World War One

Facts

 The German advance through Belgium in the summer of 1914, early in the war, demonstrated the value of siege artillery in particular, and all artillery in general. The huge German Krupp 42cm howitzers (Big Berthas ) and Austrian Skoda’s pounded the frontier fortresses into submission in only a few day’s time. This lesson was not lost on any of the belligerents, and the race to build and employ bigger and better artillery went into full swing.
Let’s review some artillery terminology. There are basically two types of large artillery - the cannon and the howitzer (or mortar). A cannon fires a shell over a long arc and typically hits its target head-on. The howitzer (or mortar) lobs the shell over a high arc so it lands atop its target. Your choice of artillery depends upon the job at hand.

Large guns, like handguns, are measured in caliber. This is the diameter of the barrel, and roughly, the shell it fires. Sometimes this measurement is given in inches, other times in centimeters or millimeters (thus a 42cm shell equivalent to a 420mm or 16.5 inch shell). The shells on naval ordnance are separate from the powder charge used to propel them (which is contained in a powder sack) whereas with smaller artillery, the powder charge is built into the shell much like a bullet. The advantage to a separate powder charge is that it allows the same shell type to be used over a wide range of distances by varying the charge.

In the Great War, the largest artillery was the naval variety - the guns of the dreadnoughts. These were monster guns for the time, in the 12 to 16 inch class (these would grow larger over the course of the war). These represented powerful and highly accurate produce of the naval arms race and the industrial revolution. The battleship made a perfect platform for guns of such size. After all, what’s a couple of hundred tons when you are dealing with vehicles in the range of 18,000 to 28,000 tons? The water cushion on which the battleship sat also helped absorb the massive recoil generated by these weapons. Even with such high gross weights, many battleships employed lockout mechanisms that prevented two gun turrets from firing at the same time - not as much out of fear of rolling the ship as for the possibility of altering the trajectory of the second salvo by the roll caused by the first. It is interesting to note that several of the large siege guns used against the Belgian fortifications had to be set in concrete before they could be fired due to their massive recoil.
Battleships were not an option on the Western Front, but the guns they used were seen as a tool that could help break the stalemate of the trenches - especially when used against the concrete fortified German positions near the Somme and later, the Hindenburg line. The first attempts at employing oversized naval ordnance simply consisted of putting the gun on a wheel mount and attempting to secure it in place. While advanced recoil mechanisms allowed for some success, deployment was still slow and cumbersome. The guns could only be moved slowly by large tractor. A worst case scenario would involve the gun falling into enemy hands in the event of a hasty retreat.

Then came the rail gun. Rail presented the perfect transport and firing platform for land based naval ordnance. The gun could be moved relatively quickly along the rail system and the recoil could be dispersed by allowing the carriage to hurtle down the tracks (sometimes up to 100 feet). In some cases, a piece of curved siding was actually used to aim the gun. These guns could fire up to thirty miles and were capable of reaching far into the enemy’s rear positions. The culmination of the rail gun was the massive French Schneider 520mm howitzer. The shells this gun fired were over 24 inches in diameter and weighed 3,100 pounds. They were fused in such a way as to allow the shell to penetrate its target before detonation. Luckily for all involved, the war ended before they could be brought into service.

Probably the most discussed of all of the big guns of the Great War is the infamous Paris Gun. Also known as Lange Max (Long Max), Big Bertha (not to be confused with the 42cm Krupp howitzer given the same nick name) and William’s Gun ; this gun was strategic, rather than tactical in nature, in that it was a terror weapon meant to demoralize the citizens of Paris. This forerunner to the Iraqi supergun could fire a shell 70 miles in about 170 seconds reaching a maximum altitude of 24 miles - quite a feat of German engineering for 1918. On the down side, the payload was only 15 pounds of explosive, accuracy was non-existent (you could hit Paris but not a specific target in Paris), and the whole gun would have to be rebored after 65 firings.

The horrors of gas warfare had never been seen on a battlefield until 1915. The Germans have been credited with the first use, but the French and English were not far behind. Gas was a nuisance, a crippling nuisance, often only wounding and causing widespread panic instead of outright killing. Add a gas mask to the already surreal atmosphere of an offensive's rolling bombardments and heavy machine gun fire, and what you got must have been close to hell.

The first reported use of gas was by the Germans on the eastern front on 3-Jan-1915. It was a tearing agent dispersed by artillery shell. The first use on the western front came several months later on 22-Apr-1915 at the village of Langemarck near Ypres. At 1700 hours the Germans released a 5 mile wide cloud of chlorine gas from some 520 cylinders (168 tons of the chemical). The greenish-yellow cloud drifted over and into the French and Algerian trenches where it caused wide spread panic and death. The age of chemical warfare had begun.
 

Lachrymator (tearing agent)
Much like today's tear gas and mace, this gas caused temporary blindness and greatly inflamed the nose and throat of the victim. A gas mask offered very good protection from this type of gas. xylyl bromide was a popular tearing agent since it was easily brewed.

Asphyxiant
These are the poisonous gases. This class includes chlorine, phosgene and diphosgene. Chlorine inflicts damage by forming hydrochloric acid when coming in contact with moisture such as found in the lungs and eyes. It is lethal at a mix of 1:5000 (gas/air) whereas phosgene is deadly at 1:10,000 (gas/air) - twice as toxic! Diphosgene , first used by the Germans at Verdun on 22-Jun-1916, was deadlier still and could not be effectively filtered by standard issue gas masks.

Blistering Agent
Dichlorethylsulphide: the most dreaded of all chemical weapons in World War I - mustard gas. Unlike the other gases which attack the respiratory system, this gas acts on any exposed, moist skin. This includes, but is not limited to, the eyes, lungs, armpits and groin. A gas mask could offer very little protection. The oily agent would produce large burn-like blisters wherever it came in contact with skin. It also had a nasty way of hanging about in low areas for hours, even days, after being dispersed. A soldier jumping into a shell crater to seek cover could find himself blinded, with skin blistering and lungs bleeding.

List of gases used in World War I

• benzyl bromide
  German, tearing, first used 1915

• bromacetone
  Both sides, tearing/fatal in concentration, first used 1916

• carbonyl chloride (phosgene)
  both sides, asphyxiant, fatal with delayed action, first used 1915

• chlorine
  both sides, asphyxiant, fatal in concentration, first used in 1915, cylinder release only

• chloromethyl chloroformate
  both sides, tearing, first used in 1915, artillery shell

• chloropircin
  both sides, tearing, first used in 1916, artillery shell (green cross I)

• cyanogen (cyanide) compounds
  allies/Austria, asphyxiant, fatal in concentration, first used in 1916, artillery shell

• dichlormethylether
  German, tearing, first used 1918, artillery shell

• dibrommethylethylketone
  German, tearing, fatal in concentration, first used in 1916

• dichloroethylsulphide (mustard gas)
  both sides, blistering, artillery shell (yellow cross)

• diphenylchloroarsine
  German, asphyxiant, fatal in concentration, (dust - could not be filtered), first used in 1917, artillery shell (blue cross)

• diphenylcyonoarsine
  German, more powerful replacement for blue cross, first used in 1918

• ethyldichloroarsine
  German, less powerful replacement for blue cross, first used in 1918, artillery shell (yellow cross I, green cross III)

• ethyl iodoacetate
  British, tearing, first used in 1916

• monobrommethylethylketone
  German, more powerful replacement for bromacetone, first used 1916

• trichloromethylchloroformate (diphosgene)
  both sides, asphyxiant, fatal with delayed action, first used 1916

• xylyl bromide
  German, tearing, first used 1915

Trench Warfare

           British Daily Ration - 1914

           20 oz. Fresh or frozen meat, or 16 oz. preserved or salt meat

           20 oz. bread, or 16 oz. biscuit or flour

           4 oz. bacon

           3 oz. cheese

           5/8 oz. tea

           4 oz. jam

           3 oz. sugar

           1/2 oz. slat

           1/36 oz. pepper

           1/20 oz. mustard

           8 oz. fresh or 2 oz. dried vegetables

           1/10 gill lime juice if vegetable not issued (for scurvey)

           1/2 gill rum (at discretion of commanding general)

           not to exceed 20 oz. tobacco per week

           Substitutions

           4 oz. oatmeal or rice instead bread

           1/3 oz. chocolate instead of tea.

           1 pint porter instead of rum

           4 oz. dried fruit instead of jam

           4 oz. butter, lard, or margarine, or 1/2 gill oil instead of bacon

                                    Typical British gear inluding rifle, gas

                                     mask and helmet. Each soldier was

                                     expected to carry this 70 pounds of

                                         equipment into battle.

                     Excerpts from the diary of

       Lieutenant Charles Sharpe, 1/4th Royal Berkshire Regiment

    23 Sept. 1915, Very wet day. I bombarded Huns' wire.

     Other platoons of 'B' Company went into trenches.

     Very wet!

    24. Sept. Bombarded Huns. Brought my platoon &

     No. 7 into trenches. Very muddy & wet!

    25 Sept. Very wet night. Bombarded wire "8/62"

    26 Sept. Patrol from 5th Glos. went out I a.m. One

     officer & I Cpl. killed. Very wet night! Very tired.

    27 Sept. 7 p.m. "Wind up" opposite "Buck". Huns

     shout: "Come on, Gloucesters, the Royal Berks led

     the attack!" Spy reported caught in village, dressed

     as English officer. Cold night but fine.

    28 Sept. Awful night & very dank. German in front of

     our wire! Huns "wind up" at 4.20 a.m.

    29 Sept. Relieved & came to Souastre. Nice billet.

    30 Sept. Delightful sleep in bed - the 1st I've seen

     since I left England. Had bath!

    11 Oct. Back to trenches. I rode "bike" up to

     Hebuterne - awful thing! Slept at "Poste Cambron"

     [sicl.

    12 Oct. Day's rest on Keep. Saw 18 aeroplanes bomb

     Achiet-le-Grand station!

    13 Oct. Relieved in trenches. Wet - in support trench

     "Biron".

    14 Oct. Up in fire trench. Collins (10th R. Irish Rifles)

     with me. Rats & mice in dug-out; crawled over me!

