AP European History - Mr. O’Donnell

20^th Century: 1945-Present

1) COLD WAR AND RECOVERY: 1945-1968

2) Roots of Cold War

i) Tehran Conference, 1943: USSR guaranteed to be only power to liberate Eastern Europe

ii) Yalta Conference, 1945:

(a) Stalin pledged to allow democratic elections in E. Europe (but later reneged)

(b) Germany would be divided into four zones controlled by U.S., France, Britain and USSR

iii) Potsdam Conference, 1945:

(a) Truman demanded free elections in Eastern Europe but Stalin refused

(b) Stalin wanted a "buffer zone" between Germany and USSR for protection against future war

iv) U.S. point of view:

(a) Stalin seemed intent on creating "spheres" of influence in Eastern Europe

(b) Broke pledges at Yalta; refused to allow reunification of Germany

(d) U.S. wanted democracy spread throughout the world with a strong international organization to maintain global peace

v) Soviet point of view:

(a) Democracies traditionally hostile towards communism and the USSR

(b) e.g., Archangel expedition during WWI; non-recognition by U.S. until 1933

(c) US & Britain did not open western front in Europe early enough; millions of Soviet soldiers were dying fighting the brunt of Nazi armies alone until mid-1944.

(d) The US and Britain froze Russia out of the atomic bomb project.

(e) US terminated lend-lease to Moscow in May 1945 but gave Britain aid until 1946.

(f) Wanted "buffer zone" for the Soviet western border esp. in Poland

vi) Partition of Germany

(a) USSR, U.S., Britain & France would each occupy a part of Germany but would allow for German reunification once she was no longer a threat.

(b) Germany was to pay heavy reparations to USSR in form of agricultural and industrial goods.

(d) Did not want revitalized Germany that could once again pose a threat.

(e) Stripped E. Germany of much of its resources.

vii) U.S. and W. Europeans felt German economy vital to recovery of Europe

viii)1949, West Germany became an independent country when US, France and Britain gave back each of their zones

(a) Federal Republic of Germany – led by Konrad Adenauer

(b) 1949, East Germany formally established – Democratic Republic of Germany led by Walter Ulbricht (1883-1973); communist regime influenced by Moscow

3) "Containment": By 1947, US pledged to prevent further spread of communism

i) Truman Doctrine, 1947: U.S. gave aid to Greece and Turkey to defeat communist forces there.

ii) Marshall Plan, 1947: Massive aid package to help war-torn Europe recover from the war

iii) Purpose: prevent communism from spreading into economically devastated regions

(1) Result: Western and Central Europe recovered economically -- the "economic miracle"

iv) Soviets refused to allow U.S. aid to countries in eastern Europe

4) Berlin Crisis (1948-49): Soviets attempted to remove Allies from Berlin by cutting off access

i) One of high tension points of the Cold War; World War III?

ii) U.S. instituted a massive airlift; Soviets lifted blockade in 1949

5) North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) formed in 1949

i) Collective security organization consisting of democracies in Europe, U.S. & Canada to prevent against Soviet expansion in Europe.

6) Radio Free Europe & Voice of America set up to send pro-democracy messages to countries behind the "iron curtain"

7) Eastern Bloc: countries in Eastern Europe dominated by Soviet Union after WWII

i) Included Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Rumania, Bulgaria

ii) Communist parties of eastern Europe established one-party states by 1948, with help of Red Army and KGB (Soviet secret police)

iii) Only Yugoslavia, led by Marshal Tito, is not dominated by Soviets

iv) Postwar economic recovery in eastern Europe proceeded along Soviet lines.

(1) Changes went forward at slow & uneven pace; came to almost a halt by the mid-1960s.

v) Five-year plans in USSR reintroduced to tackle massive economic reconstruction

vi) Stalin reinstitutes oppressive rule

vii) Great Patriotic War of the Fatherland had fostered Russian nationalism and a relaxation of dictatorial terror.

viii) Stalin’s new foe, the U.S., provided an excuse for re-establishing harsh dictatorship.

viii) After war, Stalin repressed millions of Soviet citizens living outside Soviet borders when the war ended.

ix) Stalin revived many forced labor camp, which had accounted for roughly 1/6 of all new construction in Soviet Union before the war

x) Culture and art were also purged

8) Czechoslovakia

i) Czechoslovakia the economic exception in E. Europe: industrialized, strong middle class and industrial working class and experience of political democracy between the wars.

ii) During “dualist period", President Benes and Foreign minister Jan Masaryk proposed to govern a social democracy while maintaining close voluntary relations with the USSR.

iii) In response to Marshall Plan in 1947, Stalin replaced gov’t in 1948 with 1-party communist rule to prevent nation from courting the West

9) USSR under Nikita Khrushchev (1894-1971)

i) Power struggle emerged after Stalin died in 1953; Khrushchev emerged a few years later

ii) Stalin’s heirs realized reforms were needed.

(i) Widespread fear and hatred of Stalin’s political terror resulted in reduction of power of secret police and gradual closure of forced labor camps.

(b) Agriculture in bad shape.

(d) Hard work and initiative in decline due to poor living conditions.

iii) de-Stalinization

iv) XXth Party Congress, 1956: Khrushchev took startling initiative against hard-liners by denouncing Stalin’s crimes in a closed session.

(a) Secret anti-Stalin speech probably most influential statement in Russia since Lenin addressed the crowd on arriving in April 1917.

v) Gosplan: Resources shifted from heavy industry and the military toward consumer goods and agriculture – Centralized Economic Planning

vi) Great ferment in the arts (anti-Stalinist views tolerated)

(a) Boris Pasternak (1890-1960) wrote Dr. Zhivago in 1956.

