Revolutions of 1848

Personalities|Timeline| Questions|Essay 1|Essay 2

The Revolutions of 1848 were a series of political and economic revolts that took place in Europe because of a recession and abuse of political power. The participants in the revolutions were the Poles, Danes, Germans, Italians, Czechs, Slovaks, Slovaks, Hungarians, Croats, and the Romanians. The Revolutions of 1848 did change that countries government but the changes didn't last long. Although the changes didn't last long the revolutions did demonstrate that people could undermine the government, and create liberalism & socialism.

The Revolutions first started out in France 1848 where the people wanted universal suffrage which was led by Louis Blanc. King Louis Philippe was overthrown and Louis Blanc's revolution established the second republic. The February revolution in France gave ideas to other countries in Europe which in turn started other revolutions. The February revolution in France also gave to Liberals in the German states the idea to make a proposal for a unified German country with a national parliament. But the old order was restored because the provisional government couldn't decide on a constitution for the new government. The Italian states of Europe also had a revolution which made Pope Pius IX flee Italy. This gave a leader of unification, Gieuseppe Mazzini the chance to unify Italy. This plot of Mazzini was a failure because of the Italians overwhelming protectiveness of their independence.

Within the Austrian Empire there was increased Nationalism among the Czechs, Hungarians, Germans, and other groups. This increased Nationalism in March of 1848 led to riots and the ousting of Prince Klemens von Metternich and Ferdinand I, the Emperor of Hapsburg. This led to the making of a constituent assembly which freed the peasentry. In Hungary, which was under Austrian rule, Lajos Kossuth took control of the crumbling government and gave all of the Hungarian lands freedom. But once again the inevitable happens this plot was beat down.

Revolutions of 1848-- Personalities

Giusseppe Mazzini: Mazzini was a significant figure in Italian Unification. His ideas and propaganda not only influenced revolutions in Italy, but they also influenced revolutionaries throughout Europe. Mazzini was against conservative governments, and his ideas were based on trusting the morals of the common man. Mazzini believed that the common people could organize to oust unsatisfactory governments. His goal was to unify Italy under a democratic government. He tried many things to attain this goal.

In 1831 he founded Young Italy, and in 1832 he unsuccessfully tried to induce mutiny within the Sardinian Army. Two years later another conspiracy against the Kingdom of Sardinia failed. During this time of failure, Mazzini was gaining popularity in Europe, and was a prophet of nationalism.

It was during the Revolution of 1848 that Mazzini had his day. The well-organized revolt was successful, and Mazzini was appointed one of the leaders of the new Roman Republic. However, the republic fell only about a year later in 1849. Mazzini fled, but he continued his efforts in the name of republican government.

Attempts were made in Mantua and Milan, but both were unsuccessful. Furthermore, the Italian nationalist movement gained new leadership. When Mazzini returned to Italy in 1859, he was not happy to see that Italy was unified under a kingdom, rather than a republic. In 1870 he was jailed for plotting to gain Rome and Venice from Sardinia. Two years later he died in Pisa.

Giuseppe Mazzini was a significant figure in the Revolutions of 1848. He believed in liberal government, and influenced many European nationalists. His life was spent attempting to unify Italy under a democratic government.

Quotes:
"The epoch of individuality is concluded, and it is the duty of reformers to initiate the epoch of association. Collective man is omnipotent upon the earth he treads."
-Giuseppe Mazzini: Watchword for the Roman Republic, 1849.

"Country is not a mere zone of territory. The true country is the Idea to which it gives birth; it is the Thought of love, the sense of communion which unites in one all the sons of that territory."
-Giuseppe Mazzini: On the Duties of Man, 1844-58.

Frederick William IV, King of Prussia: was a significant figure in the revolution that took place in Germany. Not a particularly bold human being, Frederick quickly gave into the demands of the revolutionaries. He wrote proclamations which were addressed to his "dear Berliners." His next major influence on the revolt was when the Frankfort Parliament elected him king of the new Germany. Frederick declined because he refused to be appointed by people of the lower classes. Shortly after his refusal of the throne, the Frankfort Parliament dispersed.

Frederick William IV had the gift of intelligence, however, he was also a romantic and lacked a sense of realism. Some of his first acts as king of Prussia were to recall professor that had been dismissed by his father. Despite the fact that he was not always down to earth, during his reign the following advances were made: Railroad construction, industrial development, and legislation that favored the lower classes and the arts. In 1857, Frederick's mental health problems, caused him to be placed under the care of his brother, William I. He died on January 2, 1861.