    16 Oct. Working party in afternoon. London Territorial

     RFA to tea & lunch, I had lunch early tho'.

     Lilian sent me a lavender bag.

    19 Oct. Awful bombardment. 450 Shells but 59 duds on

     us, on left corner of trench.

    20 Oct. Left trenches. Saw German - missed him but

     Hesketh Pritchard & snipers had him. New billet -

     dirty!'

                                     Geman infantry uniform early in the

                                    war before the decorative pickhaube

                                      helmet was replaced with a more

                                      functional and protective design

                                              (1914).

                                     See also: Wartime Changes to the

                                      German Field Uniform 1914-1916

         German Daily Ration - 1914

         26 1/2 oz. bread or 17 1/2 oz. field biscuit, or 14 oz. egg biscuit

         13 oz. fresh or frozen meat, or 7 oz. preserved meat

         53 oz. potatoes, or 4 1/2 oz. vegetables, or 2 oz. dried vegetables,

         or 21 oz. mixed potatoes and dried vegetables

         9/10 oz. coffee, or 1/10 oz. tea

         7/10 oz. sugar

         9/10 oz. salt

         2 cigars and 2 cigarettes, or 1 oz. pipe tobacco, or 9/10 oz. plug

         tobacco, or 1/5 oz. snuff (at discretion of commanding officer)

         0.17 pint spirits

         0.44 pint wine

         0.88 pint beer

Sturmtruppen, or Stormtroopers (also known as shock troops)

      were first employed by General Oskar von Hutier, nephew to

      Ludendorff, on the eastern front in September of 1917. Hutier's

      strategy involved bringing the sturmtruppen up to the front under

      cover of darkness, launching a fast and powerful artillery

      bombardment (170 batteries supported by 200 medium and heavy

      mortars in this case) consisting of conventional explosives and gas.

      This replaced the prolonged bombardments that, in effect, warned

      the enemy of the coming offensive. Waves of sturmtruppen armed

      with the latest in weapons (flame throwers, grenade launchers, light

      machine guns) would then assault weak points in the enemy line in a

      leapfrog manner. The key to success was surprise and speed. This

      tactic accounted for large German gains during the late years of the

      war and would evolve into the blitzkrieg (lightning war) tactic of

      World War II.

                         Submarine command organization, 1917

                            Location       Avg # of U-boats

                            Emden                      25

                            Ostend                     23

                            Pola                         22

                            Wilhelmshaven          22

                            Libau                        9

                            Constantinople          3

U-boats lined up at the docks. Pens were not required since there was no chance of air attack. The fleet reached its peak in 1917 when 146 U-boats were on patrol. Not enough to fulfill the objective of unrestricted submarine warfare.

 Phases of the U-boat Campaign

   The U-boat campaign can be broken into two distinct phases. The first was aimed at allied surface warships; The second, and ultimately more successful, was targeted towards allied shipping - using the U-boat as a tool to enforce an embargo. Early in the war efforts were almost exclusively concentrated towards surface warships with the results looking promising.

On 22-Sep-1914 the U 9 under command of Kapitanleutnant Otto Weddigen sank the British light cruisers Abourkir, Hogue and Cressy in the English Channel. The problem here is that both sides soon refused to put their warships at risk by

cruising the high seas. The great naval build-up of the last decade may have been one of the most monumental wastes of money of all time - both fleets spending the majority of the war at their home bases with the notable exception of Jutland.

            On 4-Feb-1915 the Germans began their first campaign of submarine warfare aimed at allied and neutral merchant vessels in the waters surrounding the UK. At this point the practice of allowing the crew to disembark before the vessel was sunk (usually by deck gun since torpedoes were conserved if at all possible) was still generally followed. A notorious exception to this rule was the Lusitania, a Cunard passenger liner that was sunk by U 20 under command of Captain Schweiger on 7-May-1915 off the coast of Ireland. 124 Americans were among the 1,198 casualties. (There are more details on the Lusitania towards the bottom of this page)

Three more Americans were killed when the U 24 sunk the Passenger liner Arabic on 19-Aug-1915. The American government brought pressure to bear on Germany and demanded an end to sinking without warning. On 30-Aug-1915 Germany prohibits further action of this type.

On 18-Sep-1915 the Germans, in an attempt to reduce further damage to American shipping, withdraw all U-boats from the English Channel area. U-boat activity would be at a lull for the next several months.

1916 would see this lull come to an end. On 13-Mar-1916 the German military issued orders which loosened its stance on sinking without warning. Their U-boat commanders would be able to fire on British ships in home waters as long as they did not appear to be of the passenger variety.

The UB 29 violated this convention by sinking the passenger liner Sussex on 24-Mar-1916 which once again resulted in American loss of life.

On 24-Apr-1916, for the second time, U-boat commanders are instructed not to sink without warning. This was done amid threats of America breaking off diplomatic

relations with Germany. None the less, allied and neutral losses continued to climb throughout the second half of 1916, rising from 37,000 tons in Jun-1916 to 180,000 tons by Dec-1916.

By 1917 the situation was getting difficult for Germany. While the U-boat enforced embargo was proving to be an effective weapon, it also seemed that it would bring America into the war against Germany. The only hope now, it appeared, was to increase U-boat activity in an attempt for victory over Great Britain before America could get into the European picture.

On 1-Feb-1917 Germany declares unrestricted submarine warfare for the third time. This action causes the United States to break off relations on 3-Feb-1917. The submarine, the weapon that had proven itself most useful in the war on commerce, had now sealed the fate of Germany by swinging the Great Neutral to the allied cause.

America declares war on Germany on 6-Apr-1917.

U-boat activity intensified greatly in the first half of 1917 with British losses at 300,000 tons in Feb-1917, climbing to half a million by Jun-1917. This period marked the zenith for U-boats. The coming of the convoy system and other anti-submarine tactics would curtail British losses (never to rise beyond 100,000 tons per month) and would transform the predator into prey.

                        Allied and neutral ships lost during the war

                                    1914    1915    1916    1917    1918

To submarines            3            396      964      2,439   1,035

To surface craft            55        23        32        64        3

To mines                      42        97        161      170      27

To aircraft                    0          0          0          3          1

                              Anti-submarine Warfare

            Combating the menace of the U-boat was high priority for the island nation of Great Britain. The sea was her supply line and the ships that brought the supplies must be allowed safe passage if she were to stay in the war.

The Q-ship was an early attempt to solve the problem of battling a hidden enemy. These ships were converted merchant vessels concealing large deck guns. The practice of allowing the crew to disembark before sinking would lure the U-boat to the surface at which point it would be sunk before it could retaliate against its target. While this may have been effective, it only worked when the U-boat was willing to play fair, that is to say before the Germans caught on. These decoy tactics are largely responsible for the German orders to sink without warning.

            The next advancement was the hydrophone. This device allowed destroyers to locate submerged U-boats by detecting the sound of its engines and propeller. While it worked to some degree, it did not work as well as hoped. There are many engines and many propellers in a convoy and it can be difficult to determine which is friendly and which is enemy. SONAR and ASDIC were both introduced towards the end of the war. They were much more effective, sort of an underwater form of RADAR, but introduced too late to have much impact.

            Next came the depth-charge which was introduced in 1916. This is an industrial drum filled with explosives and fitted with a pressure sensitive fuse that causes the device to detonate at a predetermined depth. Its appearance gave it the nickname ashcan. This device also had pros and cons. A major con was that you had to have a fairly good idea of the depth at which your foe was hiding. A pro was that sometimes "close enough" counted. A nearby detonation would collapse the hull of the U-boat due to water pressure and thin hull. By the end of the war the depth-charge accounted for 29 kills - second only to the mine.

            The mine was a very effective weapon for use both by and against U-boats. U-boats, such as the UC 44 class pictured above, were capable of deploying up to 18 mines while out on patrol. Mines were employed against U-boats in confined areas such as the English Channel. They kept entire harbor areas off limits to U-boats - a very good preventative weapon.

 The final two tactics were effectively combined in the later years of the war - the convoy and air coverage. Allied shipping losses were cut by a fifth in mid 1917 when the convoy system was adopted by the British Navy at the urging of Prime Minister Lloyd George. Merchant ships would be massed together for the crossing and given a destroyer escort. While it did not eliminate losses, it certainly brought them down to a manageable and replaceable level. The entire American Expeditionary Force was delivered to Great Britain with the loss of 1 ship, 100 troops - an amazing fact considering the distances and number of men involved. Only the stragglers became suceptable. Air coverage was added to the convoy system in 1918 and results were dramatic: only 5 ships were lost under the protection of air coverage.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          

                                   The Lusitania

                   Left: the Lusitania sailing notice. The ship departed New

                   York on 1-May-1915 at 10:00 am.

                   Right: The warning from the German Embassy that

                   appeared directly under the sailing notice. It reads as

                   follows:

                                       Notice!

                   Travellers intending to embark on the Atlantic voyage are reminded

                   that a state of war exists between Germany and her allies and Great

                   Britain and her allies; that the zone of war includes the waters

                   adjacent to the British Isles; that, in accordance with formal notice

                   given by the Imperial German Government, vessels flying the flag of

                   Great Britain, or any of her allies, are liable to destruction in those

                   waters and that travellers sailing in the war zone on ships of Great

                   Britain or her allies do so at their own risk.

                   Imperial German Embassy

                   Washington, D. C., April 22, 1915

   The story behind the sinking of the Cunard passenger liner Lusitania has been enveloped in controversy

   since the day of its occurrence. The story is an interesting one.

   The Lusitania was launched 7-Jun-1906. The luxurious liner was 760 feet long with a beam of 87.5

   feet and had a displacement of 45,000 tons. It had a cruising speed of 25.88 knots. On its first run in

   Sep-1907, it recaptured the coveted Blue Riband (fastest Atlantic crossing) from the German liner

   Kaiser Wilhelm II. One of its design innovations was to store 6,600 tons of coal required for a

   crossing, in longitudinal bulkheads between the inner and outer hulls. It was originally thought that this

   would provide protection should the ship ever come under attack, a concept that would later prove to

   be very wrong.