(b) Story of prerevolutionary intellectual who rejects brutality of revolution of 1917 & Stalinism; even as he is destroyed, he triumphs from his humanity and Christian spirit.

(d) Portrays in grim detail life in Stalinist concentration camp (he had been a prisoner)

b) De-Stalinization resulted in communist reformers and the masses seeking greater liberty and national independence.

i) Poland: March 1956, riots resulted in release of more than 9000 political prisoners, including previously purged leader Wladyslaw Gomulka.

(1) Gomulka skillfully managed to win greater autonomy for Poland while keeping anti-Soviet feeling at bay.

ii) Hungarian Uprising, 1956

(1) Students and workers in Budapest installed a liberal Communist reformer, Imre Nagy as new chief in October 1956.

(2) Hungarian nationalists staged huge demonstrations demanding non-communist parties be legalized; turned into armed rebellion and spread throughout the country.

(a) Hoped U.S. would come in and help achieve Hungarian independence

(3) Soviet tanks and troops responded by invading Hungary and crushing the national democratic revolution.

(4) János Kádár installed firm communist rule

(5) After Hungarian invasion, most eastern Europeans hoped for small domestic gains while obediently following USSR in foreign affairs.

10) Post-War Political and Economic Framework

i) Bretton Woods Conference (1944): created International Monetary Fund (IMF)

b) Lay foundations for modern monetary system; based on U.S. dollar

c) IMF (World Bank) designed to loan money to struggling countries to prevent economic crises and anarchy; instrumental in post-war economic boom.

11) United Nations created in 1945: Security Council (12 nations including 5 permanent members had powers to act; General Assembly had powers to advise (included all nations of the world)

12) Western Europe political recovery

i) Economic hardship after WWII: scarcity of food, runaway inflation, black markets

ii) Many people believed Europe was finished.

iii) Suffering was worst in Germany

13) Political restructuring

i) Christian Democrats inspired by common Christian and European heritage.

(1) Rejected authoritarianism & narrow nationalism; had faith in democracy and cooperation.

(2) Catholic parties also progressive in nature

ii) Socialists and Communists also emerged with increased power and prestige, especially in France and Italy.

(a) Pushed for social change and economic reform with considerable success.

iii) Result: social reform and political transformation created foundations for a great European renaissance.

14) Italy: Christian Democrats gained control in 1946 led by Alcide De Gasperi

i) Socialist influence: social benefits came to equal a large part of the average worker’s wages

15) France:

i) General Charles De Gaulle, inspiring wartime leader of Free French, re-established free and democratic Fourth Republic (resigned in 1949)

b) Catholic party provided some of best postwar leaders e.g. Robert Schuman

c) Socialist influence: large banks, insurance companies, public utilities, coal mines, and the Renault auto company were nationalized by gov’t.

i) Britain followed same trend

16) Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany):

i) 1949, Konrad Adenauer began long, highly successful democratic rule.

ii) Christian Democrats became West Germany’s majority party for a generation

17) Great Britain:

i) Clement Attlee, socialist Labour party leader, defeated Winston Churchill and the Conservatives in 1945.

ii) Attlee moved toward establishment of a “welfare state.”

iii) Many industries nationalized, gov’t provided each citizen with free medical service and taxed the middle and upper classes more heavily.

18) “Economic Miracle”: unprecedented economic growth in European history

Europe entered period of rapid economic progress lasting into late 1960s.

a) By 1963, western Europe produced more than 2.5X more than before the war.

19) Causes:

a) Marshall Plan aid helped western Europe begin recovery in 1947

b) Korean War in 1950 stimulated economic activity.

c) Economic growth became a basic objective of all western European governments.

i) Governments accepted Keynesian economics to stimulate their economies.

ii) Germany and France were especially successful and influential.

iii) In most countries many people willing to work hard for low wages; expanding industries benefited.

iv) Increased demand for consumer goods.

d) Many economic barriers eliminated and a large unified market emerged: Common Market.

20) German economic recovery led by finance minister Ludwig Erhard

a) Combined free-market economy & extensive social welfare network inherited from Nazi era.

b) By late 1950s, West Germany had robust economy, full employment, a strong currency and stable prices.

21) France

a) Combined flexible planning and a “mixed” state and private economy to achieve most rapid economic development in its history.

b) Jean Monnet: economic pragmatist and architect of European unity.

c) France used Marshall Plan aid money and the nationalized banks to funnel money into key industries, several of which were state owned.

22) European Unity

23) Council of Europe created in 1948

a) European federalists hoped Council would quickly evolve into a true European parliament with sovereign rights, but this did not happen.

b) Britain, with its empire and its “special relationship” with U.S., opposed giving any real political power—sovereignty—to the council.

24) Schuman Plan, 1950 created the European Coal and Steel Community

a) Put forth by French statesman Jean Monnet and Foreign Minister Robert Schuman.

b) Special international organization to control & integrate European steel and coal production.

c) West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, & Luxembourg accepted in 1952.

i) Britain refused to enter

d) Immediate economic goal: a single competitive market w/o national tariffs or quotas.

e) "The Six": By 1958 coal and steel moved freely among six nations of the European Coal and Steel Community

f) Far-reaching political goal: bind six member nations so closely together economically that war among them would become unthinkable and virtually impossible.