Giusseppe Garibaldi: If anybody enjoyed revolting, it was this guy. Born in 1807, he is remembered as an Italian nationalist revolutionary and leader in the struggle for Italian unification. Garibaldi was mostly self-educated, and his life was spent trying to unify Italy. Garibaldi opposed any type of monarchy. This was shown by his apposition to popery and the Vatican. He began this crusade in 1833 when he joined Young Italy. Young Italy was a movement organized by Giuseppe Mazzini to unify and free the Italian people. In 1834 Garibaldi fled to south America, were he showed his military skill in a revolt against Brazil, and later in Uruguay. In 1848, revolution had engulfed Italy. Garibaldi returned and organized a volunteer army. His attempt to fend of the Austria and French forces were unsuccessful, and he was forced to flee to America. Even after the Revolution of 1848, Garibaldi continued his crusade. After returning to Italy in 1854, he led a successful expedition against the Austrian forces in the Alps. In 1860, his took Naples, as well as Sicily, and set up provisional governments. Next, in 1866, Garibaldi tried to annex the Papal States, however, he was defeated. The interesting thing about that particular campaign was that the Italian government didn't approve. It just goes to show how much Garibaldi wanted a unified Italy. In his later years he joined parliament, and sympathized with socialist movements. He died in 1882.

Quotes:

"In the midst of Italy, at its heart, there is a cancer called Popery,--an imposture called Popery. Yes, young men, we still have a formidable enemy, the more formidable because it exists among the ignorant classes, where it rules by falsehood."
-Giuseppe Garibaldi: Address to the students of the University of Pavia.

"The Vatican is a dagger in the heart of Italy."
-Giuseppe Garibaldi: quoted by Mussolini.

Louis Philippe, King of France: became king of France after the July Revolution drove Charles X from Paris. It was Philippe's actions as king which put his government out of touch with the need of the changing society and economy of France.

Philippe ignored the principals behind parliamentary government. He appointed first ministers that agreed with his decisions. He also manipulated elections, as well as, gave judiciary favors. Philippe stubbornly resisted attempts to make government more representative and responsive. These actions caused discontent among the French. Banquets were organized to protest government's intransigence. The most significant was planed to take place on February 22, however the government canceled it. This was the straw that broke the camels back, and the revolution had begun. Philippe found himself without any support, and was forced to flee to England, were he spent the rest of his life.

Louis Philippe's actions as king clearly sparked the revolution in France, which sparked revolutions in Germany, Austria, and Italy. It comes as no surprise that Philippe was not a very good king. His only real previous experience in leadership was as an officer in the royal. He was also involved in politics, although not significantly until he became king. The major factor in his becoming king was that he was a member of the Orleans family, a branch of the ruling family, the Bourbons.

Timeline--Revolutions of 1848

1846-1849: Economic depression was spread throughout Europe. It was marked by rising food prices after a poor harvest and the recession that followed the industrial expansionin the early 1840s.

February 22, 1848: One of many banquets to protest the government's inflexibility was planned, but he government banned it. Crowds began to gather in the streets and minor skirmishes with police erupted. Workers who could have never afforded tickets to the banquet constructed barricades. The revolution had begun.

February 24, 1848: After the National Guard refused to cheer for their king, Louis Phillipe, he abdicated to his grandson. The Second Republic was declared from the Hotel de Ville. The cabinet was confirmed by a crowd outside the hotel.

March 3, 1848: Lajos Kossuth called for a representative government in front of the Hungarian Diet.

March 3, 1848: Revolution broke out in the Rhineland.

March 12, 1848: Revolution broke out in Vienna.

March 15, 1848: Revolution broke out in Berlin.

March 18, 1848: Revolution broke out in Milan. The papal states were given a constitution and the Milanese defeated the Austrians.

March 22, 1848: Revolution broke out in Venice and the Venetian Republic was reestablished. All of these revolutions followed the same pattern: The news of revolution in France would attract excited crowds, groups of men (mostly journalists, lawyers, and students) met to discuss the rumors. The government, in fear of revolution, would call out the army, which would begin to skirmish with the citizenry. Barricades would come up and mob action would ensue. It is important to note that these revolutions took place in one city and that not all of the countries involved declared a republic, only their capitals did.

March, 1848: 600 delegates meet in Frankfurt in a preparliamentary assembly and called for a universal manhood suffrage electio to form a national assembly to govern a unified Germany.

