City Size:		Highest Level Wiz/Sor	GP Limit
Thorp: 		1	 		25 gp
Implication: Nothing with a value of over 25d will be found here. That pretty much rules out all magic items except possibly 0th-level scrolls.
				
Hamlet		2			100d
Implication: You may find potions of cure light wounds and a first-level scroll. Maybe. But that's it. Local hedge wizard can't even make a +1 dagger if he wants to. Heck, he can't even find a masterwork dagger to enchant. Economy might - might - be able to support one minor potion shop.

Village		3			150d
Implication: Just like a hamlet, there really isn't much to buy here. The local wizard could make a +1 dagger, but there are no MW daggers to be found (cost over 300d). Economy might have one minor potion shop and/or scrolls shop but no more. No MW stuff, only 1st-level potions and scrolls. Local hedge wizard can enchant a +1 weapon - but only if you import the MW weapon for him. He won't have the resources to buy one, though.

Small Town	4			800d
Implications: Town has the resources to support a couple of potion shops, including one that makes "high-powered potions." Might see a 1st-level-spell wand shop. Supports masterwork weapons, but not magic armor, shields, or even minor wondrous items (800d is too little). The local hedge wizard can't brew the high-level potions though; he's only level 4. So you're looking at 1st-level wands, 1st- and 2nd- level potions and scrolls, and MW items.

Large Town: 	7			3, 000d
Implications: Only in a large town do you even start to see much of a market for items other than potions or scrolls. You will see the occasional +1 weapon or armor and the most minor of wondrous items. Wands might have 2nd-level power. The local wizards may be able to enchant a +2 item for you, but certainly can't buy one from you. Scrolls of 4th level and below will likely be available - but from only one source. Minor potions and scrolls are likely to be plentiful - you might see three or four potion shops.

Small City: 	10			12,000d
Implications: You start to see 5th-level scrolls, pretty much any potion is easy to come by, and you may find +1 and +2 weapons/armor - possibly +3 armor, though that taxes the magical resources of the town. Minor wondrous items can be had here. Most wands are probably available, too. There is likely a magic trade, but due to the fact that a typical small city has only between 1 and 4 magicians over 4th level, the trade is probably small and tightly controlled.

Large City: 	13			40,000d
Implications: Here, folks have the magical power and money to look at +4 weapons/armor, but they're still rare. You can get your hands on scrolls of 6th and possibly 7th level. Only in large cities do you even start seeing staffs (staves?). Potions are commonplace, as are lower level scrolls - anything you can get in a large town will be easy to find here, though more powerful items will be rarer and limited to a more exclusive group of mages (again, probably less than half a dozen). Also, have you noticed that you really can't even begin to contemplate most RINGS until you're in a large city?!?

Metropolis: 	18			90,000d
Implications: Scrolls (any level) and potions can be had here fairly easily. Weapons and armor of all enchantments can be made, but you're unlikely to see a weapon with an effective bonus of more than +6. Only in a metropolis are wondrous items of great power even remotely close to "widely available." However, the magical power is still somewhat consolidated - anything that would be "small and tightly controlled" in a small city is easily found here - lots of 8th and 9th level mages (comparatively) but anything beyond that in power will again be controlled by a few mages - 6 to 8 on average. Considering that metropoli tend to be seats of power, you can bet that at least one of those mages is in an advisory role to the crown (or whatever), which diminishes your chance of finding such items even more.

In southern and eastern England they lived in timber houses often measuring 15 by 30 feet, associated with smaller structures with sunken floors built for storage, craft work (such as weaving) and accomodations for servants and dependants. 

About half of the peasants in the 13th Century had holdings of between 15 and 30 acres which would have yielded saleable surpluses of grain and animal products worth a decent value.

AVERAGE POPULATION DENSITY
1 town per 100 square miles
1 town with population over 2000 per 1250 square miles

note: tithes were often calculated at 1d a week for every 20s of annual rent paid (4, p. 208).

In 1181 every freeman having goods worth 2640d had to have a mail shirt, a helmet, and a spear.  All other freemen should have helmet, spear, and gambeson (quilted armor)

rough rule of thumb 1 year's income for a funeral 

30 adult sheep could produce about 20s of wool per year in 1299 

A Theory About Peasants (and other non-adventurer NPCs)

The Typical Peasant
Let's assume that a human peasant "becomes" a Com1 upon reaching age 20 (I could start it at 15 or 18, but this makes my calculations easier in the long run). The life of a typical peasant is not easy; they work long hours, don't get a lot of food, and don't have a lot of safety and security in their lives. In a way, they are like modern-day people who manage to scrape by every month with enough money for rent, food, and basic supplies, but usually don't have anything left for luxuries. Each month is a matter of survival. In a way, each month is like an "encounter" with a dangerous situation--starvation and death.

