| SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO CRIMINOLOGY Criminology as a social science emerged as some criminologists began to focus on street crime rates (patterns) rather than on individual "criminals." This led to the view (1) that street crime is a result of underlying social problems like poverty, discrimination, social disorganization, etc; (2) that most lawbreakers are not fundamentally different from other people - rather their circumstances are different (poverty, unemployment, etc.); and (3) a focus on trying to prevent crime by changing the underlying conditions/causes. The Pluralist Model of Social Organization and Law Conservative/Liberal (mainstream) "political science" view of government/law as representing "the people." >> Modern societies consist of a diversity of (competing) social groups with different values, beliefs, etc. >> Law is a mechanism for dispute resolution ("referee") and should be neutral (no critical analysis of law). >> Poor people disproportionately commit crimes because they are structurally/culturally disadvantaged in the competition for jobs and political power. The Conflict Model of Social Organization and Law Critical/Radical view of government/law as mainly representing the interests of the rich and powerful. >> In modern (unequal) societies, law is a tool used to gain and maintain power (critical analysis of law). >> Those treated as �criminals� consist of the poor and powerless, or those who oppose the powerful. (this is why corporate criminals are usually not treated as real criminals � they aren�t poor). The Key Criminology Question: What social and cultural factors generate patterns of crime (high crime rates, low crime rates, changing crime rates)? Social Disorganization Theories (social disorganization, social change, and social conflict cause crime). >> Emile Durkheim - Cultural change and �anomie� - changing or conflictive norms and values. Example: Urbanization breaks down traditions and their clear standards/ways of doing things. >> The Chicago School - Ecological (material) conditions and change - unstable and/or deteriorating neighborhoods. Example: gangs and organized crime flourish in unstable urban neighborhoods. >> Robert Merton - Strain theories (strain between cultural goals and legitimate means for achieving goals). (more detailed discussion below) Subculture Theories � argue that over time social disorganization leads to the formation of subcultures prone to crime/violence. Examples: kids grow up in violent homes & neighborhoods and learn violence. >> Thorsten Sellin - Cultural conflict (large scale conflict like immigrants in US history, �illegal aliens� today). >> Lower class subculture - alternative adaptations where dominant culture not available. >> Subculture of violence - a particular form of lower class subculture involving norms of violence. Social Control Theories -- turns the basic question around and asks: why aren�t we all criminals since we all have constant �temptations� to commit crimes (why don�t most of us steal, assault others, etc.)? >> Walter Reckless - Containment theory (inner and outer �obstacles to crime� e.g. self concept, self esteem, approval and disapproval of others, etc.) >> Travis Hirschi - Social Bond theory (weak/strong attachments, commitment, involvement, beliefs). Example: kids involved in sports, band, etc. have bonds to school which reduces deviance. Labeling theory - �self fulfilling prophecy� - everybody commits petty deviant acts (primary deviance) but most of these are ignored; some (mainly the poor & powerless) are selected for labeling and punishment and these people are more likely to continue/escalate deviant behavior (secondary deviance). Thus it is the systems for punishing deviance that unintentionally creates more, and more serious, deviance. Example: Kids get in trouble at school, identify themselves as bad kids, then get in trouble with police, which reinforces bad kid identity. General problems with sociological approaches: >> Lack of agreement between proponents of pluralist and conflict models. >> Sample selection: still a disproportionate focus on lower class life, people, and deviance/crime. >> �Criminology as science� dilemma: science at first tends to take things apart in order to analyze them closely. Eventually it is necessary to put the pieces back together again. Criminology hasn�t done this yet. >> The criminological community has been mostly inept at influencing social policy. Politicians and much of the public still "believe in" individual approaches. ROBERT MERTON'S STRAIN THEORY OF CRIME Robert Merton's strain theory of crime has been the most influential theory in contemporary criminology. Merton argues that in modern (capitalist) societies, our culture encourages (even demands) that we all pursue material success (income, wealth, house,cars, etc.) and our social status is measured by our achievements. Merton also argues that because of structured social inequality and discrimination (especially race and class discrimination) people have very different access to the means for achieving success (higher education, good jobs, etc.) and large segments of the population face �blocked opportunity� for achieving success. The combination of the cultural success orientation and structural blocked opportunity produces "strain" and anomie - a social condition that often leads to deviant adaptations, including crime. To illustrate the theory Merton created a "logic table" to explain the varieties of adaptations to strain: ------------------------------------------------------------------------ GOALS MEANS (+ means accept, - means reject) Conformist + + "poor but honest" Innovator + - inventor, entrepreneur, criminal Ritualist - + "bureaucratic mentality" Retreatist - - drop out, beatnik, hippie, cultist, etc. Rebel -/+ -/+ revolutionary ------------------------------------------------------------------------ What shapes particular responses to strain - that is, what influences people to innovate, retreat, etc.? Note: these are each particular criminology theories competing for influence. Differential Association - One factor is important associations - friends, family, neighbors, etc. What their "reference groups" do is a powerful influence on what people do. Differential Reinforcement - Another factor is reinforcement (rewards and punishments). If something "works" (rewards, status, etc.) people are more likely to continue doing it. Differential Opportunity - Most deviant adaptations require an alternative set of skills, attitudes, and values that are learned. Where opportunity is blocked on a large scale and over a long period of time, "illegitimate opportunity structures" will emerge to provide these alternatives (and provide associations and reinforcement!). Examples: the drug economy, organized crime, gangs, etc. Note: Merton's theory focused on explaining modern urban "street crime." But the theoretical framework can also be used to explain a variety of other social situations similar to those producing street crime. Why is corporate crime so widespread in America? Businesses are locked into a highly competitive quest for �market shares� (goal) and it is hard to �win� using legitimate means - this leads to a corporate culture of �cheating� (deviant adaptation � corporate crime). Why do some police departments (like LAPD) have chronically high levels of corruption? Police culture emphasizes punishing �bad guys� (goal) but the legal evidence is often lacking (legitimate means) and this leads some police depts (local police culture) to plant evidence, engage in police brutality, etc. How do idealistic young lawyers become "convict by any means" prosecutors? Prosecutors compete for high conviction rates (goal) which is hard to accomplish by following legal �due process� - this leads many prosecutors to abandon goals of fairness and justice, and �cheat� to win convictions. |