May, 1848: 830 delegates met in Frankfurt, mostly from the small states in the liberal West. Began to form a democratic constitution that gave the assembly itself executive control over a unified Germany.

May, 1848: As Hungary began to gain autonmy, Austrians began to demand a representative government. Metternich resigned and universal manhood suffrage was granted.

May, 1848: As unwilling parts of the Hungarian Republic, the Croats, Czechs, and Rumanians begin to demand a similar autonmy as that granted to Hungary.

May, 1848: Piedmont declared war on Austria with a papl blessing and his troops, but Pius IX soon pulled out saying he could not fight a Catholic Austria. The Piedmontese seemed overwhelmed, but had managed to win a battle by the end of May.

June 24-26, 1848: after the government dissolved the national workshops, the lower class revolted and were crushed by republican troops. Over a thousand people were killed in three days and thousands more were sent to prison or exile. This conflict between classes is known as June Days and was the evidence that proved to Karl Marx that democracy couldn't work.

June, 1848: The pan-Slav congress met in Prague after the Czechs refused to send representatives to the Frankfurt Assembly felling that Slavs should not be subject to the will of Germans.

July, 1848: Austrians attack Piedmont and overwhelmingly defeat it. Troops march into Milan.

September, 1848: Riots erupt in Frankfurt. The Assembly is forced to call for Prussian and Austrian aid to resore peace.

October, 1848: Austrians use Croatian sentiments for autonomy to march into Vienna and beat it into submission.

November, 1848: Appointed Prime Minister of the Papal States Pelligrino Rossi is assassinated and the pope flees to Genoa. The Romans take this opportunity to declare the Roman Republic.

December, 1848: Nation-wide elections in france give Louis Napoleon Bonaparte 70% of the popular vote.

December, 1848: Prince Felix con Schwarzenberg fills Metternich's post and convinces Ferdinand I to abdicate to his 18 year old son Francis Joseph I.

January, 1849: Austria invades Hungary, is pushed back.

March, 1849: Piedmont declares war on Austria. A strong Austrian victory places Italy firmly back into Austria's hands.

March, 1849: The Frankfurt Assembly finally completes the German constitution and elects Frederick William IV of Prussia as German emperor. When he refuses to rule the revolutionary state, the Assembly dissolves. New revolutions arise in the Rhineland, Saxony, and Bavaria.

May, 1849: Neopolitan armies retake all of Sicily. The Roman Republic bows to Frnch troops and is restored to the pope.

June, 1849: With the aid of Prussian troops, Austria quashes the revolutions in the Rhineland, Saxony, and Bavaria.

June, 1849: Russians intervene and seal the fate of the Hungarian Republic, which is plagued by constant onslaught from the Austrians and dissentions from the Croats, Slavs, and Romanians.

August, 1849: The Venetian Republic falls to Cholera and starvation.

1. Which of the following countries did not have a revolt in the year 1848? a) Germany b) Spain c) France d) Italy e) Austrian Empire

2. T/F - Revolutions initiated by middle class and nobility started because they were concerned with capitalistic practices.

3. T/F - The revolutions were all successful, giving new hope to the liberals.

4. T/F - The revolutions influenced the course of European government in the long run.

5. Revolution first erupted in January 1848, in which country?
a) Hungary b) Sicily c) Italy d) France e) Britain

6. The revolutions influenced European government by undermining the concept of _______ and setting a foundation for _______ and ________.
a) absolute monarchy; liberalism, socialism b) utopianism; conservatism, socialism
c) absolute monarchy; communism, socialism d) absolute monarchy; facism, satanism

7. The only successful revolution came in which country?
a) Italy b) Britain c) Russia d) France e) Germany

8. The successful revolution in France was under the leadership of...
a) Prince von Metternich b) Napolean c) Lajos Kossuth d) Mazzini e) Louis Blanc

9. T/F - King Louis Philippe reigned France at the time revolution erupted in France.

10. Name the two things which were established in France after success.

11. T/F - Napolean III became the president of France at the end of 1848.

12. Which one of following monarchies does not coincide with the country?
a) Frederick IV, Germany b) Louis Philippe, France c) Pope Pius IX, Italy d) Louis Blanc, Austria

13. Which one of the following revolutionary leaders does not coincide with the country?
a) Louis Blanc-France b) Giuseppe, Mazzini-Italy c) Bismarck-Germany d) Lajos, Kossuth-Hungary

