| YOUNG MALES AND STREET CRIME BACKGROUND IN EUROPE The Roman Empire (2000 years ago) dominated much of Europe through conquest and exploitation. The Roman economy was based on high-productivity agricultural technology in the conquered Provinces, along with industry and trade in Rome itself. Rome conquered provinces, provided advanced agricultural technology, then took slaves and the surplus goods produced back to Rome as wealth. 400-500ad, the Roman Empire collapsed after a long decline, plunging Europe into the �Dark Ages.� The Provinces broke up into local �manors� (Roman technology still used but on a smaller scale). By about 1000ad, growing productivity + growing trade (of surpluses) generated an early �industrial revolution� in Southern Europe (factories and wageworkers, merchants, money, contracts and contract law, etc.). In the 1300s and 1400s, Black Plague struck (spread by trade!) and wave after wave of plague decimated populations of Europe (England less affected by plague because backward and isolated from European trade routes). The first industrial revolution ended. The Plague epidemics ended in the 1400s and population recovery began (the plague killed the most susceptible, the most resistant survived and reproduced, eventually whole population was more resistant). By the mid-1500s, booming populations, growing agricultural productivity, and expanding trade again. 1600s growing surplus pops + new factory systems --> the Industrial Revolution (starting in England). What happens as this process continues? As agricultural productivity increases, people are freed from agri work, expanding the �division of labor.� Expanded D of L further increases agri prod, which further increases D of L, and so on (spiral effect). Similar process with trade, wars of conquest, colonization, etc. All of these lead to huge economic growth. �Public Health� improves (food, nutrition, etc.) � this leads to increasing live birth rates, decreasing death rates, increasing life expectancy � all of which generates a population explosion! These changes further increase agri productivity -- more workers, healthier workers, larger families, etc. One result (among many) of all of this is a growing local problem of surplus populations - a huge problem! Fewer workers can produce more goods � and this makes many people "useless"! Eventually young males begin to be �pushed out� (early examples: primogeniture & the crusades). Why YM? Older people are the foundation of society, young females tied to reproduction. YM end up in factory towns, become industrial work force (peasant background, no individuality). Early factory towns -- brutal exploitation, terrible violence, horrible living conditions. This is the period of a lot of crime (surplus pops) and brutal repression (see reading for this section). Eventually, young females follow YM to towns and new circumstances begin to stabilize plus huge numbers of surplus pops (mostly young) are forcibly transported to far away places (like North America). New urban society and culture are the ultimate result in Europe - the �Great Transformation� to modern society, which continues as industrialization continues and develops toward post-industrial society. Note: Almost all of this was unanticipated, unplanned, and �unconscious� (misunderstood, reified). YOUNG MALES, INDUSTRIALIZATION, AND STREET CRIME IN THE US For two centuries (1700s and 1800s) the US had relatively little crime (compared to Europe during the industrial revolution). While the U.S. was getting increasing numbers of surplus peasants from Europe, the US was still largely agricultural and rural and there were huge lands to the west for these surplus pops to migrate to (this was what led to the genocide of Native Americans). Agricultural productivity grew quickly (using technology brought back from Europe as our rich/elites traveled there) and population rapidly expanded and moved west. As in Europe, YM moved west first and were followed later by YF (think of the �Wild West� and YM!). Cities on the eastern seaboard had some crime as urban culture developed there but without large surplus pops it wasn�t a huge problem. By the time the west was getting settled out in the late 1800s, the US was quickly industrializing and the expanding industry absorbed more of the surplus pops (now native-born plus European and some Asian!). In the 1920s, several things happened to produce the first big �crime problem� in the US First, just as with agriculture, technology eventually allows fewer industrial workers to produce more goods, so industrial job growth slows (even while industrial productivity continues to increase), so entry-level jobs suddenly become scarce for YM in cities. Second, for mainly political reasons the first US �drug war� was launched (Prohibition of alcohol). This quickly created huge illegal economies and thus �jobs� for unemployed YM. Third, opportunities to move west declined (land became unavailable - privatized like the enclosures in Europe). The crime waves of the 1920s didn�t last long because the whole economy collapsed with the onset of the Great Depression in the early 1930s. By the 1920s the US was a full-blown modern market economy. Market economies lead to high productivity (competition, supply and demand) but also lead to suppressed wages for workers (oversupply + decreasing demand for workers), who were by then a growing majority of the population. With high productivity and low wages, consumers (workers) cannot buy all of the goods being produced and this eventually leads to economic collapse. Crime rates remained fairly stable during the Depression because of massive migration (east to west and south to north) and government �relief.