   In 1913 the Lusitania was drydocked and outfitted with twelve 6-in guns. This was done as a

   precaution should there be a war with Germany. When it sailed in Sep-1914 it was registered as an

   auxiliary cruiser. In addition to this it also violated international law by carrying munitions on all but its

   first wartime crossing.

   When it embarked for England on 1-May-1915 its cargo included: 51 tons of shrapnel shells, 10.5 tons

   of .303 caliber rifle bullets, and an indeterminate amount of guncotton, an explosive that detonates upon

   contact with water. It also picked up some 200 tons of additional ammunition from the Queen

   Margaret who was undergoing mechanical difficulties. Despite a printed warning from the German

   Embassy, only one passenger changed his travel plans.

   At 1:35 pm GMT on 7-May-1915 off the coast of Ireland Captain Schweiger, commanding the U 20,

   fired his last torpedo at the Lusitania. He didn't expect the single torpedo to sink the liner, he just

   wanted to see how much damage it would do. The G-type torpedo hit just forward of the bridge on the

   starboard side. The initial explosion of the torpedo warhead was followed by a much larger one that

   shook the entire ship. Eighteen minutes later the giant liner was gone. 1,198 people perished, among

   them 124 Americans.

   The Germans justified this action by claiming that the Lusitania was far from an unarmed merchant ship,

   and while deploring the loss of life, claimed the U 20 was acting in self-defense. In an attempt to placate

   the United States government the Germans accepted liability for the incident in Feb-1916 and agreed to

   pay reparations.

                                    The sinking of the Lusitania was a propaganda bonanza for the

                                    allies. Posters such as the one at left , exploit the disaster to the

                                    fullest. This incident, coupled with the German atrocities in Belgium,

                                    would bring the United States in on the allied side in 1917.

Archduke Franz Ferdinand

1863-1914

                       General Information

Family name: Hapsburg

         Heir to the Austrian Throne:

         Third in line to the throne at one point, he became heir

         through two untimely deaths. The first was of the Emperor's

         son, Crown Prince Rudolph, who killed himself (and his

         sixteen year old mistress) in 1889. The second was the death

         of his father, Archduke Charles Louis, in 1896. Now it was

         Franz Ferdinand that would be next in line for the Crown.

         Politics:

         Considered more flexible in matters of military and domestic

         affairs than his uncle Emperor Franz Josef, he was a reformist

         with new ideas to be put into practice when he ascended to

         the Hapsburg throne. One of these ideas was "trialism" - the

         reorganization of the dual monarchy into a triple monarchy by

         giving the Slavs an equal voice in the empire. This would put

         them on an equal footing with the Magyars and Germans

         living inside the Austro-Hungarian borders. These politics

         were in direct conflict with those of the Serbian nationalists.

         Personal: Much has been said about Franz Ferdinand and

         very little of it good. He has been referred to as a miser, a

         bigot, and a spoiled child. Shunned by the elite of Viennese

         society, he was also called "the loneliest man in Vienna".

         He lacked the two key elements for success in this social

         scene - charm and elegance. His home life appears to have

         been surprisingly better. His marriage to Countess Sophia von

         Chotkowa und Wognin, Duchess of Hohenburg in 1900 was

         called one of the world's great love affairs. Unfortunately the

         Emperor considered the Duchess a commoner and tried to

         convince Franz Ferdinand he was marrying beneath his

         station. They went through with the marriage against the

         Emperor's wishes but had to renounce rights of rank and

         succession for their children. In the years to come, Sophie

         would not be allowed to ride in the same car with her

         husband during affairs of state.

         Fate: The Archduke and his wife Sophie were assassinated

         in Sarajevo on 28-Jun-1914 (their fourteenth wedding

         anniversary) by Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip. The

         Archduke's role of Inspector General of the Austrian army

         had brought him to Sarajevo for the summer maneuvers.

         Neither Emperor Franz Josef or the Kaiser saw fit to attend

         the funeral.

         More:

         Additional Photos of the Archduke

                             Quotes

         "What is the good of your speeches? I come to Sarajevo

         on a visit, and I get bombs thrown at me. It is

         outrageous!"

              The Archduke interrupting the Mayor's speech at City

              Hall in Sarajevo

         "Sophie dear, Sophie dear, don't die! Stay alive for our

         children."

              The Archduke's last words

Prince Otto Furst von Bismarck-Schonhausen

1815-1898

General Information

              aka The Iron Chancellor

              Architect of the German Empire. Credited with the

              1871 unification of Germany.

              Warned against taking the provinces of

              Alsace-Lorraine from France after the 1870

              Franco-Prussian War.

              Warned against the violation of Belgian neutrality as

              dictated by the Schlieffen Plan.

              Had difficulty winning approval of alliance with

              Austria-Hungary. Wilhelm I was worried it would

              offend Russia.

              Dismissed as Chancellor by Wilhelm II in Mar-1890.

              His legacy of alliances proved difficult for his

              successors to manage.

                                      Quotes

         "I am bored. The great things are done. The German

         Reich is made."

              Bismarck after the German unification of 1871

         "A generation that has taken a beating is always followed

         by a generation that deals one."

              Bismarck on France

         "Some damned foolish thing in the Balkans,"

              Bismarck's prediction on what would provoke the next

              War

Czar Nicholas II of Russia

1868-1918

                                 General Information

           Nicholas II was born on May 6, 1868, in Tsarskoe

           Selo. He was delivered by his mother Marie

           Fyodorovna Romanova, formerly Dagmar, Princess of

           Denmark. His father Alexander Romanov was an

           important member of the Russian government.

           Unlike the rest of the Romanov men, Nicholas was not a

           very big man. The other men were always very

           intimidating; Nicholas however, was a mere 5' 6 tall. To

           make up for his lack of height, Nicholas worked out

           with weights and other various athletic equipment.

           Nicholas was known for his regal appearance. He had

           lively blue eyes that people always thought were the well

           of his soul. He wore his brown hair parted to the left and

           had a thick beard. He had golden highlights throughout.

           Those golden highlights stayed with him throughout his

           life and became his signature feature.

           Nicholas had a nervous habit of always brushing his

           thick mustache with the back of his hand. Nicholas

           inherited a pug nose from his father. He disliked it very

           much because it reminded him of Paul I whom he

           considered the most unattractive of his relatives.

           Nicholas was an extremely smart man and very well

           educated. He was at the top of his class and was the

           most intelligent of the European monarchs of his time.

           His parents prepared him for the task of being a 20th

           Century Czar, knowing it would be quite different from

           previous years.

           The family was guarded by secret police and military

           guards. This meant that Nicholas grew up in almost

           complete seclusion from the outside world. This was not

           helpful to his maturing process or understanding of the

           ways in which his future subjects lived. Because he was

           so secluded, Nicholas never grew an appreciation for

           how people lived, and his ideas about important issues

           were very narrow-minded. His immaturity and lack of

           understanding would hinder his ability to govern Russia

           in the future.

           While heir to the throne, Nicholas worked his way into

           the rank of Colonel in the Life Guards. He had a love for

           the military and always considered himself an army man.

           His personality and social habits were greatly influenced

           by his years as a young officer. He made many of his

           longest lasting friendships among his fellow officers.

           These were the happiest years when he had no worries

           of his future reign as Czar of Russia.

           Nicholas gave his heart to a young, German princess

           named Alex of Hess. It was thought that they were not a

           good match. She was not seen as the type of woman

           with the strong qualities needed in an Empress to be.

           Yet, they were formally engaged in 1893.

           Nicholas felt he was not up to the task of ruling Russia.

           He felt as though he had not the abilities or the

           experience. Yet, he took his coronation oath very

           seriously. Realizing that he was surrounded by

           bureaucrats, he quickly figured out he could trust few

           people. He turned to his wife, knowing that she was the

           one true person that he could rely on for support.

           Loneliness became his way of life.

           Nicholas always put his country before anything else in

           life. He thought the fate of his family and his country

           were inseparable. He knew the shortcomings of his

           family dynasty all too well. Only he could keep it from

           falling apart. Being a very smart man, he realized he was

           a target for assassination. His wife's love and devotion

           were cherished throughout his life.

           Though praised for his admirable qualities, he was

           portrayed as a failure. It was very hard for him to

           distinguish his own views of what was right and wrong

           for Russia. Although he was not an unintelligent man, he

           was hesitant to draw his own conclusions. He often

           pondered on important issues. Lacking political

           knowledge and instinct, he was rarely sure how to

           handle the affairs of state. He was thought of as weak

           and very contradictorious. It was difficult to relate to his

           mentality and follow his leadership.

           In 1914, World War I began. Nicholas II took

           command of the army in 1915. He left the government

           of Russia in the hands of Czarina Alexandra Feodorovna

           and her advisor Rasputin. Discontent spread throughout

           Russia. The army was tired of war, and food shortages

           worsened. The government was in complete disarray. In

           March of 1917, Nicholas II was forced to abdicate. He

           and his family were shot to death in Yekatinburg on July

           16, 1918.

Franz Josef - Emperor of Austria, King of

                          Hungary

1830-1916

                       General Information

         Family name: Hapsburg (Austrian: Habsburg)

         Ascent: Franz Josef was crowned Emperor of Austria in

         1848 at age 18. By the summer of 1914 he would be in the

         66th year of his reign. He was also crowned King of Hungary

         in 1867 in an attempt to calm the situation with the

         problematic Magyars (Hungarians). This worked and the

         Dual Monarchy would last until his death in 1916.

         Politics: The aging monarch had seen the Habsburg Empire

         lose its holdings in both Italy and Germany until it had become

         mainly an eastern European power. Franz Josef was sensitive

         to these losses and was determined not to allow further decay

         of the empire by losing Austro-Hungarian holdings in the

         Balkans to Serbia. It has been said that he was "the last

         monarch of the old school".

         Despite these political beliefs he was immensely popular

         among all the various national groups that comprised his

         kingdom. This can be attributed to the above average

         standard of living that his subjects enjoyed. By 1914 he rarely

         left his palaces but it was not out of fear of assassination.