Encounters With Death
When viewed in this fashion, a month for a commoner is like a combat encounter for an adventurer. There is a risk and a reward, and some are harder than others. Like any encounter, it should have a CR. Now, most peasants manage to live month to month, and a month doesn't use 20% of the peasant's available resources, so the month's CR is going to be somewhat arbitrary (and will fluctuate over the course of the year). But let's assume that the month's CR is equal to the peasant's character level (using the assumption that "life doesn't throw you anything you can't handle), so a brand-new peasant Com1 would have months that are CR 1. (Note that as the peasant gains levels, running the same farm isn't going to get harder just because he's better at running a farm, so the monthly CR should stay at CR 1).

XP For An Encounter
A 1st-level party would gain 300 XP for defeating a CR 1 encounter, so a 1st-level peasant would gain 300 XP for defeating an encounter with a CR 1 month. However, the peasant normally isn't at an instant life-or-death risk at any one point (unlike an adventurer), so I'm going to reduce that award by half, to 150 XP. Furthermore, the peasant is probably married and sharing the work with a spouse (just like adventurers share the work in a fight), so we should divide that XP between the two of them, for 75 each. If we multiply that value by 12 months, we get 900 XP for the peasant. To make my future math much easier, I'm going to say that averages out to about 1,000 XP in a year.

Progression After A Year
So after a year, the peasant has 1,000 XP -- enough to reach level 2! Because XP awards for CR 1 encounters remain the same until the party level reaches 7th level, the peasant is going to continue to earn XP at a rate of 1,000 per year until he reaches 7th level. A character reaches 7th level at 21,000 XP, which (at a rate of 1,000 XP per year after age 20) puts the peasant at age 41, which is middle age, and getting toward the upper limit for typical medieval humans. In short, you can determine a peasant's level by subtracting 20 from his age, multiplying by 1,000, and checking the XP chart.

Beyond 7th Level
At 7th level, a CR 1 encounter only gives 263 XP, so the peasant is only earning 877 XP per year, so it takes him about 8 years (to age 49) to reach 8th level (instead of 7). At 8th level, a CR 1 encounter only gives 200 XP, so the peasant is only earning 667 XP per year, and it takes him 12 years (age 61) to reach 9th level. At 9th level and beyond, characters don't normally earn XP for CR 1 encounters, so the peasant doesn't earn any more XP for a typical month, which means that unless there is an entire year of hardship he's not likely to gain any more levels. Given that age 61 puts him well into old age, he's not likely to survive a harsh year anyway.

Other NPC Classes
What applies to commoners applies equally well to adepts, aristocrats, experts, and warriors; their challenges are of a different sort, but few are instantly life-threatening (even warriors that are non-mercenaries such as city guards rarely have to deal with anything more dangerous than a drunk, and those that do end up with more XP because of it), and so this gradual increase in levels works for them as well.

Nonhumans
Although the term "peasant" isn't totally appropriate, this system works just as well for nonhumans as well as humans. Because the XP awards trickle off at the middle levels, the increased lifespan of these nonhumans doesn't generate extremely high-level peasants. Those "peasants" who live long and end up reaching levels above 9th probably had some interesting encounters along the way (anyone who lives 100 years or more in an elven forest or dwarven subterranean city probably has had to deal with monster attacks at least once) and could probably eke out a few more levels.

PC Classes
You could apply this system to characters with PC classes as well, but I would severely restrict their ability in one of two ways: One, either reduce the XP awarded by 50% again, as these adventuring classes don't get much out of not adventuring. Two, only allow people to acquire NPC classes with this method, so your retired Ftr4 captain of the guard is going to have to pick up warrior or expert levels if he wants to advance, simply because he's not getting the right kind of experience to advance as a fighter.

20		NPC1
21		NPC2
23		NPC3
26		NPC4
30		NPC5
35		NPC6
41		NPC7
49		NPC8
61		NPC9

Death by Taxes
The Royal Exchequer's Office oversees the collection of all of the king's revenues and answers directly to the Lord High Chamberlain. As a rule, the exchequer's office assigns Agents of the Exchequer to each significant portion of the realm, either a county or shire. They are responsible for seeing to it that the king's goal of "a copper for every gold" is collected and passed on to the royal coffers. Because it is possible for any given gold piece to be taxed more than once, however, the treasury often fares far better than this.
in some regions, it is not uncommon for a tax collector to take a little bit extra from the local populace for himself. So long as he does not push the people to the verge of revolt, the king often allows such "minor abuses" to continue. 

Everyday Taxes
This section details the taxes which are collected whenever they are applicable. Unlike some taxes,which are charged once a month or once a year, these might be collected every day.