25) European Economic Community (EEC)

a) Treaty of Rome, 1957

i) Created European Economic Community (EEC) or the Common Market

(1) Signed by same six nations in the Schuman Plan – “the Six”

(2) First goal of treaty: Gradual reduction of all tariffs among the Six in order to create a single market almost as large as the U.S.

ii) Other goals:

(1) Free movement of capital and labor.

(2) Common economic policies and institutions.

(3) Tariffs were rapidly reduced and regions specialized in what they did best.

b) EEC encouraged hopes of political and economic union.

c) Union frustrated in 1960s by resurgence of more traditional nationalism.

d) Euratom (European Atomic Energy Agency) also created by agency.

e) Communist states responded by forming their own economic association-- COMECON

26) France steps back from European unity

a) Bitter colonial war in Algeria resulted in the election in 1958 of General De Gaulle who established the Fifth French Republic and ruled as president until 1969.

b) Withdrew France from "US controlled" NATO and developed own nuclear weapons program.

c) De Gaulle twice vetoed application of pro-American British to European Union.

d) Britain did not inter until 1973.

27) Cold War in the 1950s

1949, Communists in China led by Mao Zedong win Chinese revolution

a) Establish "Peoples Republic of China" ("Red China")

1949, Soviets successfully test atomic bomb

28) Korean War: 1950-1953

a) After WWII, Korea divided at 38^th parallel: north was communist, south was not

b) 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea (supported by Soviet resources)

c) UN (led by US & Gen. Douglas MacArthur) sent forces to push back communists

i) Soviets boycotting UN for U.S. refusal to allow "Red China" into UN Security Council

d) China sends hundreds of thousands of troops to push back UN

e) Result: cease-fire and border at 38^th parallel restored; still in existence today

29) Hydrogen bomb developed by US in 1952 & USSR in 1953: world now has two superpowers

30) Warsaw Pact, 1955: Collective security organization of eastern bloc nations to counter NATO.

31) U.S. policy of "massive retaliation" between 1953-55

a) U.S. policy now is to help eastern European countries remove communism.

b) U.S. vows to destroy USSR with nuclear weapons if it tries to expand

c) brinksmanship": the art of going to the brink of war to force the other side t back down.

32) Relations between USSR and U.S. improve with ascension to power of Nikita

Khrushchev

a) Seeks “peaceful coexistence” with the West in order to focus on Soviet economy

b) Austrian Independence: USSR agreed in 1955 to real independence for a neutral Austria after 10 years of Allied occupation.

i) Resulted in significant reduction in cold war tensions between 1955 & 1957.

c) Krushchev sought to prove communism was superior to capitalism and the USSR would be the model communist state in the world; "we will bury you.”

i) Krushchev began wooing new nations of Asia and Africa with promises and aid, even if they were not communist.

d) Geneva Summit -- 1955 (July)

i) US meets with USSR, Britain, & France to begin discussions on European security and disarmament; no agreements made

e) Sputnik, 1957:

f) 1958, relations sour with Khrushchev's ultimatum for Allies to leave Berlin: 6 month deadline passes without incident, extended indefinitely

33) Cold War in 1960s

34) U-2 incident: U.S. spy plane shot down over USSR

i) Khrushchev demanded an apology from Eisenhower; Eisenhower refused

ii) Promising Paris Summit in 1960 between Khrushchev and Eisenhower aborted

35) Berlin Wall built in 1961

a) 2 million East Germans escaped to West Berlin between 1949-1961; Soviets frustrated

b) Khrushchev threatened President Kennedy: USSR would sign peace treaty with East Germany who would then control access to Berlin; Soviets would protect East Germany’s right to control flow into Berlin.

c) Berlin Wall built instead of enforcing ultimatum to U.S.; ended future crises over Berlin

36) Cuba became a communist country in 1959 under leadership of Fidel Castro

a) Cuba became an ally of the Soviet Union

b) Bay of Pigs Invasion, 1961: U.S.-trained Cuban exiles tried unsuccessfully to invade Cuba

c) Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962: U.S. demanded Soviets remove their newly installed nuclear missiles from Cuba.

i) Crisis became the closest USSR and US came to nuclear war

ii) U.S. placed blockade (naval quarantine) on any further missiles into Cuba

iii) Khrushchev agreed to remove missiles in return for U.S. removing its missiles from Turkey and vowing not to invade Cuba in the future.

iv) Crisis weakened Khrushchev and contributed to his downfall in 1964

d) Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, 1963:

i) Khrushchev, Kennedy & Britain signed historic treaty banning atmospheric testing in an attempt to reduce Cold War tensions

ii) France refused to sign (was in the process of developing own nuclear weapons program)

37) China became a nuclear power in 1964 leading to its estrangement with Soviet Union

38) Fall of Khrushchev, 1964

a) His cold war foreign policies erratic & ultimately unsuccessful (Berlin, Cuban Missile Crisis)

b) Expensive space and armaments programs postponed any significant shift to consumer goods.

c) Most important reason: agricultural projects backfired

d) Resurgence of conservative Stalinists led to quiet removal of Khrushchev in October, 1964

Leonid Brezhnev became new General Secretary (1964-1982)

e) Beginning in 1964, USSR began a period of stagnation and limited re-Stalinization

f) Massive arms buildup started in response to humiliation of Cuban Missile Crisis.

g) USSR avoided direct confrontation with the U.S. and seemed more committed to peaceful coexistence than Khrushchev had been.