         Personal: Emperor and King, still his life was not without its

         trials and sorrows. Early on as Emperor he lost major wars to

         France (1848) and Prussia (1866). His brother, Maximilian,

         was executed in Mexico. His son, Crown Prince Rudolph,

         committed suicide in 1889 followed by his wife's assassination

         by an anarchist in Geneva (1897). He had numerous

         difficulties with his nephew and heir, Archduke Franz

         Ferdinand, who would be assassinated by Serbian nationalists

         on 28-Jun-1914 at a place called Sarajevo.

                  "Terrible! The Almighty cannot be provoked! A Higher

         Power has restored that order which unfortunately I was

         unable to maintain."

              The Emperor upon hearing of the Archduke's

              assassination

         "Now we can no longer hold back. It will be a terrible

         war."

              The Emperors response to the German "blank check"

         "Also Doch! (It has come after all!)"

              The Emperor on Serbian mobilization

Marshal Ferdinand Foch                  

1851-1929

                       General Information

           Ferdinand Foch was born on 2-Oct-1851. He was born

           in the city of Tarbes, France and was the son of a

           lawyer. Ferdinand was the commander in chief of the

           Allied armies in France. In the final stages of World War

           I he helped to bring about the Allied victory.

           Ferdinand was a Roman Catholic with exceptional

           training. Early in his life he decided to become a soldier

           and he joined the army in 1871. At the early age of

           twenty he entered Ecole Polytechnique. Shortly after

           graduating from there he enrolled at the Ecole de

           Guerre, France's war college. He was such an

           inspiration that he was asked to be a teacher there. He

           went on to teach military tactics and achieved the rank

           of major. His lectures were so superior that they were

           made into two works, The Priciples of War, and De la

           Conduite de la Guerre. He served as a line officer with

           the French army from 1901 until 1907. He was called

           back and made director of Ecole de Guerre from 1908

           to 1911. This time he was a commandant. Ferdinand

           was forced out of retirement to command the Eighth and

           the Twentieth Army Corps. Eventually he became chief

           of the French general staff in 1917.

           At the start of World War I, Ferdinand commanded

           France's Ninth Army during the battle of Marne, which

           was the first major engagement of the war. He also

           commanded an army group in the battle of the Somme in

           the summer of 1916. Later, his generalship at Ypres

           saved the channel ports for the Allies. Ferdinand was

           eventually given unified command of all the Allied troops

           in France. He halted the German advance during the

           second battle of Marne in July of 1918. On

           18-Jul-1918, Ferdinand mounted the counter attack that

           turned the tide of the war. Several months later he

           accepted the German's surrender, which took place in

           November of 1918. Meanwhile, on 7-Aug-1918, he

           was made Marshal of France. After the war he served in

           advisory capacities and later went on to die in Paris on

           20-Mar-1929.

Frederick Wilhelm Viktor Albert of

                       Hohenzollern

            Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany

1859-1941

                       General Information

         Ascent: Emperor Wilhelm I dies 9-Mar-1888. Frederick III

         is crowned Emperor but cannot rule due to throat cancer and

         a ninety-nine day coma. Wilhelm II succeeds his father and is

         crowned Emperor (midyear) 1888.

         Noteworthy

         Relations                       Relationship               Country

Crown Prince Wilhelm  son                               Germany

Czar Nicholas II                       cousin                           Russia

King Edward VII                      uncle                            Britain                         

King George V             cousin                           Britain

King Frederick III                    father                            Prussia

Queen Victoria             grandmother                 Britain

Emperor Wilhelm I                   grandfather                   Germany

         Politics: Above all, the Kaiser wanted "a place in the sun"

         for the German people. The problem was the only places left

         were in the shade. There was very little room left for new

         colonization in the early part of this century. Never the less the

         Kaiser built up the German military machine and under the

         Tirpitz Plan, built a naval fleet to rival that of Great Britain.

         The term "saber rattler" sums up his politics as well as his

         personality. Historian Barbara Tuchman put it well when she

         referred to the Kaiser as "possessor of the least inhibited

         tongue in Europe".

         Personal: The Kaiser was born with a withered left arm (like

         FDR's polio, this defect was pretty well covered up and is

         visible in only a few photographs). This, together with having

         some tough footsteps in which to follow, led Wilhelm towards

         the military lifestyle. He loved his numerous uniforms and

         surrounding himself with the elite of German military society.

         Misconception: The Kaiser was a war monger solely

         responsible for the First World War. The Kaiser did not

         start the war. The Kaiser did not want the war. "Saber

         rattling" is one thing, a war with the other major European

         powers is something very different indeed! The most that can

         be said is that the Kaiser did not do enough to try to control

         the actions of Austria-Hungary and prevent the outbreak of

         war. In the end he accepted war.

         Fate: The Kaiser was forced to ø abdicate as part of the

         Armistice. He went to Holland where he died in 1941. He is

         buried at Doorn.

                             Quotes

         "only fit to live in a country house and grow turnips"

              The Kaiser on Czar Nicholas II

         "a very nice boy"

              The Kaiser on King George V (only six years his

              junior)

         "bear yourselves as Huns of Attila"

              The Kaiser to troops heading for the Boxer Rebellion

              in China

         "He is satan, you cannot imagine what a satan he is"

              The Kaiser on King Edward VII

         "a spirited note, what?"

              The Kaiser on the ø ultimatum to Serbia

         "A great moral victory for Vienna, but with it, every

         reason for war disappears."

              The Kaiser on the ø Serbian reply to the ultimatum

         "Gentlemen, you will regret this."

              The Kaiser to the general staff on the decision to

              Mobilize

David Lloyd George                      

1863-1945

                       General Information

           David Lloyd George was born in Manchester, England

           on 17-Jan-1863. He was raised by his uncle, a local

           shoemaker and sectarian lay preacher in North Wales.

           In 1878 David Lloyd George was apprenticed to a

           non-trial lawyer and he opened his own law practice in

           1884. As a poacher’s lawyer, or a lawyer willing to

           defend those that broke harsh poaching laws,

           Lloyd-George acquired a loyal following among north

           Wales tenant farmers and quarrymen. In 1890 he was

           elected to Parliament. Lloyd George became a very

           active social reformer and used annual government

           budget to construct policy as well as raise money.

           At first reluctant to approve Great Britain's involvement

           into World War I, Lloyd George soon advocated a

           knockout blow against Germany, demanding vigor and

           efficiency from the government. As munitions Minister in

           1915-1916, he made sure of the steady flow of guns

           and shells that reached the Western Front. This made

           him a hero to the press but made many political enemies.

           He became Minister of War shortly before he joined

           with the conservative leaders. Lloyd George then

           became Prime Minister and the dominant figure in the

           New 5-member coalition cabinet. The last four year of

           Lloyd George's office were uneventful. He was the key

           British negotiator at the Paris Peace Conference but his

           "conference diplomacy" failed to break postwar

           tensions. After the coalition fell in Oct-1922 Lloyd

           George was united again with the Asquithian liberals and

           later succeeded Asquith as a Liberal party leader. With

           the decline of liberalism he never held office again. He

           was awarded an earldom shortly before his death on

           26-Mar-1945.

General John J. Pershing                                          

1860-1948

                                   General Information

           In 1916 he became the commander of the American

           Expeditionary Force (AEF) that led the Allies to turn the tide

           against the Central Powers.

           Pershing had to form and train an army that grew in a year and

           a half to nearly 3,000,000 men.

           He would not let his troops be mixed with other European

           nations.

           He led the Meuse-Argonne offensive of 1918.

           Congress created a new rank for him -- General of the Armies

           of the United States.

                             Quotes

      "We never really let the Germans know who won the war. They

      are being told that their army was stabbed in the back, betrayed,

      that their army had not been defeated. The Germans never

      believed they were beaten. It will have to be done all over

      again...."

           Pershing in 1923 on the prospects of another war.

      "We came American. We shall remain American and go into

      battle with Old Glory over our heads. I will not parcel out

      American boys."

           Pershing on keeping the AEF together as a fighting force.

      "Lafayette, we are here!"

           attributed to Pershing, but he claims it was uttered by Charles

           E. Stanton.

Gavrilo Princip

1895-1918

General Information

      "The Narodna Odbrana does not doubt that in the fight

      against the enemies with whom we stand face to face, our

      people will provide a succession of heroes."

      ø Exerpt from "Narodna Odbrana" pamphlet

      A 19 year old tubercular Bosnian Serb student. A member of Mlada

      Bosna ("Young Bosnia"), a movement dedicated to a Bosnia free of

      Hapsburg rule. He and his six fellow assassins were equipped with

      pistols and bombs by a Serbian terrorist organization known as the

      Black Hand.

      On 28-Jun-1914 he succeeded where his accomplices failed in

      assassinating Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Countess

      Sophia in Sarajevo.

      He attempted suicide at the scene but the gun was knocked from his

      hand by an onlooker. His second attempt at suicide was by cyanide,

      but it made him retch and he vomited up the poison. He was taken

      into custody and made to stand trial. He was found guilty but,

      because of his age, spared the death penalty. He died in prison of

      tuberculosis in 1918. All in all, it seems he was treated fairly by the

      government he considered so tyrannical.

                             Quotes

      "There is no need to carry me to another prison. My life is

      already ebbing away. I suggest that you nail me to a cross and

      burn me alive. My flaming body will be a torch to light my people

      on their path to freedom."

Air Ace Baron Manfred von Richthofen

                      The Red Baron       

                        1892-1918

General Information

           As a young cadet Manfred von Richthofen climbed a

           church steeple at Wahlstatt and tied his handkerchief

           to its lighting rod, just for fun. He loved risk. He came

           from a wealthy Junker family and in his youth enjoyed

           hunting and riding horses. When the war broke out

           Manfred was a cavalry officer and saw duty on both

           the Eastern and Western fronts scouting for the

           German Army. By May of 1915 he was bored with

           scouting and asked to be transferred to the Flying

           service.