Consumption Tax
This is a typical sales tax. It is charged on all goods and is common to most economic systems. It is paid to a merchant in addition to the normal transaction cost. Merchants are then charged this percentage of their profits separately. The standard rate for this tax is 5%, or  copper piece for every silver piece spent.

Luxury Tax
Certain items, like rare furs, jewelry, or ornamental crests, are considered to be luxuries. Their purchase is taxed a further copper piece per silver piece of price. Thus, someone buying a fine fur coat would be required to pay the normal Consumption Tax and then the Luxury Tax on top of it.

Inheritance Tax
All wealth and property inherited by a person is subject to a tax of 1 copper piece for every silver piece of value, or roughly 10% of the estate. This is a one-time tax only. However, if the same property is further passed on to a new beneficiary, the estate can be taxed yet again.

Tolls
The toll paid at most bridges, roads, and toll booths is 1 copper piece per person or horse and 2 coppers per vehicle (if any).

Monthly Taxes
These type of taxes are due about once a month, as described below.

Market Tax
Every town and city has a monthly Market Day, when all the local citizens come from far and near to see the latest wares for sale by the oddest assortment of merchants. Every person or beast entering the town or city on Market Day must pay 1 copper piece for entrance. Since Market Day in towns is the common equivalent to the tournaments of the nobility, this small charge is usually worth the wide variety of entertainments.

Seasonal Taxes
These taxes are only collected once a year, during a given season. The final payment to the king is due on that season's day of high festival. Often, the tax collectors are busy many weeks, if not months, in advance.

Spring--Hearth Tax
Every dwelling, whether serf's hovel or duke's castle is assessed a Hearth Tax. Naturally, the amount paid varies according to means.

Type of Structure	Rural Tax		Unwalled Tax		Walled Tax
Simple dwelling		1 cp			2 cp			6 cp
Large dwelling		1 sp			2 sp			6 sp

Inn			5 sp per room
Manor			1 gp
Castle			10 gp
In those entries which have multiple listings, the first is for a typical dwelling, the second is for a dwelling in an unwalled town, and the third is for any dwelling within a walled town.

Summer- Land Tax
This is a big money-maker for the king, and he can always count on at least a certain amount of income from his estates. It shows quite clearly why land is such a valuable commodity in the feudal society.
Every acre is assessed a function and the legal owner of that acreage is assessed a rated tax. In general, the more useful or developed the land is, the more it is worth, and therefore, the more it is taxed.

Land Type		Tax/acre
Barren			1/2 cp
Pond or Lake		1 cp
Uncultivated		1 cp
Woodland		1 cp
Cultivated			2 cp
Town			6 cp	
Fortified			1 sp

On the above chart, land which is owned within a non-walled city is deemed to be in a "town" for tax purposes. Land within the confines of a protective wall is deemed to be "fortified."

Summer- Nobility Tax
Each family that wishes to display a crest or coat-of-arms within the kingdom must pay 500d per year for the king's graciousness. This is part of the reason the king likes creating new nobles whenever he can, whether or not they can afford their own castle, or even own their own home!

Fall- The Tithe
All produce, rents, and profits from the lands themselves are taxed at a rate of about 1 copper piece per silver piece earned, or about 10%. This mostly affects rich landowners and, therefore, the nobility.

Fall- Income Tax
At the same time that the Tithe is being collected from the rich, just about everyone else is paying an Income Tax much like our own system today. Each person's income is assessed by the local exchequer's office and taxed at a modest rate of about 1 cp per gold piece earned, or only 1%.
While this may seem extremely fair to our eyes today, the combination of all of the fees and taxes collected over the year, and other manorial charges tend to eat up almost half of a serf's income!

Winter- Poll Tax
Every head in the kingdom is taxed according to the following scale. Importantly, while serfs are considered slaves by many societies, they are usually considered free men in the feudal society. So, usually the serf himself is taxed. However, in richer lands the lord is taxed instead. Some less reputable tax collectors tax both the lord and his servants (who never know any better and are ordered never to complain about anything).

Category		Tax/head
Child			1 cp
Adult			2 cp
Marketable beast		1 cp
Riding horse		1 sp	

Magic Tax
In realms where magic is relatively common, magical items are considered signs of wealth and power, and therefore get taxed very heavily. The owner of any magic item can expect to be taxed about 1 gold piece per 100 experience points of value in the AD&D 2nd Edition ((Dungeon Masters Guide)). Thus, the owner of ((ring of invisibility)) would owe 15 gp while the holder of a ((vorpal sword)) would be taxed 100 gp. Note that all magic from scrolls to potions and even artifacts (if known) is taxable. This is one very good reason why player characters new to an area should keep their magical powers quiet, as even travellers and nonresidents just "passing through" can be taxed if the collectors catch up with them. It is therefore possible for characters versed in world-spanning adventures to get taxed many times in the course of a year. However, they can only legally be taxed once in any kingdom, and are given a receipt to prove the payment.