39) Vietnam War (1964-1973): U.S. fought unsuccessful war in Southeast Asia to prevent communism from spreading into South Vietnam.

a) “Domino Theory”: U.S. believed if Vietnam fell to communism, Laos, Cambodia and Thailand would also fall (perhaps even India) (1964-1973)

40) SOCIETY AFTER WORLD WAR II

41) Science and Technology

42) For first time in history, “pure theoretical” science and “practical” technology (”applied science”) effectively joined together on massive scale during WWII.

a) British scientists developed radar to detect enemy aircraft.

b) Jet aircraft developed by Germany

c) Electronic computers further developed; had barely come into existence before 1939.

d) Manhattan Project: Atomic bomb most spectacular result of scientific research during the war; project overseen by J. Robert Oppenheimer

43) “Big Science” became new model for science after WWII

a) Combined theoretical work with sophisticated engineering in a large, often huge organization.

b) U.S. emerged as leader in Big Science after WWII

i) Science not demobilized after WWII either in U.S. or USSR

ii) Large portion of all postwar scientific research went for “defense” (25%!)

44) Space Race (part of Cold War competition to achieve technological superiority)

a) 1957, USSR launched Sputnik, an orbiting satellite using long-range rockets

i) US fearful Soviets could now launch a nuclear missile into space and then down to U.S.

ii) Resulted in development of ICBMs (Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles)

b) U.S. countered with creation of NASA and vastly increased educational funding for science.

c) 1961, Soviets sent world’s first cosmonaut, Yuri Gagarin, into orbit.

i) President John F. Kennedy responded by increasing funds for space.

d) 1969, Apollo Program put first man on the moon; 4 more moon landings followed by 1972.

45) “Brain Drain”: U.S. attracted many of Europe’s best scientists during 1950s and 1960s—seen as the American Challenge

a) Some Europeans feared Europe was falling behind U.S. in science, technology, and most dynamic industrial sectors of the late 20^th century.

b) Yet, revitalized Europe pooling resources on Big Science projects:

i) Concorde supersonic passenger airliner and peaceful uses of atomic energy.

46) Massive growth of scientific community

a) Four times as many scientists in Europe and North America in 1975 as in 1945.

b) Highly specialized modern scientists and technologists worked as members of a team, which completely changed work and lifestyle of modern scientists.

c) James Watson and Francis Crick win Nobel Prize in 1962 for discovering structure of DNA

47) Change in class structure and social reform

48) Rise of the middle-class largely result of increased access to higher education

a) European society became more mobile and democratic.

i) New middle-class, based largely on specialized skills and high levels of education, more open, democratic, and insecure than old propertied middle class.

b) Changes in structure of middle class influential in trend toward less rigid class structure.

c) Causes for change in rise of middle class

i) Rapid industrial and technological expansion created in large corporations and gov’t agencies became powerful demand for technologists and managers.

ii) Old propertied middle class lost control of many family-owned businesses.

iii) Top managers and ranking civil servants represented model for new middle class of salaried specialists; well paid and highly trained

(1) Passed on opportunity for advanced education to their children.

49) Structure of lower classes also became more flexible and open.

a) Mass exodus from farms and countryside.

i) Resulted in drastic decline in one of Europe’s most traditional and least mobile groups.

b) Industrial working class ceased to expand while job opportunities for white-collar and service employees grew rapidly.

50) European governments reduced class tensions by further expanding social security reforms: health care, family allowances, maternity grants, public housing

51) Consumerism worked to level Western society.

a) Sparked by rising standard of living giving more people disposable income.

b) European automobile industry expanded phenomenally.

c) “Gadget revolution”

i) Like US, Europeans bought washing machines, vacuum cleaners, refrigerators, dishwashers, radios, TVs, and stereos.

ii) Purchasing greatly facilitated by installment purchasing.

d) Increased social welfare resulted in more disposable income and less need to save for old age.

e) Leisure and recreation became big business as workers worked fewer hours.

i) Soccer matches, horse races, movies, TV, commercialized hobbies

ii) Increased attendance in cultural events: concerts and exhibitions.

iii) Travel industry mushroomed most dramatically

(1) Before WWII travel for pleasure or relaxation largely aristocratic.

(2) Paid vacations required by law in most countries

52) The youth movement and Counterculture

53) Counter-Culture: rebellion against parents, authority figures and status quo

54) Baby boom after WWII developed distinctive and international youth culture.

a) Many raised in economic prosperity and more democratic class structure.

b) New generation influenced by revival of leftist thought created a “counter-culture”

i) Youth in America took the lead.

c) Some youth rebelled against conformity and boredom of middle-class suburbs.

d) Rock music helped tie counter-culture together

i) Beatles, British rock band, became one of biggest pop groups in music history

e) Increased sexual behavior among many young people during 1960s and 1970s

i) Age of first sexual experienced reduced significantly.

ii) Growing tendency of young unmarried people to live together on a semipermanent basis with little thought of getting married or having children.

55) Causes of the emergence of international youth culture in 1960s.

a) Mass communication and youth travel linked countries and continents together.

b) Baby boom meant youth became unusually large part of population and exercised exceptional influence on society as a whole.

c) Postwar prosperity and greater equality gave youth more purchasing power than ever before.

i) Youth to set mass trends and fads in everything from music to chemical stimulants.

d) Common patterns of consumption and behavior fostered generational loyalty.

e) Good jobs were readily available.

i) High demand for workers meant youth had little need to fear punishment from straight-laced employers for unconventional behavior.