14. T/F - The revolution among the Milanese against the Austrians was unsuccessful and they were crushed.

15. Which of the following leaders was unsuccessful in creating and independent Hungarian Republic?
a) Metternich b) Kossuth c) Napolean III d) Alexander I e) Louis Blanc

16. T/F - Revolution in France sparked interest and revolutions througout Europe.

17. The Austrians were successful in defeating the papal state in July of 1848.
a) Piedmont b) Sicily c) Rome d) Naples e) Milan

18. Austrians began to demand representative government and were granted universal manhood suffrage which resulted in the resignation of which leader?
a) Bismarck b) Mazzini c) Kossuth d) King Victor Emmanuel II e) Metternich

19. Revolutions occured all over Europe. Which of the following pairs of countries were not involved in revolutions?
a) Spain, Britain b) Russia, Sicily c) France, Italy d) Spain, Russia e) Norway, Russia

20. T/F - Guiseppe Mazzini was elected a leader of the new Roman Republic.

21. T/F - Lajos Kossuth was successful in winning a constitution for Hungary within the Russian Empire.

22. Austrian victory over this country/state put Italy back into their control. a) Hungary b) Germany c) Piedmont d) Sicily e) Russia

23. Riots erupted in which city that forced the Frankfurt Assembly to call for Prussian and Austrian aid?
a) Paris b) Frankfurt c) Rome d) Vienna e) London

SAMPLE ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. The Revolutions of 1848 were successful throughout Europe in terms of new liberal ideas and government. How far do you agree with this statement?

2. Did the temporarily successful Revolution in France sparked a chain reaction throughout Europe?

Essay--Revolutions of 1848

"The revolutions did prove to those observing these events... that the people could indeed undermine the government to bring about reform and create the policies of socialism and liberalism."

By Mike White.  E-mail Brett Silva with comments and questions.

The Revolutions of 1848 were a series of political and economic revolts that took place in Europe because of a recession and abuse of political power. Those involved in these revolts included several groups; the Germans, the Italians, the Hungarians and others. Although changes were made all throughout Europe, the original, oppressive government took back control soon after, undoing the work of the revolutionaries. And though these changes didn't last long, the revolutions did prove to those observing these events (including the governments and revolutionaries) that the people could indeed undermine the government to bring about reform and create the policies of socialism and liberalism.

There was a pattern, or cycle that was evident throughout these revolutions.⁽²⁾ This cycle had four distinctive stages: First, the workers, university students, and other revolutionaries agitated for change. Next, the revolutionaries revolted and brought about change and established what they thought was the ideal government, sometimes forcing the king and other leaders to flee. Third, the activists began to quarrel among themselves, disputing over the fine points of their ideas and actions. This disunity set up the fourth and final distinct stage, when the old government was given the opportunity to take back control, or a new government that was even more repressive than the former took control by brutally crushing and repressing the revolution.

What sparked these revolutions was the second revolution in France, which drove Louis Philippe from his throne and brought in a provisional government dedicated to a democratic franchise and "national workshops" to reduce unemployment. This government also passed laws to handle the unstable condition in Paris and established was a constitution that provided universal manhood suffrage (all men could vote).⁽³⁾ However, this was not the end. When elections were held for a new legislature, the voters sent a fairly conservative assembly to Paris. This message sent by the voters was clear--the rural areas in France did not want to be taxed in order to support the unemployed. This new legislature abolished the workshops. In reaction to this, the unemployed workers sought to overthrow the government. This led to three days of bloodshed in Paris, which is now known as the "June Days," when thousands of Frenchmen lost their lives as the army restored order to the city.⁽⁴⁾ Just as Prince Klemens von Metternich pointed out, the infection of revolution spread from France, causing further revolts.⁽⁵⁾

Soon after the French, other countries took up the torch of revolution and carried it until either they were defeated and suppressed, or they were successful in implementing their plan. The next country to take charge of what they thought was a degrading government and establish their ideals were the people in Vienna, the capital of the Austrian Empire. The object of their uprising was to establish a liberal constitution that abolished serfdom, and promised self-rule for the Hungarians. Their plan was successful, when the weak ruler, Emperor Ferdinand I, gave in to their requests and granted it so. Conservative minister Prince Klemens von Metternich was forced to resign when demonstrations by university students and workers broke out. However, the tide soon turned when differences among the revolutionaries gave the reactionary forces an opportunity to suppress the revolution.