Sword Tax
Every weapon in the kingdom is taxed, both as a means of making money and as a means of keeping an eye on the relative power of arms around the kingdom. People in trouble spots buy up weapons at an alarming rate and a good tax collector knows how to see the warning signs of revolution.  Normal weapons longer than daggers and knives are taxed at a rate of 1 silver piece per weapon. Magic weapons are taxed as their mundane counterparts, but are also subject to the previously mentioned Magic Tax.

Royal Licenses
It is necessary for the king to keep a tab on the growth of industry, especially if he is to keep his personal monopolies in power. Even if he can't slow growth down, he can at least make some money from the expansion.

Beggar's License
Believe it or not, begging has always been a fine way to make a living, and it requires a fair amount of skill and work. The fact that many beggars are actually spies, or are accomplished thieves, has not escaped the attention of the king's tax collectors.
All beggars must have a license to beg, otherwise they get thrown in jail. The license costs 1 copper piece and must be renewed every season.

Manufacturer's License
Any manufacturer of goods (i.e. carpenters, potters, etc.) must have a license. It costs 2 silver pieces per year, but does not insure you of fair competition (see "Monopoly Licenses" below).

School License
Anyone who wants to open a school of any kind, or keep it open, must pay 1 gold piece to the state. This money is due only once a year and can be paid at any time. For a one-time fee of 50 gold pieces, any school can be granted a King's License which lasts indefinitely.

Trade License
Much like the Manufacturer's Licenses above, tradesmen who create perishable goods like beer, wine, bread, etc., must also have a license to do so. Coincidentally, the fee is the same 200d per annum.

Monopoly Licenses
In countries where many guilds have been formed, the guild will claim the right to regulate trade in its own area. As a rule, the crown will recognize this right and allow the guild to set prices, determine who is permitted to sell their goods or services, and establish minimum quality standards. Of course, the king expects to be compensated for allowing the guilds such power.
This fee varies from place to place and depends on the goods and services provided, but 5% of the profits is customary. While seemingly high, the guild always boosts prices much higher than normal and guild members end up making more money than they would have without such assistance. In countries where such monopolies are allowed, the king usually must personally grant such a monopoly, and does so only to a favored friend or someone who has helped the kingdom in one way or another. The guild leadership is only required to contribute 10 gold pieces annually to maintain their monopoly in a given area, but often the personal gifts and free services accorded the king by the guild (privately, of course) usually account for a great deal more. However, the aforementioned price gauging and control over the local market still compensates for the lost revenue.

Legal Fees and Duties
To bring a suit to the royal court costs 10 silver pieces for the privilege. Also, the loser of a suit must pay the king 10% of the amount sued for, in addition to paying off the claim.  However, no one gets off that easily, as the claim money is considered taxable income, which the winner of the suit has to pay off the top. Also, any legal documents prepared by the royal court cost 5 silver pieces each for the respective plaintiffs.

Non-Resident Fees
Anyone not a native citizen of the realm is likely to pay some kind of tax. Sometimes these are known as "good behavior" fees, because they allow the local authorities to monitor newcomers to an area. In most places, this tax is 5 silver pieces per level per year.
Spell casters are noted trouble makers, and are charged twice the normal tax.
All non-humans are assessed a tax of 8 silver per year. This is one of the reasons why most non-humans don't like living in human lands if they can avoid it. If non-humans do decide to stay, they can become naturalized citizens after 2 years of
residency and no history of criminal activity. The charge for naturalization is 2 gold pieces.
Monsters are the most nonhuman of them all, and anyone possessing a monster or even a large animal must pay a fee of 1 gp per hit point of the beast every year!  This is the primary reason why travelling carnivals travel so much, as they are always one step ahead of the tax man. Also, it makes owning any sort of rare beast another significant sign of wealth.

Commerce Duties
These taxes relate directly to doing business in a feudal society.

Import Tax
All goods imported into a kingdom are assessed an average tax of 1 copper piece per 100 pounds of cargo. While this may seem to be a minuscule amount, it adds up when shiploads of cargo are in question.

Port Harborage
Every ship is charged 1 silver piece per day for a birth in the public harbor. Private marinas often charge much, much more.

Import License
Every shipment of goods brought into a country must have a license. Normal goods cost about 1 gold piece per shipment to register, while valuable commodities like spices and wines often cost twice that amount, or 2 gold pieces per shipment.

"Coming and Going" Tax
Naturally, any ship or caravan leaving the country is also charged 10 silver pieces per vehicle.