56) Student Revolts in the late 1960s

57) Causes

a) Opposition to U.S. war in Vietnam triggered revolutionary ferment among youths

i) Influenced by Marxist current in French universities after 1945 & new left thinking in US

ii) Believed older generation & US fighting immoral & imperialistic war against Vietnam.

b) Students in western Europe shared US youth's rejection of materialism and belief that postwar society was repressive and flawed.

c) Problems in higher education: classes overcrowded; little contact with professors; competition for grades intense; demanded even more practical areas of study to qualify for high-paying jobs after college

d) Some students warned of dangers of narrowly trained experts ("technocrats") who would serve the establishment to the detriment of working class.

58) French student revolt, 1968

a) Students took over the university, leading to violent clashes with police.

i) Most students demanded changes in curriculum and real voice in running the university

b) Appealed to industrial workers for help; spontaneous general strike spread across France

i) To many it seemed the French Fifth Republic might collapse

c) De Gaulle called in troops and called for new elections (which he won decisively)

i) The mini-Revolution collapsed.

d) For much of the older generation in western Europe, the student revolution of 1968 signaled the end of illusions and end of an era.

59) Czechoslovakia

60) Due to Khrushchev’s reforms in USSR, 1960s brought modest liberalization and more consumer goods to eastern Europe

61) 1968, reform elements in Czechoslovak Communist party gained a majority and voted out long-time Stalinist leader.

62) Alexander Dubcek elected leader: ushered new period of thaw and rebirth in famous “Prague Spring” of 1968.

a) Czech reformers building “socialism with a human face” frightened hard-line communists.

63) Soviet troops brutally invaded Czechoslovakia in August 1968.

64) Czechoslovakia became one of most hard-line communist regimes well into 1980s.

65) Brezhnev Doctrine: Soviet Union and its allies had right to intervene in any socialist country whenever they saw the need

66) De-Colonization after WWII

67) Postwar era saw total collapse of colonial empires.

a) Between 1947 and 1962, almost every colonial territory gained independence.

b) New nations of Asia and Africa deeply influenced by Western ideas and achievements.

68) Causes

a) Modern nationalism and belief in self-determination and racial equality, spread from intellectuals to the masses in virtually every colonial territory after WWI.

b) Decline of European prestige: Japanese victories; destruction of Europe during WWII

c) After 1945, European powers more concerned about rebuilding; let colonies go

69) India played a key role in decolonization and the end of empire.

a) Indian National Congress: British had no choice but to develop a native political elite that could assist in ruling such huge country.

i) Exposure of young Indians to Western ideas of nationalism, socialism, and democracy led to demands for independence by the early 20^th century.

b) Mohandas K. Gandhi: after WWI led independence movement with principle of passive resistance (civil disobedience)

c) Jawaharlal Nehru led Congress party in its push for independence

d) Clement Attlee and others in Labour party wished to focus on internal affairs.

e) Lord Louis Mountbatten: appointed to supervise transition of India to independence

i) Divided India into two nations: India (Hindu) and Pakistan (Muslim)

70) China

71) After WWII (defeat of Japanese invaders) a civil war broke out between communists led by Mao Zedong and Nationalists led by Jiang Jieshi (Chang kai-shek)

72) Mao won the revolution and created a communist country: People's Republic of China

73) Vietnam

74) After Japanese removed after WWII, French tried to reassert control of Indochina

75) Ho Chi Minh led the independence movement in the north

76) 1954, defeated French forces at Dien Bien Phu

77) 1954,Vietnam was divided into North (communist) and South (pro-Western); civil war resulted

78) U.S. defeated in attempt to prevent communist takeover of South Vietnam; Vietnam unified in 1975

79) Arab Nationalism

80) Arab nationalists loosely united by opposition to colonialism and migration of Jews to Palestine

81) Israel and Palestine

a) Balfour Declaration in 1917 indicated Britain favored creation of Jewish “national home” in Palestine—opposed by Saudi Arabia & Transjordan

b) Great Britain announced its withdrawal from Palestine in 1948.

c) United Nations voted for creation of two states, one Arab and one Jewish

d) Palestinians vowed to fight on until state of Israel destroyed or until they established own independent Palestinian state; led to several wars and numerous conflicts in late 20^th century

82) Egypt

a) Arab defeat in 1948 by Israel triggered nationalist revolution in Egypt in 1952.

b) 1956, Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, the last symbol and substance of Western power in the Middle East.

c) France, Britain and Israel attacked Egypt, trying to take back control of Suez Canal

d) U.S. and Soviet Union demanded their withdrawal and the canal remained in Egypt's control

83) Algerian Crisis (mid 1950s)

a) Algeria’s large French population considered Algeria an integral part of France.

i) This feeling led ensuing war; bitter and atypical of decolonization.

b) General De Gaulle, who had returned to power as part of movement to keep Algeria French, accepted principle of Algerian self-determination.

c) 1962, after more than a century of French rule, Algeria became independent and the European population quickly fled.

d) Crisis led to fall of the Fourth Republic and beginning of the Fifth Republic

84) Sub-Saharan Africa

a) Decolonization proceeded much more smoothly than in northern Africa

b) British Commonwealth of Nations: beginning in 1957, Britain’s colonies achieved independence with little or no bloodshed; entered a very loose association with Britain.

i) Exception: Mao Mao society were a Kenyan group of terrorists/freedom fighters who fought to end English control of Kenya.

c) 1958, De Gaulle offered leaders of French black Africa choice of total break with France or immediate independence within a kind of French commonwealth.

i) All but one of new states chose association with France.

d) Cultural imperialism continued

i) France and Common Market partners saw themselves as continuing their civilizing mission in black Africa.

ii) Desired untapped markets for industrial goods, raw materials, outlets for profitable investment, and good temporary jobs for their engineers and teachers.