In June, Czech leader Frantisek Palacky organized a Pan-Slav Congress in the city of Prague, demanding equality with the Germans. On June 17, Austrian forces crushed this rebellion and a month later regained control in Milan.⁽⁶⁾ In December, Francis Joseph succeeded Ferdinand I as the emperor of Austria and, using the force of a Russian army, was able to get the Hungarian revolutionaries to surrender their independence. In the summer of 1849, a Roman republic crated by Guiseppe Mazzini and Guiseppe Garibaldi collapsed, and the Austrian forces took back control of Venice.

In Italy, the Napoleonic Era awakened liberalism and nationalism. Many Italians longed for an Italy unified under a republican constitution. This movement, or the Risorgimento (resurgence), was led by Guiseppe Mazzini, who, in 1832, started Young Italy, which was a patriotic society that advocated and was ready to fight for the unification of Italy if necessary.⁽⁷⁾ In 1848, revolts broke out in several Italian states. These revolts forced the leaders to establish the constitutions of the revolutionaries. In Sardinia, King Charles Albert was one who voluntarily granted a new constitution to his people. However, these strides in progress were soon crushed and repressed when in came the Austrian army. Charles tried to drive the Austrians out of north Italy, but was defeated at Custoza in 1848 and Novara in 1849 and was abdicated.⁽⁸⁾ Revolutions elsewhere were suppressed, including one in Rome, where Mazzini had formed a short-lived republic. The movement for the unification of Italy was temporarily shut off until 1859.

The wave of revolt also swept across the states of the German Confederation. In the spring of 1848, riots broke out as German people sought freedom from their repressive rulers. The Prussian king, Frederick William IV, was forced to agree to a democratic constitution and to support the unification of German states when the disturbance of the revolts became increasingly powerful. The Frankfurt Parliament was established to draw up a constitution for the unification. In May of 1848, members of the Frankfurt Parliament, or the National Assembly convened in Frankfurt to begin the writing of the new constitution. But the bright prospects of the new Assembly began to fade as members of the Assembly began to dispute over which territory to include in the new Germany.⁽⁹⁾ This dispute forced them to a compromise, and a constitution that would accept Frederick William IV to be the head of this new government. However, Frederick refused to take this position, delivering the famous line, "I do not accept a crown from the gutter!", and had, by this time, gained control of the Prussian army once again and soon brought the demise of the Frankfurt Parliament. Once again, as in Italy and others, hopes for unification were crushed momentarily, this time until 1866.

These revolutions all did one thing together; that the people did have the power to overtake the government and establish what they thought as the ideal government that was run by their constitution. And even though the Italian and German revolts did not last, they too showed their strength in their national feeling. Eventually, the revolts led to reform and ultimate success under different leaders and different years. But in 1848, the main result was gained respect and intimidation from the revolutionaries and their leaders.

(2) Kealy, Daniel. Interview by Mike White, 13 February 1997.

(3) Bob Jones University, World History for Christian Schools. (Greenville, SC: Bob Jones University Press) 443.

(4) Bob Jones University, World History for Christian Schools. (Greenville, SC: Bob Jones University Press) 443.

(5) Bob Jones University, World History for Christian Schools. (Greenville, SC: Bob Jones University Press) 444.

(6) Grolier's Multimedia Encyclopedia. "Revolutions of 1848." 9 Ed.

(7) Bob Jones University, World History for Christian Schools. (Greenville, SC: Bob Jones University Press) 444.

(8) Microsoft Bookshelf '95. "Risorgimento." 2 Ed.

(9) World History for Christian Schools. p.445

Essay--Revolution of 1848

"The revolutions of 1848 were based on the principles of socialism..."

By Jaffer Zaidi from Manila, Philippines. E-mail Brett Silva with comments and questions.

It is obvious that the failure of the revolutions of 1848 was not primarily the result of the disunity among the individuals or groups that led the revolutions. There were many large revolutions throughout Europe, of which almost all of them failed, and the fact is that not all of them shared one single primary cause for their failure. The revolutions of 1848 were based on the principles of socialism (a new ideology at that time), liberalism, and nationalism. Unfortunately for the leaders of the revolutions, their movements usually died down fast, and did not reform the political, social or economic landscape towards the ideas of socialism and liberalism as much as they would have liked them to, and in some cases, had no effect at all. One cause for this was indeed the disunity among the individuals that led the revolutions. However, there were also two other causes of the failure of the revolutions which were prevalent in a number of the revolutions: the lack of support from the peasants, and the strength of the reactionary powers (Britain, France, Russia, and Austria). And so the failure of the revolutions were caused by the disunity of the leaders of the revolts, but only to a certain extent- and that was definitely not the primary cause. The best way to see this would be to look at the major revolutions which occurred in France, Austria, Germany and Italy.