           On September 17, 1916, Richthofen recorded his first

           aerial combat victory. Before his career was over he

           shot down eighty allied aircraft and was the leading

           ace of the war. As his success increased so did his

           popularity with the German people. He was showered

           with military decorations and treated like a hero by the

           Germans. His flaming red Fokker airplane became

           infamous to the troops in the trenches. In the air he

           embodied deadly grace and his experience as a hunter

           helped him as a pilot. By 1918 he had become such a

           legend that it was feared that his death would be a

           blow to the morale of the German people. His

           superiors asked him to retire, but he refused as long

           as there were still troops in the trenches. He began to

           get more depressed and the emotional weight of being

           responsible for so many deaths began to press on him.

           On April 21, 1918, his career ended when he was

           shot down over enemy lines by disputed Canadian or Australian fighters.

          His opponents had so much respect for the

           noble flyer, that he was given a hero’s funeral.

                             Quotes

      ""I think of this war as it really is, not as the people at home

      imagine, with a hoorah! and a roar. It is very serious, very

      grim…"

           Manfred von Richthofen

      "What the youthful leader accomplished in aerial combat will

      never be forgotten by Me, My army and the German people."

           Kaiser Wilhelm II

Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz

1849-1930

General Information

In 1900 the German government announced its plans to

         strengthen the Imperial Navy (a small coastal fleet) into the

         German High Seas Fleet, a fleet with global capabilities.

         Admiral Tirpitz was placed in charge of this effort that has

         become known as the Tirpitz Plan. The possibility of

         Germany overtaking them in overseas trade worried the

         British no small amount. They, the British, reacted by entering

         alliances against Germany.

         Great Britain accelerated the arms race in 1906 with the

         launching of the HMS Dreadnought, a revolutionary new

         type of battleship boasting twelve 12 inch guns. Germany

         reacted and, under the Tirpitz Plan in 1908, appropriated

         funds for the construction of 12 dreadnought class battleships

         over the next four years. At the same time, the Kiel canal

         would be widened to allow the great battleships passage

         between their training bases in the Baltic to possible battle

         areas in the North Sea.

         Note: The widened canal was officially opened 28-Jun-1914, the day

         Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in Sarajevo.

         The Tirpitz Plan never lived up to its goal as the table below

         illustrates:

                  Comparative Naval Strength

                           Aug-1914

                                    Germany                                 Britain

Dreadnoughts               13                                            20

Battle Cruisers              5                                              8

Cruisers                        41                                           102

Destroyers                    144                                          301

Submarines                 30                                              78                 

Sergeant Alvin C. York

1887-1964

                                            General Information

           Born Alvin Cullium York, December 13, 1887, in Pall Mall,

           Tennessee.

           His life was turned around by a woman, Gracie Williams, who

           convinced him to give up his worldly ways and go to church.

           Formed long held and firm religious beliefs as a result.

           Drafted in 1917.

           Impressed the regular army officers with his ability to use a gun.

           Shot accurately at ranges of 200, 300 and 500 yards.

           Struggled with the moral issue of killing human beings, and

           refused to shoot at human silhouettes (targets).

           At the battle of the Argonne Forest in the fall of 1918, as a

           member of the 82nd division, he killed 25 Germans, knocked

           out 35 machine guns, and captured 132 prisoners almost

           single-handed.

           Recieved the French Medaille Militaire and Croix de Guerre,

           the Italian Groce de Guerra and the American Medal of

           Honor.

           Came home to the adulation of the American people, married

           Gracie Williams, and died in Nashville, Tenn. on September 2,

           1964 after having a cerebral hemorrage.

                             Quotes

      "Sir, I am doing wrong. Practicing to kill people is against my

      religion."

           York, speaking of target practice at human silhouettes.

      "What you did was the greatest thing accomplished by any

      private soldier of all the armies of Europe."

           Marshall Ferdinand Foch, on York's feat in the Argonne.

      "This uniform ain't for sale."

           York, on demands for his endorsement.

      "It's over; let's just forget about it."

           York's modesty about the the event that brought him the Medal

           of Honor.                                       

Mobilization

           2-Aug-1914: Germany invades Luxembourg

           4-Aug-1914: Germany invades Belgium

      On 1-Aug-1914, the Great Powers of Europe were at war.

      Mobilization notices were posted in Germany, France,

      Austria-Hungary, and Russia. Serbia, the target of Austria-Hungary's

      wrath, also mobilized. Belgium, threatened by the German

      juggernaught, mobilized on 1-Aug as well. Great Britain and the British

      Empire would declare war on Germany and Austria- Hungary when

      the German forces invaded Belgium in violation of a treaty signed by

      Prussia to respect Belgian neutrality. Britain declared war on Germany

      and Austria-Hungary on 4-Aug.

      Mobilization meant war. Each nation's war plans were supported by its

      mobilization. France mobilized 1,781,000 men and transported them to

      its northeast frontier. They were organized into five armies arrayed

      from the Swiss border to the Belgian frontier. Germany brought

      1,500,000 men to the French and Belgian frontier, and another 200,000

      to East Prussia to defend against the Russians. In the west, they were

      organized into seven armies, and in the east one army. All of these

      forces were in place between 5-Aug and 15-Aug-1914.

      Austria-Hungary and Russia were much slower in reaching full

      mobilization. The Dual Monarchy declared war on Serbia on

      28-Jul-1914 but was unable to mobilize sufficiently to cross the Danube

      to attack Belgrade until the 15-Aug. The Russians, on the other hand,

      did not wait for the full mobilization of their vast army, but began to

      advance into East Prussia on 18-Aug with two armies, each with

      300,000 men.

      The British, because they didn't declare war until 4-Aug, were behind

      schedule in their mobilization. They had considerably fewer forces to

      mobilize, but had to transport those forces first to France and then to

      the French frontier. The British Expeditionary Force, or BEF, consisted

      of two army corps and a cavalry division, numbering 150,000 men and

      would assemble at the French frontier on the left of the French armies.

      They would reach this position and be ready to fight on 21-Aug.

      On 2-Aug-1914 the German First and Second armies occupied

      Luxembourg and crossed the Belgian frontier. Though the Germans

      had demanded that the Belgians allow them passage through their

      country, the Belgians under King Albert chose to fight against great

      odds. The Belgian Army, on mobilization consisted of 200, 000 men. In

      addition to the field army, the Belgians manned a system of forts which

      controlled the crossing over the Meuse River at Liege and Namur. The

      Belgians put up a spirited defense, and for a day or so confused the

      Germans and denied them the Meuse crossings. The Germans brought

      up very heavy siege artillery and were able to demolish the Belgian

      forts. Nonetheless, the delay caused by the Belgian resistance altered

      the timetable for the right wing advance with consequences later in the

      battle. The Germans were unable to achieve safe passage over the

      river at this major crossing until 14-Aug. The First Army on the right

      and the Second Army in echelon behind it began the great

      envelopment through Belgium at that time.

Opening Battles in the West

      The French plan called for a vigorous offensive into Lorraine and

      Alsace to recover the lost provinces for France. The French First

      army attacked to seize Mulhouse in Alsace and the Second Army to

      seize Metz in Lorraine. These attacks were a severe test of the

      French tactical system, a system which relied upon the offence a

      outrance, that is, the infantry assault would win the battle and the

      army with the most elan and vigor would carry the day with the

      bayonet charge! Unfortunately, high explosive and shrapnel shell, and

      the machine gun, made this a costly way of war in spite of the bravura

      of the French. These attacks, while initially successful, were driven

      back to the French frontier by 20-Aug, with heavy casualties.

      The first encounters with modern war, while shocking, did not deter

      the French Commander in Chief, General Joffre, from ordering the

      massive offensive by the three northern French Armies to begin on

      23-Aug. This offensive, in a northeast direction into Lorraine and the

      Ardennes, commenced in spite of ominous intelligence that there was a

      massive German army marching westward, north of the Meuse

      River.This offensive smashed into the German Armies advancing east

      of the Meuse, and were driven back, toward the French fortified line

      between Verdun, Toul and Belfort.

           22-Aug-1914: Battle of Charleroi

           22-Aug-1914: Battle of Namur

           23-Aug-1914: Battle of Mons

           25-Aug-1914: Battle of Le Cateau

      The Fifth French Army and the British Expeditionary Force met the

      massive German force moving north of the Meuse on 22-Aug, and

      after a series of sharp encounters( Battles of Mons, Le Cateau,

      Charleroi and Namur) were forced to retreat to keep from being

      enveloped and destroyed. The French Fourth and Third Armies were

      also forced to fall back by the attacks of the German Second and Third

      Armies east of the Meuse.

      The French and British, on the left, were able to break contact, and

      through a series of forced marches, safely crossed the Marne River

      west of Paris. Joffre, in the meantime, had formed another French

      Army, the Sixth, using forces garrisoning Paris and moving forces from

      the French armies to the south, notably the Army of Alsace. The Sixth

      Army was positioned in Paris.

      The two German armies on the right of the German wheel into France

      lost contact with the left wing of the French and British forces. In

      order to maintain contact between the First and Second Armies, the

      First army advanced to the southeast and passed to the north of Paris

      rather than envelope the city as originally planned. This exposed the

      German flank to the French forces in Paris. Moreover, the Germans,

      having been on the march for over 20 days with some heavy fighting

      during those days, were beginning to lose some of their vigor. A

      counterattack by the French at Guise against the German Second

      Army had made its commander cautious, and slowed the headlong

      pursuit of his army. This caused some gaps between the German

      forces and friction between the commanders.

                    First Battle of the Marne

      Between 5-Sep and 9-Sep-1914, a series of battles were fought in the

      area between Paris and Verdun in northeastern France that were

      collectively known as the Battle of The Marne. The battle began when

      the French Sixth army in the fortified zone of Paris sortied and struck

      the flank of the advancing German First Army on the Ourcq River.

      (This move made its mark in the record books because General

      Manoury, the French Sixth Army commander, commandeered Paris

      taxicabs to speed some of his troops to the front.) The German First

      army commander directed two of his advancing corps to move to the

      west to meet this attack. This movement created a gap between the

      First and Second German Armies north of the Marne. At the same

      time Joffre, The French Commander in Chief directed the French Fifth

      Army, to turn about from their retreat south and attack north across

      the Marne. This attack was coordinated with the attack of the newly

      formed French Ninth Army to the east, and the British Expeditionary

      Force to the west. At the same time the French force to the west put

      up a vigorous defense against the German Second and Third Armies

      on the Meuse river and around the fortress of Verdun. Fierce fighting

      took place between The French Ninth Army, commanded by General

      Foch, and the German Second Army in the Marshes of St. Gond. In it,

      Foch evoked the spirit of the French tactical doctrine, Offense a la

      outrance, when he told Grand Quartier General Joffre's headquarters;

      "My right has been pushed back, my left is retreating and my

      center is caving in, I am attacking!" The French held and the

      Germans were confused by such fierce resistance from a "beaten"

      army. As the French Fifth Army and the BEF attacked north, they

      penetrated the gap between the German First and Second Army.