85) Europe Since 1968:

86) Economic crises of the 1970s

a) Nixon takes U.S. off gold standard: effectively ended the “Bretton Woods” system of international currency stabilization.

i) Fixed rates of exchange abandoned.

ii) Great uncertainty replaced postwar predictability in international trade and finance.

b) Energy Crisis

i) Postwar economic boom fueled by cheap oil, especially in western Europe.

ii) 1973, OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) dramatically increased oil prices in Europe and U.S. in retaliation for their support of Israel in the Yom Kippur War against Egypt and Syria.

iii) Second price increase in 1979 during Iranian Revolution hurt modest progress since 1976.

c) Price revolution in energy, coupled with upheaval in international monetary system, plunged world into worst economic decline since 1930s.

i) "Stagflation" hit in the mid 1970s: increased prices and increased unemployment; rare

ii) Debts and deficits piled up quickly in the 1970s and 1980s

d) Social consequences of the 1970s economic crisis

i) Created condition for collapse of communism in late 1980s.

ii) Pessimism replaced optimism in society in general

iii) Welfare system created in postwar era prevented mass suffering and degradation.

iv) Total government spending in most countries rose during 1970s and 1980s

v) Conservative resurgence in late 1970s and early 1980s: Thatcher, Reagan, Mitterand

(1) By late 1970s, powerful reaction against increased governments’ role resulted in austerity measures to slow growth of public spending and the welfare state.

(2) Margaret Thatcher in Great Britain

(3) Ronald Reagan in U.S.

(4) 1993, frustrated French voters gave coalition of conservatives and moderates overwhelming victory.

(a) France in early 1980s attempted to increase gov’t role but failed

(b) Francois Mitterand led his Socialist party and Communist allies in launching a vast program of nationalization and public investment designed to spend France out of economic stagnation. (Keynesian)

(c) By 1983, this policy failed and Mitterand was forced to impose wide variety of austerity measures for the remainder of the decade.

vi) Reduction in spending for “Big Science” (except cold war related spending)

vii) Europeans and North Americans developed a leaner, tougher lifestyle

87) Women

88) Early women’s rights advocates: De Gouges, Wollstonecraft, Pankhurst

89) Second wave of women’s movement first assumed real significance in the late 1960s, gathered strength in the 1970s, and won major victories in the 1970s and 1980s.

90)

91) Marriage and Motherhood

a) In the postwar era, women continued to marry earlier.

b) Typical woman in Europe, U.S. and Canada had children quickly after marrying.

i) Average of only 2 children per family

ii) Motherhood occupied a much smaller portion of a women’s life than at the turn of the century.

iii) Birth control use increased with oral contraceptives and intrauterine devices.

92) Women in the workplace

a) In 20^th century, especially after WWII, opportunities for women of modest means to earn cash income at home practically disappeared.

b) Thus, sharp increase across Europe and North America in number of married women who became full-time and part-time wage earners outside the home.

c) Rising employment of married women became a powerful force in drive for women’s equality and emancipation.

d) Rising employment for married women became a factor in decline of the birthrate.

Women's Rights Movement

e) Simone de Beauvoir : The Second Sex (1949) -- existentialist ideas

i) Argued women were in essence free but had almost always been trapped by particularly inflexible and limiting conditions.

ii) Only by courageous action and self-assertive creativity could women become free and escape the role of inferior “other.”

iii) Inspired a future generation of women's rights intellectuals

f) Betty Friedan: The Feminine Mystique (1963) -- American

i) Women expected to conform to false, infantile pattern of femininity and live for husbands and children.

ii) Founded National Organization for Women (NOW); inspired European groups

g) Goals of women's rights movements

i) New statutes in the workplace: laws against discrimination, “equal pay for equal work,” and maternal leave and affordable day care.

ii) Gender and family questions: right to divorce (in some Catholic countries), legalized abortion, needs of single parents I (usually women) and protection from rape and physical violence.

iii) In almost every country, effort to legalize abortion became catalyst for mobilizing an effective women’s movement.

Cold War in the 1970s

93) Ostpolitik:

a) Willy Brandt: "eastern initiative" -- West German chancellor, began to improve relations with Eastern Europe

i) Brandt sought a comprehensive peace settlement for central Europe and a new resolution of the “German Question.”

b) Negotiated treaties with USSR, Poland, and Czechoslovakia that formally accepted existing state boundaries and the loss of German territory to Poland and USSR in return for mutual renunciation of force or threat of force.

c) “Two German states within one German nation”

i) Brandt’s gov’t broke with past and entered into direct relations with East Germany.

ii) Aimed for modest practical improvements rather than reunification,

d) Brandt brought Germany’s Social Democrats to national power for first time since 1920s.

i) Demonstrated two-party political democracy had taken firm hold.

e) Result: West Germany’s eastern peace settlement contributed to great reduction in East-West tensions; Germany assumed a leadership role in Europe.

94) · Dètente

a) U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and President Nixon tried to place Brandt’s eastern initiatives in broader, American-led framework of reducing East-West tensions in early 1970s.

i) Feared Germany might become neutral thus weakening NATO & US influence in Europe

ii) Nixon hoped to gain their aid in pressuring North Vietnam into peace.

b) realpolitik: Nixon & Kissinger believed U.S. should pursue policies and make alliances based on its national interests rather than on any particular view of the world.

i) Sought to play USSR and China off each other

ii) Nixon visited China in 1972: Soviets concerned China & U.S. might draw closer

iii) Nixon visited Moscow, 1972: ushered in an era known as dètente.