� The war in Europe and later US entry into WW 2 finally ended the Depression (high productivity turned to war production and surplus pops became soldiers or war industry workers), but when the war ended in 1945, there was threat of renewed Depression (return to civilian production, returning soldiers would be surplus, suppressed wages based on market forces). The government was forced to respond with major �socialist� modifications to the market economy in two basic ways. First, removing huge numbers of people from the work force (children through public schools, elderly through social security, etc.) and second by raising wages (minimum wages, empowering unions, etc.). This �rebalanced� productivity and the ability of consumers to buy the goods. This is what led to the prosperous world-power America. With prosperity and rising wages, and the new and expanding service jobs resulting from higher wages for workers, crime rates were relatively low in the 1950s. But at the end of WW 2 there had been a �baby boom� when the soldiers returned home and formed families that had been delayed by the war. In the 1960s, the baby boomers began to reach the "prime crime age" (mid teens) in huge numbers and crime rates began to skyrocket (the rising crime rates were overshadowed by the Vietnam War and other issues so rising crime didn't get a lot of attention through most of the 1960s). There was a second problem that began to emerge in the 1960s, the socialist modifications to the economy mostly benefited the top half of the population, but left the bottom half to the mercy of market forces (low wages, unstable jobs, etc.). This also left a large and intractable poor segment of the population embedded in the new class system - the poor became a surplus population within the bottom half, an "underclass." Because of our long and continuing history of racism and discrimination, minorities are disproportionately poor. In the 1970s, street crime rates leveled off as the baby boomers began to "age out" of crime (in their 30s) and rates remained fairly stable until the mid 1980s when the crack epidemic led to large increases in crimes in poorer areas of most major cities, especially violent crimes. In the early to mid 1990s, street crime rates dropped again (partly as a result of the economic boom) but rates have begun to level off again now that the boom is over. Since the 1970s, the street crime problem has increasingly become concentrated in the poorest areas of major cities, and especially among poor, young, disproportionately minority males. Contributing to this are several factors: globalization has led to decreasing "good jobs" and declining wages, the "drug war" has created huge illegal economies concentrated in poor areas, and policies like "welfare to work" create more competition among the poor for fewer jobs, and especially shut out young males (adults need the jobs to support families/children). Note: the "imprisonment binge" started in the early 1980�s and this probably contributes to sustaining high crime rates because the mostly petty offenders now sent to prison become even more unemployable in the legitimate economy when they get out, and they are now getting out in record numbers (over 600,000 a year!). TYPES OF STREET CRIME Property Crime (Burglary, Larceny, Auto theft, Arson, Fraud, Vandalism) Illegal transfer or destruction of property. High prevalence (mostly larceny and fraud), medium economic cost. Associated with lower class and working class. Mostly impersonal stranger offenses. Violent Crime (Murder, Robbery, Assault, Sexual assault/Rape) Interpersonal violence. Low prevalence (mostly assault), low economic cost. Higher rates among lower class and working class. Mostly interpersonal acquaintance offenses. Organized Crime (Criminal enterprises, Gang crime, Conspiracy, Terrorism) Organizations regularly engaged in illegal acts. Low prevalence, low cost. Associated with lower class and working class. Mostly economic offenses against "society." Victimless Crimes (Illegal drug use/possession/sale, Gambling, Prostitution, Pornography) Violation of dominant moral norms. Very high prevalence, very high cost (mostly law enforcement costs). Associated with lower class and working class. Status Offenses (juvenile delinquency - curfew, truancy, runaway, etc., plus other status offenses - child support, illegal immigrants, etc.) Applies only to people in particular situations. Low prevalence, low cost. Associated with lower class and working class. TYPES OF STREET CRIMINALS [excerpts from It's About Time: America's Imprisonment Binge (3rd edition) by James Austin and John Irwin, Wadsworth: New York, 2001, pp. 31-47.] [Note: this book is required for my Correctional Systems course at the University of La Verne] [The authors' studies are based on interviews with prison inmates about their experiences with and perceptions of street crime. They sought to explore the reality behind the myths promoted by media and politicians that huge numbers of serious sociopathic criminals menace society while our "soft on