Moneylenders' Surtax
Bankers and other financial institutions are taxed about 5% of their profits per year. This is one circumstance where the Royal Exchequer often takes a personal hand in verifying the accounting books of an institution, especially a rich one.

"The Common Cold"	DC: 15
Incubation: 1d3 days
Cause: Characters traveling in wet, cold climates without proper protective clothing have a 5% chance per day of contracting this ailment.
Symptoms: Chills, general aches and pains, fever, runny nose
Minimum Effects: -1 for 1d6 days
Moderate Effects: -2 for 1d6 days
Maximum Effects: -4 for 1d6 days
Note: There is no "cure" or treatment that combats the actual viruses that cause the common cold.  The drugs and treatments only help to alleviate the symptoms.  Once a person has a cold, however, their immune system can fight off any future viral intrusions of the same kind.

Malaria			DC: 22
Incubation: 1d6+2 weeks
Cause: Plasmodium virus spread by mosquitoes.  Characters traveling in warm, swampy areas or near water in warm terrain have a 5% chance per day of being bitten by a mosquito carrying this virus.
Symptoms: Chills; paroxysm; destruction of blood cells
Minimum Effects: -4 for 1d6 days
Moderate Effects: Incapacitation for 1d6+6 days 
Maximum Effects: Roll another save or die.

Meningitis			DC: 18
Incubation: 1d10 days
Cause: Meningococcus virus on the Meninges  (neurotissue of the brain and spinal cord)
Symptoms: Sore throat; dullness; fever; chills; rapid pulse; general soreness
Minimum Effects: -2 for 1d6 weeks
Moderate Effects: Incapacitation for 1d6+9 weeks
Maximum Effects: Roll another save or die.

Pneumonia		DC: 19
Incubation: 1d6+4 days
Cause: Pneumococcus germ in lungs causing lungs to fill with fluid.  Any character that is bedridden or incapacitated for more than a week has a 5% chance of contracting pneumonia as fluids build up in their lungs.
Symptoms: Shaking chill; rapid rise in temperature; pain in chest; cough
Minimum Effects: None.
Moderate Effects: Incapacitation for 1d6 days, -2 for a number of weeks equal to the number of days incapacitated from general weakness.
Maximum Effects: Roll another save or die.

Rabies/Hydrophobia	DC: 17
Incubation: 1d10+10 hours
Cause: Infected animals
Symptoms: Rejected behavior, hydrophobia, extreme violence.  Any normal animal has a 5% chance to be rabid.  Any character bitten by a rabid animal must roll a Fortitude save.
Minimum Effects: None.
Moderate Effects: Influenza-like symptoms.  Creature will seek to be alone and is also hostile and will attack nearly anything coming near for 1d6 days.  Throat closes up when the affected creature sees or is brought water, forcing violent convulsions, and increased hostile behavior.
Maximum Effects: As per moderate effects, but must also roll another save or die.

Tuberculosis		DC: 22
Incubation: 1d10+10 days
Cause: Close contact with a person afflicted by or carrying the disease.
Symptoms: Cough; destruction of lung tissue.
Minimum Effects: Weakness, -4 to all activity, -4 to Strength for 1d6 weeks.
Moderate Effects: Incapacitation for 1d3 weeks.  Roll another save or suffer the permanent loss of 1d4 points of Constitution.
Maximum Effects: Roll another save or die

Typhoid fever		DC: 15
Incubation: 2d10 days
Cause: Typhoid bacillus from stagnant water.  Any character drinking water from a swamp, or any container that contains water more than 1 week old has a 5% chance on contracting this ailment.
Symptoms: Headache; pains; exhaustion; chills; fever; nose bleeds; serious bowel disturbance. Later stages: blood clots and rose colored blotches.  Gas formation in the abdomen and bloating with severe hemorrhages.
Minimum Effects: -4 for 1d10 weeks.
Moderate Effects: Incapacitation for 1d6 weeks.
Maximum Effects: Roll another save or die
 
Typhus			DC: 13
Incubation: 1d10+2 days
Cause: Spread by rat flea.  Any character in contact with rats of any kind has a 5% chance per week of being bitten by a flea carrying this ailment.
Symptoms: Dark red mottling; fever.
Minimum effect: -2 for 2d10 days.
Moderate Effects: -4 to activity for 1d6 days.
Maximum Effect: Roll another save or die.

DRUGS

In game terms, all drugs function as poisons, and allow the imbiber initial and secondary saving throws to resist their effects.  Delay poison, neutralize poison, and similar effects negate or end a drug's effects, but do not restore hit points, ability scroes, or other damage caused by the substance.

A creature that willingly takes a drug automatically fails both saving throws.  It is not possible to intentionally fail the initial save but attempt to save against the secondary, or vice versa.  DCs are provided for situations in which a character is drugged against his will.