(1) Sought to establish rules to govern the rivalry between US and USSR and China.

c) SALT I: Brezhnev and Nixon signed treaty to stop making nuclear ballistic missiles and to reduce the number of antiballistic missiles to 200 for each power.

i) MIRVs made SALT I obsolete (multiple warheads on one missile)

d) Helsinki Conference, 1975

i) Final Act: Officially ended World War II by finally legitimizing the Soviet-dictated boundaries of Poland and other East European countries.

ii) In return, Soviets guaranteed more liberal exchanges of people and information between East and West and the protection of certain basic “human rights.”

(1) Yet, Moscow continued to squelch human rights in Eastern Europe.

e) End of dètente

i) Soviet invasion of Afghanistan led to U.S. refusal to ratify SALT II treaty (reducing nuclear armaments) and led to President Carter boycotting 1980 Olympics in Moscow

(1) US stopped shipments of grain and certain advanced technology to the Soviet Union.

(a) Only Britain stood behind U.S. in its sanctions.

(b) France, Italy and especially West Germany argued that Soviet’s deplorable action should not be turned into an East-West confrontation.

95) Soviet Bloc since 1968

96) 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia was the crucial event of the Brezhnev era.

a) Intense conservatism of Soviet ruling elite determined to maintain status quo in Soviet bloc.

b) Re-Stalinization of USSR resulted, to a degree

c) Dictatorship was collective rather than personal—through the Politburo.

d) Celebrated nonconformists as Alksandr Solzhenitsyn permanently expelled from country.

97) “Solidarity” in Poland

a) Polish cardinal elected Pope John Paul II in 1979: traveled through Poland preaching love of Christ and country and “inalienable rights of man.”

b) Popular movement of working people organized a massive union called “Solidarity.”

i) Led by Lech Walesa

ii) Demands included right to form free trade unions, right to strike, freedom of speech, release of political prisoners and economic reforms.

c) 1981, Polish gov’t led by Communist party leader, General Jaruzelski imposed martial law after being warned by Soviets if the Polish gov’t could not keep order, Soviets would.

i) Solidarity was outlawed and driven underground but remained active

Cold War in the 1980s

98) The Atlantic Alliance revitalized itself in the 1980s under the leadership of Ronald Reagan in the U.S., Margaret Thatcher in UK, and Helmut Kohl (b. 1930) of Germany.

99) In 1980s, all three nations believed USSR remained a dangerous threat (e.g. Afghanistan)

100) Margaret Thatcher became prime minister in 1979.

101) Came to power after a year of bitter strikes had eroded support for the ruling socialist Labour party.

102) Advocated hard-line military positions (as Reagan)

103) Falklands War (1982)

104) Argentine forces invaded and occupied Falkland (or Malvinas) Islands, 500 miles off coast of Argentina.

105) Thatcher sent fleet to retake the islands; gained enormous popularity--reelected

106) Helmut Kohl, distinctly pro-American, came to power with conservative Christian Democrats in 1982.

107) Atlantic Alliance gave indirect support to ongoing efforts to liberalize authoritarian communist states in eastern Europe.

108) Despite repeated defeats, the revolutions of 1989 ended Communist domination.

109) Ronald Reagan

110) Dealt with Soviets from position of strength by embarking on massive military buildup.

a) Reagan believed US could better bear burden of the expense while the Soviets couldn’t.

111) Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) – “Star Wars”:

112) 1983, Reagan announced his intention to pursue a high-technology missile-defense system

113) Reagan’s dramatic increase in defense spending placed enormous pressures on the Soviet economy.

114) When Soviets shot down KAL007, Reagan called Soviets the “Evil Empire”

115) End of Cold War

116) Mikhail Gorbachev assumed control of Soviet Union in 1985 and sought reforms

117) Perestroika: (“restructuring”) Aimed to revive the sagging Soviet economy by adopting many of the free-market practices of the West.

118) By 1987, program had clearly failed

119) Glasnost: Aimed to open Soviet society by introducing free speech and some political liberty, while ending party censorship; more successful than perestroika

120) Demokratiztsiya: Began as an attack on corruption in Communist party and as an attempt to bring class of educated experts into decision making process.

121) March 1989: first free elections since 1917.

122) Gorbachev sought to reduce East-West tensions.

123) Withdrew Soviet troops from Afghanistan.

124) Encouraged reform movements in Poland and Hungary

125) Repudiated Brezhnev Doctrine by pledging to respect political choices of peoples of eastern Europe.

126) INF Treaty signed by Gorbachev and Reagan in Washington, D.C. in December 1987.

127) All intermediate-range nuclear missiles from Europe banned.

128) Revolutions of 1989: end to communist control of eastern Europe

129) Costs of maintaining satellite countries for USSR both politically and economically, were too much of a burden for the Soviets too handle.

130) Poland: Solidarity legalized again and free elections promised in June 1989.

131) First noncommunist leader in eastern Europe since the Stalin era

132) Triggered a wave of freedom in eastern Europe

133) Lech Walesa became president in 1990 but Solidarity later broke up into factions

134) Hungary: October 23, Hungarian leaders proclaimed independent republic

135) Berlin Wall comes down in November; East German gov't falls

136) Germany reunified in 1990

137) Conservative-liberal “alliance for Germany,” tied to West German chancellor Helmut Kohl’s Christian Democrats, defeated East German Social Democrats.

138) July 1990, East and West German economies merged.