      Suddenly the First Army, fighting the French Sixth on the Ourcq River

      was threatened from the rear and in danger of being cut off.

      The German Great Headquarters which had moved forward into

      Luxembourg feared that they had lost control of the battle. General

      von Moltke, the Chief of the German General Staff sent an officer of

      the operations section to visit Second and First Army headquarters and

      evaluate the situation. Lt.Col Hentsch visited the general staff officers

      in these Army headquarters. From their information, Hentsch

      determined that the flank of the First Army was endangered and that it

      was no longer possible to achieve its objective of rolling up the French

      armies on the Marne. Hentsch recommended that the First and Second

      Armies withdraw to the Aisne River and establish a defensive line

      there. The German First and Second Armies withdrew to the Aisne

      River and there went on the defensive. This action, along with the

      change from the offense to the defense of all German forces ,ended

      the Battle of the Marne and the German aim of a quick victory in the

      West.

The Second Battle of Ypres, Apr-1915

    Declaration of war by Canada in September 1914 led to the immediate

    raising of a first Canadian contingent consisting of the 1st Canadian Division.

    After a short three to four weeks training at Camp Valcartier in Quebec,

    they embarked to the United Kingdom and another several months of basic

    training. The majority of this training consisted of conditioning and basic

    military skills such as shooting - little instruction in trench warfare was done.

    After several months of this, the Canadians were considered ready to

    assume active operations.

    Upon their landing in Flanders, the 1st Canadian Division was assigned a

    sector in front of the Belgium city of Ypres, a place where the Allied line had

    pushed a bulge-like incursion into German-held territory - the Ypres Salient.

    Arriving on April 17, 1915 and lacking, as mentioned, any first-hand trench

    experience, the Canadians immediately moved into the front lines. While this

    sector had seen the severest fighting of the war the previous autumn, it was

    quiet on the Canadians’ arrival. Little did they realize, though, that within five

    days they would be involved in what turned out to be the greatest defensive

    battle ever fought by Canadian troops - the Second Battle of Ypres.

                 Dead horses lie amidst the rubble in front of

                      Ypres Cathederal, Mar-1915.

    While the Canadian division was under the command of General Alderson, a

    British professional soldier, and while the staff included several highly-trained

    British staff officers, command at the Brigade level and lower was

    practically all in the hands of Canadians - lawyers, businessmen, real estate

    agents, newspaper men, etc., whose only military experience was as

    part-time officers of the Canadian Militia. The men themselves were, if

    anything, even more inexperienced than their officers. Yet these amateur

    soldiers were to face an army whose officers and men were highly-trained

    professionals and who considered themselves invincible.

    The situation on the eve of battle was that the Canadians had only just been

    moved up into the front lines and had not become fully oriented to their

    surroundings. The French army, consisting of the 87th Territorial and 45th

    Algerian Divisions (colonial Moroccan and Algerian troops), was on their

    immediate left flank while the line to their right was held by the British.

    Across No-Man’s-Land, the Germans had achieved a local superiority of

    seven and a half divisions to the Allied forces’ six and were far stronger in

    artillery support.

    The Germans attacked on the evening of 22 April, 1915.

    Despite the Hague Convention which outlawed chemical warfare (and two

    unsuccessful experiments with gas shells), the Germans decided to release

    5700 cylinders of chlorine - this to be accompanied by heavy artilllery

    bombardment and followed by strong infantry assaults. The gas was released

    from these cylinders just in front of the German lines or through potholes

    punched through trench parapets. As a weapon, gas was particularly

    advantageous when used against soldiers in defensive positions. Being

    heavier than air, chlorine followed the ground’s contours and sank into the

    trenches and shell holes soldiers used as protection against shrapnel and

    bullet. This forced them to abandon their defences in favour of higher

    ground. Those who did stay found it extremely difficult to fight with watery

    eyes, heaving stomachs and burning lungs. It could thus be more effective

    than artillery, which had to be very accurate to do any damage to a defensive

    position, or rifle fire, which required the enemy to expose himself.

    The story of the gas attack has often been told - of an olive-green cloud

    rolling over Algerian positions on the left of the 1st Canadian Division, of

    many men dead or dying of suffocation and others running blindly to the rear.

    While the Canadians were not the direct target for gas attack on that first

    day of the battle, many were witnesses to the initial German assaults and

    many felt its residual effects. The 10th Canadian Infantry Battalion’s war

    diary reported the experiences of some of its officers: "Maj. McLaren, Maj.

    Ormond and Capt. Glidden [the Medical Officer] riding between Elverdinge

    and Brielen hear bombardment from the northeast and see shells breaking,

    also cloud of peculiar colour (greyish, yellowish, greenish), darker near the

    ground and lighter in colour near top." One Canadian officer, looking towards

    the French lines and seeing the greenish yellow mist, thought the infantry

    there were firing with a different kind of powder. Such short and confused

    reports announced the introduction of chemical warfare to the Western

    Front.

    The French colonials, whose soldiers received full doses of the vapour, gave

    way before the gas attack, leaving a breach in the Allied lines of over four

    miles wide, which the Germans were quick to exploit. The Canadians were

    asked to try and seal off the gap and hold the line which now was coming

    under attack not only from additional gas and artillery, but also direct assaults

    by German infantry. In this the Canadians were largely successful. In

    particular, that first night, the 10th and 16th Canadian Infantry Battalions

    were ordered to recapture Kitchener’s Wood, a large copse of trees in which

    the Germans had set up new defences. Their attack was a typical example

    of the tactics of the day. The men formed up in a nearby field under cover of

    darkness to avoid the German shelling. When the time came to attack, the

    1500 troops stood up in eight ranks at intervals of about thirty yards. There

    was just enough light for these soldiers to see the woods they were to

    capture, 500-600 yards away. A house off to one side, suspected

    (accurately) of harbouring machine-guns, they left alone, because officers

    determined, to their grief, it was not their job to take it. At 11:45 the attack

    began. At this point the two battalions were on their own, since they had no

    way to communicate with headquarters or supporting artillery, except through

    runners.

    Artillery support having ceased, the Canadians had to rely on their rifles,

    bayonets and bombs to carry out the assault, which took place just three

    minutes after setting out. There was a momentary pause at an unexpected

    hedge which brought down a hail of bullets, due to the noise of breaking

    through. Those unhit burst through the hedge at a fast run and struck the

    foremost enemy trench, where work with bayonet and butt soon cleared the

    position. The whole body then swept forward and, after heavy and close

    fighting, cleared the wood. In spite of heavy German rifle and machine-gun

    fire and the absence of Canadian artillery support, the assault was a success.

    Casualties were high however and holding the newly-won line was to be

    more difficult than taking it had been. The Germans, as was common in 1915,

    organized their defences in depth, even if they had just recently captured the

    ground they were defending. The Canadians, as it turned out, had managed

    to cave in the first line, but there were others from which the German

    commanders could launch their men into counterattacks. Ultimately under a

    series of strong counterattacks and rising casualties, the two battalions had to

    retire.

    Other similar Canadian counterattacks throughout the night and in brigade

    strength at least twice in daylight the next day were carried out. Casualties

    were very heavy and little ground was gained, but these further delayed

    German attempts at exploitation and gave other reinforcing troops -

    Canadian, British and French - sufficient time to close most of the gap. The

    result is that throughout the 23rd, the Canadians still held their positions more

    or less. As mentioned some retreat had occurred in order to consolidate

    forces, but the line was held.

                  British troops prepare for a gas attack with

                        goggles and wet gauze.

    On April 24 , the enemy struck again. A great bombardment and another

    cloud of gas repeated the pattern of the first attack. This time a light breeze

    carried gas onto the Canadian positions, resulting in the full effects of the

    vapour settling upon the troops. The Canadians, without protection other than

    wet cloths over their faces, could do little but withdraw. Evacuating the first

    line of trenches, the men moved back a bit to lie on their stomachs and wait.

    Meanwhile, Canadian artillery, firing shrapnel over open sights, kept the

    Germans from taking the Canadian positions, until reoccupied once the gas

    dissipated. The gas, which had come as a complete surprise to the Algerians,

    now began to lose some of its novelty. It was found the wet and

    soil-impregnated cloths tended to absorb most of the vapour and allowed the

    troops to function to some extent. The result was that relatively few were

    totally overcome (the 1st Division lost only 228 men injured by gas however

    many had lasting effects of varying degrees that would plague them the rest

    of their lives). Many casualties, though, were probably caused due to a

    gas-induced diminished capacity to defend themselves. Most found breathing

    to be very difficult and it was hard to resist the temptation to tear away the

    damp cloths and gulp air, but the worst effects lasted only a few minutes.

    Also because the fumes made it difficult or impossible for German observers

    to call the fall of shot, the German infantry was forced to advance without

    artillery support. The Canadians waited until they came upon their empty

    trenches and then opened fire from ranges less than 100 yards. As a result

    they were able to beat off most of the repeated attacks, and caused heavy

    German casualties. Notwithstanding this general state of affairs, there were

    set backs. From the northern fringe of St. Julien, the 15th Battalion (3rd

    Brigade) was forced back with enormous losses to a line south of the village.

    To the right, on the forward slope of Gravenstafel Ridge, the 8th Battalion

    (2nd Brigade) stood firm. However, Brigadier A.W. Currie, commanding the

    2nd Brigade, managed to fill the former gap at St. Julien with fresh troops

    and fresh British troops supported on the right. So even under the horrible

    surprise of gas the Canadians in their first major battle held the line against

    many times their numbers.