crime" legal system (another myth - the U.S. has the highest imprisonment rate of any country in the world) stands helplessly by doing nothing. Following are some descriptions from their interviews] "Into Crime" "Persons into crime (43 percent) call themselves thieves, "hustlers," dope fiends," or "gang bangers," which they understand as identities within particular criminal systems. They also follow the patterns of crime consistent with these identities and criminal systems - that is, they attempt to steal large amounts of money through burglaries and robberies; they "hustle" on the streets, making money any way they can; they maintain drug habits by selling drugs and stealing; or they hang out with their fellow "homeboys," wear their gang's colors, steal, and fight with other gangs." [case study details omitted] "Since they were committing crime regularly, it is accurate to view the 43 percent of our sample who were into crime as high-rate offenders. Of these high rate-offenders, more than half (57 percent) had served a prior prison sentence, and 32 percent a juvenile sentence. However, most of the active offenders (59 percent) were convicted of petty crimes. All of our data strongly suggest that, rather than being vicious predators, most were disorganized, unskilled, undisciplined petty criminals who very seldom engaged in violence or made any significant amount of money from their criminal acts." "Crime Episode" "These inmates (19 percent) had engaged in a crime episode or spree. Many had committed crimes in some earlier period; some had even been into crime. Unlike the into-crime group, these offenders had less severe histories of prior incarcerations, either as adults (33 percent had a prior prison term) or as juveniles (26 percent had a prior record). But for an extended period, perhaps after a jail or prison sentence, they had lived a relatively conventional life." [case study details omitted] "Being Around Crime" "About one-fifth (18 percent) of our sample were "corner boys," men who were raised and lived in lower-class neighborhoods in which street crime is a prominent feature. Many in these neighborhoods, particularly young males, regularly commit crimes. Most other young males avoid regular participation in crime but accept it as a normal feature of life around them. Many of the males, particularly younger ones, though they avoid regular involvement in crime and do not think of themselves as criminals, are at risk of being arrested because they are on the streets for many hours and police regularly patrol these neighborhoods looking for street criminals. When confronted by police, these corner boys also frequently exhibit macho behavior that provokes hostile reactions from the police. Finally, corner boys are often present at crimes being committed by friends or relatives, and, under special circumstances -- such as when they are in the company of more criminally oriented acquaintances, saving face in front of peers, intoxicated, or trying to take advantage of an opportunity for a financial gain -- they are drawn into the commission of a crime." "Once arrested, their corner boy or lower-class identity makes it very likely that police, district attorneys, and judges will treat these young men as if they were more criminally involved than they actually were. Sixty-eight percent of our corner boys were convicted of petty crimes. Only a small minority had adult prior terms (8 percent) and/or juvenile terms (15 percent)." [case study details omitted] "Dereliction" "These men (6 percent) had completely lost the capacity to live in organized society. Some had teetered on the edge of physical survival. All had been incarcerated a lot in early life, and most used drugs and alcohol, usually from their early teens. Though they tried to avoid committing serious crimes (to avoid returning to prison), they occasionally robbed, burgled, or committed some other felony (for example, arson assault, sexual deviations) and were arrested. Though their crimes were invariably very petty, their repulsive disreputability and former records resulted in imprisonment. This small group had the highest prior prison record (91 percent), with 71 percent incarcerated as juveniles." [case study details omitted] "One-Shot Crime" "A significant number of our sample (14 percent) had never been involved in serious crime before the current arrest. Something about the crime -- its seriousness or an associated mandatory sentence -- resulted in their receiving a prison sentence." [case study details omitted] [excerpt from the authors' conclusion to this chapter] "Instead of a large, menacing horde of dangerous criminals [like the media and politicians portray], our inner cities actually contain a growing number of young men, mostly nonwhite, who become involved in unskilled petty crime because of no avenues to a viable, satisfying conventional life. The majority (65 percent) of our prison samples had not finished high school, 64 percent had no job skills, over half had never been employed steadily, and 56 percent were not working at the time of arrest." "The same is not true of a small percentage of our sample -- those who appeared to be committed to crime in spite of other options. In addition, a few were guilty of very serious crimes. However, the general picture is one quite different than the distorted images that have fueled our imprisonment binge." |