139) Soviets opposed unified Germany in NATO but eventually acquiesced when West Germany provided massive economic aid to Soviet Union.

140) Czechoslovakia – the “Velvet Revolution”

141) Vaclav Havel, the dissident playwright, becomes president

142) Bulgaria

143) Rumania – Nicolai Ceausescu overthrown and assassinated

144) Cutbacks in ICBMs

145) START I treaty signed in 1990 between Gorbachev and President George Bush

146) Would cut 10% of U.S. nuclear weapons and 25% of Soviet nukes and limit ICBM warheads

147) Fall of Soviet Union

148) Coup in Moscow, 1991: communist hard-liners, frustrated by loss of Soviet power and prestige, attempted to overthrow Gorbachev

149) Coup failed when military refused to crush popular resistance

150) Boris Yeltsin, leader of Russia, defied tanks and became a hero.

151) Coup fatally weakened Gorbachev and spelled doom for the Soviet Union.

152) Yeltsin and his liberal allies declared Russia independent and withdrew from the Soviet union—all other republics followed.

153) December 25, 1991, Soviet Union dissolved into 15 separate republics

154) Republics remained economically connected for a time via Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)

155) Russia assumed the Soviet Union's seat in the United Nations Security Council.

156) Challenges in the 1990s for Central and Eastern Europe

157) Russian struggle

158) Yeltsin failed to significantly improve the Russian economy

159) 1993, Yeltsin became embroiled in a power struggle with a conservative parliament

160) Parliament’s leaders, holed up in the White House (the parliament tower in Moscow), unleashed a crowd to assault the Kremlin and the television center.

161) Yeltsin sent tanks against the White House; 120 killed and top floors of tower shelled and burned.

162) Moscow had not seen such violence since 1905.

163) On New Year's Day, 2000, Yeltsin resigned due to poor health and lack of popularity

164) Succeeded by former KGB colonel Vladimir Putin

165) Eastern Europe

166) Shift to market economy was difficult

167) No precedents existed to guide transition and legal, institutional, and cultural underpinnings were missing.

168) In short run, economic activity declined by 1/3.

169) Poland most successful: by 1993, GDP grew over 4%, & 5% in 1995; the fastest in Europe.

170) Czechoslovakia adopted world’s first mass privatization scheme under

171) Hungary’s economy was the freest in Eastern Europe but changed more slowly.

172) Well-established private sector attractive to foreign lenders; attracted nearly half

of Eastern Europe’s

173) foreign investment.

174) By 1995, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary were doing well enough to be taken seriously as potential European Union (EU) members by the year 2000.

Continuing problems

175) Unemployment figures about 15% throughout most of region

176) Inflation remained dangerously high in some countries

177) Governments ran large deficits

178) Political challenges

179) Old ethnic hatreds of pre-1914 Central Europe resurfaced

180) Slovaks seceded from Czechoslovakia on January 1, 1993; Slovakia much slower in drive toward democracy and the market

181) Yugoslavia broke into civil war in early 1990s (see below)

182) Former Communist parties returned to majorities in freely elected parliaments in 183) Lithuania (1992), Poland (September 1993), and Hungary (spring 1994).

184) Walesa defeated in Polish presidential elections in 1995 by former Communist official.

185) But ex-Communists were now converted to democracy and the market.

The “New” Germany

186) German unity changed face of European politics: Germany now an economic powerhouse

187) “Ossies” (East Germans) came to feel like 2nd-class citizens in the face of economic difficulties

188) Meanwhile, “Wessies” (West Germans) resented years of heavy taxation to rebuild the east.

Civil War in Yugoslavia

189) Cause: 1990 President Slobodan Milosevic began giving concrete form to his greater Serbian nationalism; established tighter central control over previously autonomous regions

190) In response Croatia & Slovenia declared independence and each fought Serbia in the process

191) Bosnia declared its independence in March 1992 and the civil war spread there.

192) Bosnian Serbs (about 30% of pop.) refused to live in a Muslim-dominated state and began military operations assisted by Serbia and the Yugoslav federal army; Sarajevo under attack

193) Ethnic cleansing: Bosnian Serbs tried to liquidate or remove Muslims by shelling cities, confiscating or destroying of houses, gang rape, expulsion, and murder.

194) Several hundred thousand Bosnians killed

195) Dayton Agreements, 1995: Agreed to divide Bosnia between Muslims and Serbs

196) Bosnian Serb aspirations to join a Greater Serbia frustrated by U.S. and other NATO troops sent to enforce the Dayton agreements.

197) Indictment for war crimes of 7 Croats and 45 Bosnian Serbs; not enforced as of 2000

198) Kosovo crisis, 1999:

199) Milosevic attempted to ethnically cleanse Kosovo (province of Serbia) of ethnic- Albanians

200) NATO, led by U.S., bombed Serbia in order to stop the ethnic cleansing

European Union (EU) went into effect in 1993

201) European Community (EC) renamed to European Union in 1996

202) Chancellor Kohl and President Mitterrand sought to extend the EU to include a single European currency and a common defense and foreign policy

203) British prime minister Margaret Thatcher led opposition until she resigned in

204) November 1990, replaced by conservative successor John Major who urged a limited federalism.

205) Maastricht Treaty, 1991

206) Promised most radical revision of the EC since its beginning.

207) Eurodollar became the single currency of the EU in 1999 integrating the currency of 11 western and central European nations.

208) Proposals to form common foreign and defense policies.

209) Increased use of majority voting.

210) Greater parliamentary consultation.

211) By 1995 EU had 15 members