Name

Description:
Type: Contact, ingested, inhaled, or injury, with Fortitude save DCs.  Injury also includes methods such as pouring the drug into a wound or applying it as a poultice.

Initial Effect:
Secondary Effect:
Price of a single dose
Side Effects:
Overdose:
Addiction: Low, Medium, High

Effects of Addiction

Drug addiction functions much like a disease.  Upon intial exposure, the character must succeed at a Will save or become addicted, as shown below.  Addiction proceeds like a disease.  While addicted, the character suffers temporary ability damage each day unless he succeeds at a Fortitude save at the listed DC:

Addiction	DC	Satiation	Damage
Low		6	10 days		d2 Wis
Medium		10	5 days		d2 Dex + d3 Wis
High		14	2 days		d2 Dex + d3 Wis + d2 Con

Each time the user takes the drug to which he is addicted, he is satiated and staves off the withdrawal for the give period of time.  After this period wears off, the DC of the Will save to resist increases by 5.

Example: Bilbo is addicted to pipeweed.  If he uses it at least every ten days, then his DC per day is only 6.  If he misses his pipeweed for ten days, his DC goes up to 11.

Recovery
If a character in withdrawal makes two successful saving throws in a row, he has fought off his addiction and recovers.

Remove disease, greater restoration, and heal causes recovery from addiction.

The Works of Spring

April

Many medieval English country people held that New Year began on Lady Day, March 25, for it marked the time when work began in earnest after the winter lull. Plough teams began the first ploughing of the fallow field in April when the soil was soft enough to turn easily. Each team consisted of a heavy plough pulled by eight oxen, guided by a ploughman and an ox-goader. The team was expected to plough an acre a day. In the later medieval period pairs of horses were combined with the oxen on lighter soils, or even used exclusively.

The innovation which marked the heavy plough from the earlier ard-plough (also known as a scratch- or hook-plough) was a mouldboard mounted on the right hand side, behind the ploughshare, which turned the sod. Because of the difficulty in turning the plough, the team worked in long strips, turning clockwise several times before starting on a new strip. This method resulted in the sod constantly being thrown in towards the middle of the strip, creating a pattern of ridge and furrow.

While the plough teams were busy on the fallow field, preparations began for the sowing of spring crops (barley, oats, peas, beans and vetches). In a two-field system the spring crops would be sown on half the active field (winter crops, sown the previous autumn, would already be growing on the other half); in a three-field system the spring crops would have a field to themselves. Grains - barley and oats - were sown by the broadcast method, and were sometimes sown together in a mixture known as dredge. Peas and beans were painstakingly dibbled, the seeds being placed in a series of small holes made by poking a stick (known as a dibbler or dibbling-stick) into the ground. Choosing the right amount of seed to sow was a delicate matter which depended on soil quality and, to some extent, local custom. Too little seed and the weeds would choke the growing crops; too much and the crops would choke themselves. A working guide is that barley would be sown at four bushels to the acre and oats, peas and beans at three bushels to the acre.

May

Ploughing the fallow and sowing spring crops continued into May if necessary. Children would defend the newly-sown seed from crows and other marauding birds with slings: only the lord's doves were sacrosanct and killing one brought a heavy penalty. The doves could cause considerable damage to crops and they were a hated symbol of the lord's power.

The seed was quickly protected by harrowing to cover it with soil. The simplest, cheapest and most ineffective harrows were bundles of brushwood dragged behind a horse - sometimes even tied to its tail. More sturdy harrows consisted of wooden pegs fixed into a wooden frame; iron-toothed harrows were virtually unknown, and certainly well beyond the means of peasants. Sometimes the harrow was unable to break up heavy clods, and these were broken up with mallets.
Gardens also required attention. They were used not only to grow such staples of the peasant diet as cabbages and members of the onion family (onions, leeks and garlic) but also cash crops such as flax and hemp. Dyeplants like madder (red), woad (blue), dyer's greenweed (green) and weld (yellow) were also grown in gardens, probably for home use as well as for sale initially, but increasingly as a cash crop as the clothing industry became more urbanised in the 13th century. Culinary and medicinal herbs detected by archaeobotanists include parsley, fennel, celery, camomile, mint, summer savoury, catmint, mustard, opium poppy and coriander.
Cows came back into full milk as pastures took over from sparse winter fodder. Between May and Michaelmas (September 29) each cow was expected to produce seven stones (98lb) of cheese and a stone (14lb) of butter.

Any time left over was spent on maintenance work - hedging, ditching, repairing fences and buildings.