    The Canadians were withdrawn from the battle on May 3, being relieved by

    the British. Losses had been heavy. Of a maximum divisional strength of

    18,000 that had started the battle, 5975 had become casualties, of whom over

    1000 were fatal. Most of these casualties were infantrymen. The fighting of

    the first few days, as the Canadians counterattacked to recapture lost

    ground, had been heavy, but the worst day for the division was April 24,

    when it had to defend its own trenches against determined attacks by gas,

    shelling and infantry. 3058 of the casualties occurred on this day alone.

    What of the aftermath of the battle? Firstly, the Germans did not follow up

    their advantage. The attack was essentially a testing ground for the new

    weapon and not a major offensive. As a result, the Germans, dubious of any

    major success, had failed to provide sufficient reserves with which to exploit

    the initial resulting gap. Had the Germans broken through to Ypres and

    continued southward along the Yser Canal, they would have cut off 50,000

    British and Canadian troops and removed the salient. But through the

    determined defence of the Canadians, they could not carry through with the

    forces at hand.

    On the Canadian side.... The Canadians to a man seemed obsessed with the

    idea that this was their particular battle and that they would perish where

    they stood rather than give way. The nationalistic policy of keeping the

    Canadians together as a unit received strong reinforcement from this battle.

    The "colonials" had made good and were fitted to take their place, as a

    separate entity, by the side of the finest British and French fighting divisions.

    Everywhere throughout France and Belgium the word "Canada" was greeted

    with enthusiasm and the work of the division was appreciated to its fullest

    value.

    Lastly, deficiencies of Canadian equipment became clear once and for all.

    The Ross Rifle and its tendency to jam under rapid fire did not stand the test

    well. The Oliver webbing then in use, proved inadequate, as did other items

    of kit. From this point onward, the Canadians began to be outfitted with

    proven British patterns and weapons.

    Second Ypres proved to be the worst battle the 1st Canadian Division would

    fight in the course of the war, however its result was the starting point of the

    strong reputation Canadian troops developed during the war.

      A word on poison gases used in the First World War.

                         German gas cylinders

    Basically the three main types used were - chlorine, phosgene and mustard

    gas.

    Chlorine - a greenish, yellow heavier than air gas which in its pure form is

    an oxidizing agent. This means that it will react in the presence of water to

    cause a chemical burning effect on organic matter. Mucus tissues of the

    human body are susceptible to such chemical reaction because of 1) their

    organic nature and , 2) they are always covered with a film of water.

    Symptoms of chlorine gas poisoning include vomiting, difficulty in breathing, a

    burning sensation in the lungs, eyes, nasal and mouth passages, watery eyes.

    In severe cases, cell damage in the lungs leads to fluid buildup in the lungs,

    loss of consciousness through suffocation, and death.

    Phosgene - a colourless, odorless, heavier than air gas formed by heating

    carbon tetrachloride. It is highly poisonous in that it will preferentially replace

    oxygen in the cells and quickly causes an oxygen debt within the body,

    unconsciousness and death.

    Mustard gas - a caustic gas with a distinctive mustard smell, it causes

    blistering and huge sores on any exposed tissue, internal or external. Probably

    the most used gas, with phosgene, in the war. A nasty piece of business.

Tragedy on the Somme

                        A Second Balaclava

        The war on the western front had become a gigantic siege between the

    deeply entrenched adversaries. The Germans were bleeding France to death

    in the terrible meatgrinder of Verdun. The French desperately begged Britain

    to relieve imperiled Verdun. And so the Imperial British and French

    commanders, Sir Douglas Haig and Marshall Joffre, agreed to open a second

    major front to the west, along the banks of the gently winding Somme River.

    For six days, thousands of massed British and French heavy guns, fed round

    the clock by munition trains, had poured 1.6 million shells onto the deeply

    echeloned German trench lines on the Somme. British generals promised

    their men that nothing could survive this, the heaviest artillery bombardment

    in history.

    Just before 7:30 AM, on Monday, July 1, 1916, British sappers fired two

    enormous mines, containing 200,000 lbs of high explosives, under German

    lines. The explosions tore gaping holes in the German trenches, and were

    heard as far away as London.

    Then whistles blew and bagpipes skirrled all along the British line. The finest

    army ever assembled by the British Empire went over the top.

    Many were volunteers: The rich cream of English society from Oxford and

    Cambridge; miner's sons from Wales and Yorkshire; lads from Belfast's

    slums; sturdy Devon farm boys; and the 'Pals', groups of friends and sports

    teams who had enlisted under the promise of being kept together in the army

    units. And beside them, Imperial troops from across the vast British Empire

    sharpened their bayonets, khukris, scimitars and kirpans.

    The British commander, Sir Henry Rawlinson, was so certain there would be

    no German resistance he ordered his troops to march forward in parade

    formation. Running over ground torn up by shellfire, Rawlinson feared, would

    disrupt formations and tire the men. Once German lines had been seized,

    massed Imperial cavalry divisions, that included even the fabled Bengal

    Lancers and the Frontier Scouts from the Khyber Pass, waited to pour

    through the breach and pursue the fleeing Germans back to the Rhine.

    But the Germans were neither all dead, nor demoralized. Most survived the

    6-day avalanche of shells in deep concrete shelters. Soldiers of a lesser

    nation might have run for their lives, or gone into shell shock after the hellish

    ordeal. Not the valiant Germans. They surfaced, set up their machine guns

    on prepared platforms, and poured fire into the packed ranks of the British,

    who were advancing ponderously in tight formation across no man's land.

    Somehow, much German barbed wire had also survived the bombardment.

    As the British became entangled in the thick belts of rusted wire, sheets of

    bullets from German Maxim machine guns massacred their battalions and

    companies. Though falling by the thousands, the gallant British continued

    their hopeless advance - a Balaclava writ large.

    Gen. Rawlinson, horrified by the German riposte, thought of calling off the

    attack. His superior, Haig, demanded the assault continue.

    This sunny morning on the Somme was the worst moment in British history.

    Brigade after brigade was ground to a bloody pulp. Whole units of 'Pals' died,

    together in the end. German machine guns grew red hot. British shells fell

    short among advancing Imperial troops. The slaughter continued into the

    evening.

    A few heroic British units managed to reach the enemy's trenches and storm

    the concrete blockhouses and fortified villages defending German lines. But

    the redoubtable Germans launched fierce, co-ordinated counter-attacks that

    drove the British back.

    On the first day of the Somme, the British lost 19,240 dead, 35,494 seriously

    wounded, and 2,152 missing: 57,470 casualties in total. The Ulster Division,

    which assailed the heavily fortified German right, alone lost 5,600 men that

    day, most before noon.

    The experienced French, attacking on the left, ran forward in open

    skirmishing formation, suffered lighter casualties, and took the lightly-manned

    German trenches. But they were forced to fall back when the British attack

    failed.

    Refusing to accept defeat, Haig continued the slaughter on the Somme for

    four more months. When he finally gave up, in November, 1916, the Allies

    had gained a pitiful 125 square miles of bloody mud from the Germans at a

    cost of 600,000 men: 400,000 British Imperial, and 200,000 French casualties.

    The Germans suffered 450,000 casualties. At Verdun, 1.2 million men were

    lost on both sides.

    The Somme - and Verdun - were the two greatest military follies of the 20th

    Century. In both titanic battles, military technology had far exceeded the

    general's 19th Century military intellect. In both battles, the flower of

    German, British and French society were cut down, robbing these nations of

    their future. Today, France has still not recovered from the monumental

    losses at Verdun. Thirty years - one generation - after the Somme, the

    British Empire collapsed.

    This is far more than dusty history. Though nearly in the 21st Century, we

    still have not escaped the lingering British propaganda that Germany was

    alone guilty for World War I. The ensuing post-war humiliation and economic

    ruin of Germany led directly to Hitler, and World War II. Events of

    1914-1918 still shape our world.

    The Somme battlefield, with its grim constellation of military cemeteries,

    stand as silent warnings of the dangers of blind nationalism and military

    incompetence.

      4-Jun-1916 - The Brusilov Offensive

       This is a contributed item. Please direct your feedback concerning

       the contents of this item to the author using the e-mail link below. By

       all means let them know if you find it interesting. They enjoy hearing

                            from you!

      Austro-Hungarian horse artillery advance through the recently captured Polish

               village of Kazimierz on this propaganda postcard.

        Contributed by Grace Yoshizawa ([email protected])

                      See also:

                      Timeline: War Plans

                      ø Biography of General Brusilov

             The Brusilov Offensive

                                        Cause

                        General Alexei Bruslilov

                            1853-1926

      Appeals from France persuaded Russia into launching a dual winged

      attack into Vilna Naroch as a counter to German activity in Verdun.

      Instituted on 18-Mar-1916, it ground to a halt in the mud of the spring

      thaw. German losses of 20,000 men were nothing compared to the

      70,000 - 100,000 lost by the Russians. It did nothing to improve already

      low Russian morale.

      Later that spring the Austrians attacked Italy at Trentino, bringing cries

      for help from the Italian government. The Russian government saw an

      opportunity to re-establish their previous military prestige and bolster

      public morale with a potentially glorious victory. General Aleksei A.

      Brusilov organized and launched this delayed, but still somewhat

      premature, surprise offensive on 4-Jun-1916.

                         The Plan

                         The Eastern Theater.

General Brusilov replaced General Ivanov on 14-Apr-1916 by order of

      the Czar Nicholas II. Brusilov proposed an offensive to the Czar but

      the two other generals, Evert and Kuroptkin, preferred to stay

      defensive in the war, claiming a lack of heavy artillery and shell for an

      offensive. They argued heatedly until the Czar agreed to give the go

      ahead for Brusilov's Offensive. Brusilov had advised an attack on all

      fronts in light of Germany's superior rail communication. The surprise

      attack would be launched at the end of May and the southwestern

      front would make the initial move with the main thrust following on the

      western front towards Wilno. The southern front's objective was to

      take Kovel, an important Austrian railway center. The four armies

      were to be given six weeks of preparation time without obvious

      amassing of troops or preliminary artillery preparation in order to

      preserve the element of surprise. With four armies forming behind a

      200 mile line sector, anticipating the main attack becomes very

      difficult. Unfortunately, Brusilov's initial plan disintegrated (much like

      the Schlieffen Plan) in the field.