In France, the revolutions started with a riot by the Parisians, which, after Louis Philippe’s fleeing to Britain, led to the formation of the second republic. Yet, after the new government had settled in, the people grew more discontent with their situation. There was in fact disunity in the second government, as Louis Blanc, obviously known for his socialist views, was at odds with the rest of the ten man liberal government. The bloody June Days gave the Parisians a chance to battle the government troops. The result was a new monarch-to-be, and a move back to where the revolution had started. Throughout all of this, it is important to note that it was only the Parisians (the first people to riot) that were active in the revolution. They (the upper middle class men) were the ones that participated in the government, and that fought to the death in this revolution. The farmers and peasants, on the other hand, seemed to be to preoccupied with their agricultural problems (such as the continuing poor outcomes of the crop harvests) in the countryside. And while there was disunity among the leaders of the revolution, the revolutions actually failed because the peasants (which made up a huge majority of the population-not only in France but the rest of Europe as well) were not involved, the revolution really did not have the power needed to fight against an army with the strength of the French one.

In Austria, the same pattern occurred. First, there was an initial revolt, in which the students and workers demanded a constitution, and an end to feudalism. The fact is that the peasants played a limited role in this revolution, as the students and the socialists were simply looking out for their own interests. The outcome was quite unexpected. Not only was Prince Metternich thrown out of power, Franz Joseph, the new monarch replacing Ferdinand, granted a constitution and an end to serfdom (the imperial manifesto). This was a disaster for the revolt (which obviously brought Louis Kosuth to despair), as the peasants had gotten what they wanted, and had no incentive to further support the revolutions. Because of this, without any other revolts which posed a major threat in Austria, the government was later able to crush all of the smaller revolts, which now only had the power of the working class behind them. Louis Kosuth was quite a prominent figure in the revolution, and with him as a clear cut leader, disunity was not really a factor.

After that, the revolution in Germany (which had been a started by the revolutionary atmosphere in Austria proper) was quite vulnerable because, in this one instance, the leaders of the revolution simply could not agree on basic decisions (and major ones as well-they could not even decide if they wanted a Germany which included Prussia and Austria, or a Germany simply made up of the German states). This was simply a lost opportunity. So the Austrian military, allowed to do so by the inefficiency of the Frankfurt Assembly, simply marched in and crushed the rebellion. So, the disunity among the leaders of the revolution in this case, was the primary cause for the failure of this revolution. After accepting that, it can also be seen that there really was no other possible outcome in Germany. Britain and France did not want a unified Germany, and would have assisted the Austrian military if they needed the support (which they obviously did not).

South of Austria, Guispe Mazzini, and his ‘Young Italy Society’ created the atmosphere of revolution throughout the Italies, with their nationalistic call for a unified Italy. And while they were in fact successful in forcing constitutions into the Kingdom of Two Scicilies, Sardinia, the Duchies, Venice and Milan, their initial success was quite deceiving. The reactionary powers once again did not find it in their best interests for there to be a unified Italy. Thus, Austria, who considered the revolution in the Italies to be a threat to her national security, decided to march into the Italies, crush the revolts, abolish the constitutions and restore the monarchs to power. And Italy was in no position to fight Austria alone, with their weak forces (something which Count Cavour was able to comprehend using Realpolitik a few years later). Yes, there might have been some disorganization within the process of the revolution. However, the disunity in the revolution was not apparent among the leaders of the revolts. The disunity was present in the Italian people as a whole- Italy (or the Italies as that area was called at the time) was simply not a homogenous state. It had to face natural barriers throughout the land which prohibited the sharing of common ideas, beliefs, and even language, as the dialects in many regions differed from one another.

Through the above analysis of the revolutions, to say that the failure of the revolutions of 1848 were primarily caused by the disunity of the leaders of the revolts, would simply be a careless assumption, as while that may have been the case in Germany, it was not the case in all of the other nations which experienced significant revolts.. As for the other revolutions (in France, Austria and Italy) there were two other major causes (again, not primary causes) of the failure of the revolutions: the lack of support of the peasants (also known as ‘the masses’- a clear indication of their gigantic force and their make-up of the European population as a whole), and the resistance of the reactionary powers to the revolutions.