June

Haymaking was the main event of June, and it was a communal activity. Meadows were relatively rare, and those outside the lord's demesne were often held by the villagers in common. Haymakers used long-handled scythes to cut the grass close to the ground. Teams of men moved down the meadow in lines, each expected to mow about an acre a day. Women and children followed to turn the hay behind them to ensure it dried evenly. Finally the hay was gathered into large stacks. In some areas custom dictated that haymakers could carry away as much of the lord's hay as they could lift on their scythes without letting it fell - letting any part of the scythe or bundle touch the ground resulted in forfeiture.

The hay crop was vitally important to the village economy, for it provided the main winter fodder for animals. If the crop was bad fewer animals could be kept over winter; a good crop could mean a relatively steady supply of fresh meat over winter, a good supply of breeding stock or a surplus for sale.

Lambs were weaned as early as possible, for sheep's milk was rich and highly prized. Shearing began late in June. The best fleeces came from wethers (castrated males), and fleeces taken earlier were often finer and more valuable than those taken later in the year. Lambswool is extremely fine, but medieval sheep did not start to produce decently-sized fleeces until their third or fourth year.

In areas where three ploughings of the fallow field were the norm the second was generally begun in late June. This ploughing was a little deeper than the first to expose the roots of weeds, and as much manure as was available would be spread on the field before the teams began their work. The easiest way of getting the dung onto the field was to pasture beasts there. Each acre could support two sheep; cattle required about two acres each. Manorial lords often insisted that beasts were folded on demesne lands overnight to ensure they got most of the valuable manure. The beasts were not permitted to graze the meadows until at least a month after the haymaking to give the grass a chance to recover.

The Works of Summer

July

Between the hectic days of haymaking and the summer harvest the loathsome task of weeding the crop-bearing fields was the most important task. Thistles were among the most common weeds, and tradition held that thistles cut down before St John's Day (June 24) would multiply threefold before the main harvest. Other weeds common in medieval grain fields were dock, dead-nettle, charlock and corn cockle. Corn marigolds grew among spring-sown barley, and cornflower was associated with rye.

Weeding called for special tools. The most common were a pair of long-handled sticks, one with a Y-fork at the end and the other with a small sickle blade: they were used together to cut the stem of the weed at ground level. With manure in short supply, careful and dedicated weeding was probably the most effective way of increasing the harvest yield, but the sheer quantity of weed remains found in archaeological contexts shows medieval techniques were far from perfect.

Flax and hemp matured in the gardens, and required careful preparation to extract the fibres. Both plants were pulled up, roots and all, rather than cut. They were laid in the sun to dry before being retted: placed in a stream to rot away the fleshy parts of the plant. Once the fibres were clean they were beaten to separated them and hung up in strikes to dry thoroughly. Hemp was then ready to be wound into rope or cord, and flax to be placed on a distaff and spun into yarn.

July was the hungry month. Grain stores were at their lowest ebb, awaiting replenishment from the forthcoming harvest, and peasants in need eked out their diet by foraging and many no doubt by poaching. There is even a theory that rye infected with the hallucenogenic mold ergot was deliberately baked into bread to ease the gnawing hunger with a drug-induced daze.

August

The main grain harvest began in early August if the weather allowed and would usually be completed by the end of the month. The winter crops (wheat and rye) ripened and were harvested first, followed by the spring grains (barley and oats). The timing depended very much upon the weather - not only were weeks of warm sun and gentle rain needed for a good crop to grow, but several dry, sunny days were required to bring the harvest in. In a pinch unripe or rain-dampened grain could be harvested and placed in special corn-drying ovens, though these were more common in upland areas where the growing season was short.

Wheat was harvested with a sickle, used to cut a couple of hands-breadths below the ear of corn, leaving the long stubble standing in the field. The other grains were cut closer to the ground with a long-handled scythe. A team of five people - four reapers and a binder - could harvest two acres of crops a day. The process was not terribly efficient, and some of the grain fell to the ground; the poorest peasants often had the rights to glean the fallen grain from the fields after the harvest was brought in and before livestock was released to graze the stubble. Gleaning rights were hotly contested and seem to have been of considerable benefit to the recipients. Church tithes - one sheaf in every ten - were collected from the field before peasants carted their crop to their barns and houses.

Medieval harvest yields have been widely studied, and often hotly debated. They varied widely from year to year, depending largely on the weather conditions. In intensively farmed areas they could reach 1:10 or even higher, but were nowhere near as respectable in the open fields of the midland belt. Except where noted the following figures are based on averages for the Winchester estate between 1209 and 1270 AD, quoted in Christopher Dyer's Standards of living in the later Middle Ages (see bibliography). Yields given are after tithes have been deducted and threshing performed.