                        Preparation

             Austro-Hungarian marksmen of the Tiroler Kaiserjaeger

                  await action on the Eastern Front, 1916.

      The original plan anticipated six weeks of preparation time. This was

      not to be so. The Austro-Hungarian line Brusilov intended to break

      through was solidly fortified. One behind the other, three defensive

      belts lay. Each belt was a minimum of three well-built, full-depth

      trenches including machine gun nests, sniper hide-outs and

      communication tunnels dug 50-60 feet apart. Aerial photographs,

      courtesy of Russian aircraft, provided an excellent view of these

      defenses and the information transferred to a large-scale map.

      Officers studied the terrain of the intended battle site. Most soldiers

      kept well behind the line. The Russians dug their own trenches as

      assembly and jump off points along the Austrian Front-line trenches.

      As Brusilov readied his troops and the end of the month drew nearer,

      the pressure began to mount. Then, just before the projected date of

      attack, Evert announced his Western Front troops required more time

      for further preparation. Brusilov was alarmed, to say the least, as his

      Southwestern Army was only a preliminary diversion for Evert's main

      Western offensive. The urgent situation at Verdun to the West added

      further pressure on the success and swiftness of the Russian

      offensive.

                         The Battle

                Russians bringing in wounded German POWs.

      The surprise assault was launched on 4-Jun-1916. Three of the

      Russian armies broke through Austro-Hungarian lines. The element of

      surprise, a thorough artillery prep and the alacrity with which the

      Czechoslovakian soldiers of the Austrian army surrendered fostered

      the Russian attempts. The thrust towards Kovel and Lutsk succeeded

      in capturing the latter on 8-Jun. By this time, the Austrians were in full

      and fast retreat. Mind that this was just the preliminary attack. The

      stronger offensive was to follow. No reserves had been constructed as

      the attack was a wide spread, one-shot effort, not the typical hammer

      blow assault. On 9-Jun, a very frustrated and distressed Brusilov was

      informed that the Western attack was deferred until 18-Jun. Evert was

      unwilling and hesitant to commence his maneuver. By then, the

      German General Ludendorff, intent on reinforcing the severely

      weakened Austrian army, had managed to scrape together a counter

      attack. The preliminary main thrust split its advance in two directions

      due to vague instruction from the GHQ. The chance to take Kovel

      was lost. On 18-Jun, a small, poorly readied, and futile front moved

      towards Baranowicze. This was Evert's long awaited and much

      needed main thrust for which Brusilov's army was only preliminary. It

      was then that Brusilov realized that the Russian GHQ would do

      exactly what he had been so vehemently opposed to. They transferred

      troops from Evert's Western Army to Brusilov's Southwestern,

      assuming the additional troops would assist in exploiting fully the

      success of his initial attack. The German, making the best of rather

      meager resources, noticed the move of troops and prepared a counter

      to the south. Because of their superior rail, they arrived first. And the

      battle continued. By the end of July, very little progress had been made

      in spite of renewed attempts. Austrian, German and Russian armies

      began to tire. With Russian casualties numbering more than half a

      million, the Offensive ground to a halt on 10-Aug-1916. But the effort

      was not entirely in vain. Austria had lost extensive territory and,

      excluding the dead and wounded, 375,000 as POW's.

                           Effects

               Russian POWs by German artist Max Rabes, 1916.

      The Brusilov Offense had quite an effect on the course of history.

      Strategically, it weakened the Central Powers on the Italian front and

      at Verdun. The Austrians were forced to forsake their Italian victory,

      rushing to fight the Russian in the North. An important factor on the

      Western Front, the Eastern attacks saw Germany terminating its

      Verdun Operation to transfer no less than 35 divisions from the

      Schlieffen right hook to the Eastern Front. This helped to sufficiently

      undermine Schlieffen plan enough for France to sustain a successful

      defense. The Offense ruined Austria-Hungary. Weakened by political

      turmoil, Austria was unable to cope with its losses, of funds and of

      soldiers. It was forever eliminated as a major military power. The

      future brought the collapse of the Habsburg Empire and the formation

      of the Austrian and Hungarian republics.

      Within its own, the loss of one million Russian soldiers and the decayed

      public morale hung heavily on the people. Widespread famine caused

      by the diversion of all resources to the war effort induced rioting.

      Nicholas II abdicated from the throne and the provisional government,

      set up in his place, was overthrown in a Bolshevik coup abruptly

      afterwards. In 1917 the Russian Revolution was well under way. A

      failed success, the Offense assisted the Allied war effort but brought

      upon itself much strife.                                       

    1914-1918 - Casualty Figures

                                  Dead German troops, Oct-1915

           The casualty figures below are presented both in numbers and as a percent of the total

           forces mobilized. This method allows us to see the severe toll the war took on the smaller

           countries such as Rumania, where numbers alone don't convey the loss. These figures are

           from Susan Everett's History of World War I (page 248). No two books tend to have the

           same figures so don't worry if you see different numbers elsewhere. They are

           representitive enough for the comparitive purpose intended here.                   

           Please be aware that these figures are taken from the Official History of the war. Allied

           Dominion figures were not broken out. Thus countries including Australia, Canada, and

           New Zealand are not listed separately - so I didn't have the data available foor the various

           statistical groupings offered below. I fully appreciate the contributions made by these

           nations and in no way am I downplaying the important role they played. Keep in mind that

           I'm a yank, but you'll find more information at this site on Australia, Canada, and New

           Zealand than you will on the US.

                                   Sorted by number Mobilized

                                    Mobilized            Dead         Wounded     Missing/PoW

   Russia                       12,000,000       1,700,000       4,950,000       2,500,000

   Germany                   11,000,000       1,773,700       4,216,058       1,152,800

   Great Britain              8,904,467            908,371       2,090,212           191,652

   France                       8,410,000         1,375,800       4,266,000           537,000

   Austria-Hungary      7,800,000         1,200,000       3,620,000       2,200,000

   Italy                           5,615,000            650,000         947,000           600,000

   US                            4,355,000            126,000         234,300             4,526

   Turkey                      2,850,000            325,000         400,000         250,000

   Bulgaria                     1,200,000              87,500         152,390           27,029

   Japan                           800,000                   300                907                    3

   Rumania                       750,000            335,706         120,000           80,000

   Serbia                          707,343              45,000         133,148         152,958

   Belgium                        267,000              13,716           44,686          34,659

   Greece                         230,000                5,000           21,000            1,000

   Portugal                        100,000                7,222           13,751          12,318

   Montenegro                    50,000                3,000          10,000            7,000

                                Sorted by number dead

                                    Mobilized            Dead         Wounded     Missing/PoW

   Germany                   11,000,000       1,773,700       4,216,058       1,152,800

   Russia                       12,000,000       1,700,000       4,950,000       2,500,000

   France                         8,410,000       1,375,800       4,266,000          537,000

   Austria-Hungary        7,800,000       1,200,000       3,620,000       2,200,000

   Great Britain              8,904,467         908,371        2,090,212          191,652

   Italy                             5,615,000         650,000           947,000          600,000

   Rumania                        750,000          335,706           120,000            80,000

   Turkey                        2,850,000         325,000           400,000          250,000

   US                              4,355,000         126,000           234,300              4,526

   Bulgaria                       1,200,000           87,500           152,390            27,029

   Serbia                            707,343           45,000           133,148          152,958

   Belgium                          267,000           13,716              44,686            34,659

   Portugal                          100,000             7,222              13,751            12,318

   Greece                           230,000             5,000              21,000              1,000

   Montenegro                     50,000             3,000              10,000              7,000

   Japan                             800,000                300                   907                     3

                    Sorted by percent dead of total Mobilized

                                                Dead %       Wounded %   Missing/PoW %

   Rumania                   44.76%          16.00%          10.67%

   France                                   16.36%          50.73%           6.39%

   Germany                               16.12%          38.33%          10.48%

   Austria-Hungary                    15.38%          46.41%          28.21%

   Russia                                   14.17%          41.25%          20.83%

   Italy                                       11.58%          16.87%          10.69%

   Turkey                                  11.40%          14.04%           8.77%

   Great Britain             10.20%          23.47%           2.15%

   Bulgaria                                   7.29%          12.70%           2.25%

   Portugal                                   7.22%          13.75%          12.32%

   Serbia                                     6.36%          18.82%          21.62%

   Montenegro                             6.00%          20.00%          14.00%

   Belgium                      5.14%          16.74%          12.98%

   US                                          2.89%           5.38%           0.10%

   Greece                                    2.17%           9.13%           0.43%

   Japan                                      0.04%           0.11%           0.00%

                 Sorted by percent missing/PoW of total Mobilized

                                                Dead %       Wounded %   Missing/PoW %

   Austria-Hungary                    15.38%          46.41%          28.21%

   Serbia                                   6.36%            18.82%          21.62%

   Russia                                   14.17%          41.25%          20.83%

   Montenegro                           6.00%            20.00%          14.00%

   Belgium                    5.14%            16.74%          12.98%

   Portugal                                 7.22%            13.75%          12.32%

   Italy                                       11.58%          16.87%          10.69%

   Rumania                   44.76%          16.00%          10.67%

   Germany                               16.12%          38.33%          10.48%

   Turkey                                  11.40%          14.04%           8.77%

   France                                   16.36%          50.73%           6.39%

   Bulgaria                                 7.29%            12.70%           2.25%

   Great Britain             10.20%          23.47%           2.15%

   Greece                                  2.17%              9.13%           0.43%

   US                                        2.89%              5.38%           0.10%

   Japan                                    0.04%              0.11%           0.00%

      Notes:

   Russia.wounded   - Includes 1,450,000 permanently disabled

   France.wounded   - Includes 690,000 permanently disabled

   Rumania.dead     - Excludes 265,000 civilians dead and missing

   Portugal.wounded - Western front only. Another 6,000 dead in Africa

   Turkey.wounded   - 1,565,000 including invalids and deserters

   Bulgaria.wounded - Excluding those that died of disease during autumn 1918

retreat