, so that one vibration can cause another to lock
in. Music of particular tempos has been used to help patients.
There are many layers of
rhythmic phenomena existing in all forms of music. The primal rhythmic imprint
is empowered by stimulation from outside. I have therefore briefly explored the
use of drumming. Drumming today is receiving serious attention from health
communities. Every day psychologists validate the importance of the letting go
of negative emotions. Drumbeats contain low frequencies. A repetitive pulse has
been found to lower stress-related hormones and boost the immune system. Today,
contemporary Celtic music makes use of drums of all descriptions.
I have explored the work of
Professor Alfred Tomatis who was a prolific pioneer in the field of auditory
processing and language development. Through his work he developed a method of
retraining the ear to listen and process sound frequencies that have been lost
through sound deficiency. If the ear is given a chance to improve, the quality
of the spoken/singing voice also improves. The listening function requires the
will to communicate/listen attentively. The right ear has the most efficient
neural pathway to the left-brain where speech and language centres are located.
A left ear dominance results in listening and expressive language difficulties.
It may result in a dull voice. A dull voice fails to supply the ear with
sufficient harmonics to effectively fire the brain.
The human has an auditory
spectrum that spreads from 20 to 20,000 Hz.
Our listening posture
refers to the physical position that in turn affects our general psychological
state. A good listening posture facilitates information processing and
communication. The Tomatis method uses listening tests that include an analysis
of both air and bone conduction. An electronic ear aids in restoring left/right
balance and flexibility in attentive listening.
Professor Tomatis chose the
listening of Gregorian chant as part of the healing process for three reasons.
This chant has a linear output which can be ornate, it seems to follows cardiac
and respiratory rhythms and the best recharging sounds lie between 1000 and
10,000 hz.
We take a brief look at the
power of vocal music in general. Throughout life, vocal music expresses message
and meaning. It is an instrument of transformation we all have. Singing sounds
the body, the brain and resonates in our cells. Sound vibrations charge our
bodies and our brains.
Sounding or toning of vowel
sounds is another powerful form of chant used for healing. Certain sounds carry
more force than others; some may stimulate the glandular system, others the
pituitary or the heart. Shamanic traditions have effectively used vocal sound
and instruments for healing for thousands of years. Music is used to induce
theta and alpha brainwave patterns and promotes group cohesion through
entrainment.
Music as Medicine refers to
the use of music to influence the patient’s physical, mental and emotional
state before, during or after surgery. Music can assist in altering the
perception of pain and raise pain thresholds. My research has shown how modal
music has been used effectively with cancer patients and with the dying.
A look into the use of
modal music in education brought me to the work of pioneers Carl Orff and
Zoltan Kodaly. They have long promoted the use of modal music in their approach
to music education and music for all man. Their creative method employs
pentatonic scales and modes from the outset.
Music for all man is best
seen today in the work of community musicians. Community music today aims at
participation by all for the communication and preservation of culture. It is
about interaction on all levels. My investigations find that the playing of traditional
music is more accessible to the majority than classical music. Learning by ear,
a method used by traditional cultures to transmit music, assists attentive
listening. It is also a way instrumental music can be accessed by children who
find reading music hard or impossible. This method lends itself to individual
creativity and expression through simple structures at an early stage.
Atonal music describes
music that departs from the tonal system we are used to in European classical
music. Our adverse reactions to discordant music are mainly because we are
predisposed to like the sound that we can create as humans. Ancient Greek modes
and pentatonic scales follow vocal possibilities.
The emphasis on
improvisation in British music therapy practice can be viewed as one aspect of
a widespread revival of music improvisation. Modes and pentatonic scales lend
themselves well to improvisation, both in the educational as well as in the
therapeutic setting.
Positive emotional
experiences associated with music styles in modal keys undoubtedly assist in
their efficacy as a healing tool. They also introduce us to music of foreign
cultures and may contribute to the healing of divisions between cultures.
Discussion Points
* Western music is based on Ancient Greek modal
scales.
* The playing of ethnic music based on Ancient
Greek modes and pentatonic scales is a positive way to engage with clients in
the therapeutic situation where ethnic music is strong such as in Celtic
countries. Internal body/neurological structures link with melody, rhythm and
emotional responses.
* Ethnic music traditions embody the essence
of culture. Speech (mother tongue), rhythms, social history, myth and religion
are contained here.
* Culture is affected by environmental
factors.
* Modes and pentatonic scales lend themselves
to improvisation both vocally and instrumentally.
* Modes can affect and induce emotions through
universal response to melodic intervals.
* Based on the tonic note, modal music allows
for simple arrangements in participatory group music-making. Drones based on
the tonic and the fifth contribute to grounding.
* Ethnic music lends itself to creativity
through simple structures.
* Oral tradition includes the learning of
music by ear, a method which encourages inclusiveness and attentive listening.
* The playing and sharing of ethnic music from
diverse cultures assists in the healing of social and cultural divisions. Many
cultures are based on Ancient Greek modes.
* Positive emotional experiences associated
with music in general assist in its efficacy as a healing tool.
* Creative music education programmes such as
those formed by Carl Orff and Zoltan Kodaly use pentatonic scales and modes
from the start.
Sarah
Munro November 2005