Crop 		Seed (bu/acre) 	Seed:Yield Ratio 	Yield (bu/acre)
Wheat 		2 		3.85 			7.7
Rye¹ 		2 		5 			10
Barley 		4 		4.32 			17.28
Oats 		3 		2.63 			7.89
Peas/Beans² 	3 		2.3		 	6.9

¹ The quantity of rye sown is my guesstimate. Yield is derived from returns for the abbey of Cluny in 1156 (from Rösener, Peasants in the Middle Ages).
² Figures for Peas/Beans are derived from returns for Bishops Cleeve c1299 AD (from Dyer, Standards of Living...).

According to Titow's study of the Winchester data between 1209 and 1350, bad harvests (where the yield was 15 per cent or more below the average) occured about one year in eight and good harvests (where the yields were 15 per cent or more above the average) about one year in 20.

September

If poor weather delayed the start of the grain harvest, it would be finished in early September before the peas, beans and vetches were harvested.

Work was not finished when the harvest was complete, although the pressure eased a little once the sheaves were safely brought indoors. But the grain still required processing. First it was threshed with a flail to separate the individual grains from the ear. The grainflail consisted of two lengths of wood, the handstaff and beater, joined by a leather thong. A worker could thresh about seven bushels of wheat in a day, or eight bushels of rye, 15 of barley or 18 bushels of oats. After threshing the grain was winnowed to remove the chaff and straw. This could be done by throwing the grains on a winnowing sheet and letting the wind blow the lighter chaff and straw away, or by using a special winnowing fan. The chaff and straw was not wasted but carefully collected to use as animal fodder. Finally the grain was sieved to remove the smaller weed seeds. It was then ready to be stored. It would last several years if kept dry and free from vermin, but this was not always easy. Flour had a much shorter shelf-life, and milling the grain was done as and when necessary.

Beans and peasecods were carefully dried as a source of both food and animal fodder over winter. Pottage was a staple of the peasant diet, and a pot of it was generally kept cooking at all times, topped up with new ingredients as required. An old English nursery rhyme is not far off the mark: Pease pudding hot, pease pudding cold - pease pudding in the pot, nine days old.

A substantial portion of the grain processing had to be completed by Michaelmas (September 29), which marked the start of the new financial year and was the day for settling debts, rents and dues. The idea of a wide-ranging Michaelmas slaughter of livestock is largely myth; animals not wanted as breeding or working stock were generally sold at market earlier in the year. In general only pigs, which lived largely on scraps and by scavenging, and beasts at the end of their working lives were candidates for slaughter on the manor, and not usually until Martinmas (November 11).

The Works of Autumn

October

The third and final ploughing of the fallow field was carried out prior to the sowing of winter crops of wheat and rye. Wheat was sown at about two bushels per acre. I have been unable to find a reliable reference indicating how much rye was sown, so I have assumed it was the same as wheat. Harrowing was performed after sowing (see May, above, for details).

By mid-September beechnuts and acorns were ripening and falling, and swineherds drove their charges into the woods to forage for them, a process known as pannaging. Pannage rights were generally paid for by a small cash fee on top of a peasant's normal dues, and provided a valuable means of fattening swine up for slaughter. Pannaging generally lasted for six weeks, ending in mid-November. Whatever wild fruits and nuts were available were also collected for human consumption. Wheat stubble, which had been left standing in the fields, was gathered in to mix with hay as winter fodder.

November

Martinmas (November 11) was the traditional day for slaughtering and salting old stock and swine to provide a supply of meat, however meagre, for the coming winter. Little of the pigs were wasted - flesh provided meat which preserved well by salting or smoking, skin could be cured into tough leather and even the blood was carefully saved to make black puddings. Ox-hide was also cured into leather.

By mid-November preparations for the hardships of winter were well underway. Firewood was collected from the woods; peasants were generally forbidden from taking anything but dead wood for their own personal use, and the amount they were allowed to take was often limited by local custom. Taking wood for sale generally resulted in a fine, but it did not stop people trying. In some areas turves and peat were cut and stacked to dry for the winter fire.

Reeds and sedges were cut to be dried for thatching, and bracken was gathered to use as winter bedding for cattle. Threshing and winnowing continued whenever the weather was too wet to do outside work.

December

By now almost all the outdoor work was complete, and little grain processing remained unfinished. Cold and rain largely confined peasants indoors, where they performed whatever tasks they could to while away the hours and perhaps earn a little cash: women spun, men performed handicrafts.

The Works of Winter

There seems little point in breaking the works of winter down into monthly tasks. Whatever maintenance could be done was carried out, and animals cared for. Dung from the barns was carefully stockpiled to be mixed with marl and spread upon the fields, though the peasants never had enough to fertilise more than the closest strips.

Lambing began in late February and in March the plough teams went out to prepare the fields for the spring sowing (see April, above).