West Cork and the Elizabethan Wars 1565-1603

 

 

   On October 2, 1601, Spanish forces landed at Kinsale. They had come to assist the rebellion of Hugh O'Neill, the Earl of Tyrone, and their presence had an electrifying effect on the inhabitants of West Cork. Up until then, most of the clans of the region had remained either neutral in the conflict or had assisted the government forces. Now, some sided openly with the Spanish, a few remained loyal to the English crown, while many were divided in their allegiance. The result was a vicious civil war, which saw kinsmen and neighbours slaughter each other as the greater struggle revolved around them.

   To understand this reaction, it is necessary to look at the upheavals that racked Ireland, and in particular Munster, during the latter half of the 16th century. At the time, the county of Cork was divided among several different clans of both Anglo-French and Gaelic descent. The two major lords of Anglo-French extraction were Lord Roche who controlled the territories around Fermoy, and Lord Barry, better known as Barry Mor, who controlled the territory north of Cork City. He was known as Barry Mor to distinguish him from two other minor lords of the same name, Barry Oge, in Kinalea, who controlled the country between Kinsale and Cork City, and Barry Roe in Ibane near Buttevant. None of these lords accepted the superiority of the Earls of Desmond, who ruled large parts of the county, particularly Imokilly, Kerrycurrihy, and Kinnatalloon, and received tribute from the minor lordships of Barrets and Courcys who lived south of Kinsale. In the west of the county lay the lands of the three great McCarthy lordships-McDonough of Duhallow, McCarthy of Muskerry, and McCarthy Reagh of Carbery. Both McCarthy of Duhallow and McCarthy Reagh were overlords to a number of powerful local lords, who enjoyed a large degree of local autonomy and who constituted powerful political forces in themselves. These subordinate clans included the O'Keefes, O'Callaghans, and McAuliffes in Duhallow, and the two O'Mahonys, two O'Donovans, two O'Driscolls, O'Crowleys and some local McCarthys in Carbery. In the far southwest, lay the O'Sullivans of Beare and Bantry, who came under the overlordship of McCarthy Mor, who himself came under the control of the Earl of Desmond. (1)

   West Cork itself, the focus of this article, was largely covered by the barony of Carbery, extending from Kinsale to the Bay of Bantry. As mentioned above, a number of clans subordinate to the McCarthys Reagh controlled territory here or on its borders. Those that were to play a major role in the history of this period included: The O'Driscolls, who owned the land between Cape Clear and Castlehaven. Beside them lay the territory of the O'Mahony Fin in the Iveagh peninsula, stretching roughly from Ballydehob to Dunmanus. The O'Mahonys Carbery owned the cantred of Kinalmeaky, located just to the west of modern-day Bandon.  The lands of the O'Donovans stretched approximately from Drimoleague to Glandore. The O'Crowleys owned the territory just to the north of the O'Donovans. The O'Sullivans Beare, who were subordinate to McCarthy Mor, controlled the country around Bantry and the Beare peninsula. (2)

    Prior to the mid-16th century, the clans of West Cork had been effectively independent of government control, though the leaders of the McCarthys Reagh were among the most anglophile of the Gaelic lords. (3) This independence was made possible partly through geographical isolation and partly through the enormous wealth that the clans derived from the sea. In the late 15th century, a series of climatic changes caused the migration of herring shoals to the south and west of Ireland. These attracted numerous foreign fishermen, particularly from England and Spain. Since herring had to be salted within twenty-four hours if it was to retain its flavour, the local lords grew rich on the dues (known as black rent) paid to them by fishermen, who used their havens and bays for refitting, revictualing and landing their catch. These revenues allowed the local lords to build numerous castles and maintain relatively large military forces, which they used to jealously guard their fishing grounds. (4)

   During the first half of the 16th century, the English government began to strengthen its control in Ireland. This naturally led to conflict with many of the Gaelic and Hiberno-Norman lords in Ireland, who had spent much of the Middle Ages independent of central authority. In particular, the Fitzgeralds of Kildare and Desmond chafed at the growing restrictions on their power, a situation that was not helped by the fact that their hereditary enemy, the Earls' of Ormond, became increasingly associated with government policy over the course of the century.(5)

   It was not only the great families of Ireland that felt the increasing power of the English government and its allies in the major cities. In 1538, the O'Driscolls of Baltimore had experienced this growing power first hand, when their town was sacked by the men of Waterford.  (6) A quarter of a century later, the O'Mahonys of Rosbrin experienced something similar. In 1562, an English naval vessel attacked foreign fishing boats in Roaring Water Bay off the coast of Schull. Donell MacConogher O'Mahony, from the nearby castle of Rosbrin, assembled his forces and chased the intruder away. Later, on September 20, 1562, while on a visit to Cork city, Donell was seized by the authorities, charged with high treason, convicted and put to death. His castle and lands were forfeited. Subsequently, the Cork civic authorities fitted up, at the enormous cost of £400, an expedition to seize Rosbrin Castle, which they did at the cost of several dead and wounded to themselves. Having seized the castle, the men of Cork were themselves besieged by the forces of O'Mahony Fin, lord of the O'Mahonys of the Iveagh peninsula, and were forced to return the castle and retire back to Cork without gaining any benefits for themselves. In 1571, the newly-appointed Lord President of Munster, Sir John Perrot, sent a military force to Rosbrin and seized back the castle. The castle was then garrisoned by MacSweeney galloglasses, who were in the pay of the government. (7)

   By that time, the political situation in Ireland had changed completely. In May 1565, Gerald FitzGerald, the Earl of Desmond was captured by the forces of Thomas Butler, the Earl of Ormond at the Battle of Affane. For the two Irish lords, Affane was just the latest in a long line of battles in the feud between their respective lordships that had been going on for generations. The government, however, was furious and both lords were ordered to London to stand trial. At the same time, their most important followers were also instructed to come, including on the Earl of Desmond's side, McCarthy Mor and Owen O'Sullivan Beare. (8) In an effort to break the power of the Earl of Desmond, the latter were forced to surrender their lands and have them regranted by the crown. In addition, McCarthy Mor was created the Earl of Clancarthy while Owen O'Sullivan Beare was granted a knighthood. (9)

  This surrender and regrant was to have considerable consequences for the O'Sullivans. Shortly before the Battle of Affane, Sir Owen O'Sullivan Beare had succeeded his brother Dermod to the lordship of Beare and Bantry under the rule of tanistry. Tanistry was the Irish form of succession, and unlike the English system of primogeniture, whereby the eldest son inherited all the land and power from his father, the Irish practice was to pass power, at least in theory, to the fittest adult relation in the chief's family. This could be a brother, son, uncle or nephew, the only restriction being that the claimant had to share a common ancestry with the previous chieftain that could be traced back at least three generations.(10) Under these conditions, Dermod's son Donell, (11) who was just an infant at the time, could expect to succeed to the lordship one day. With the regrant, however, the English system of primogeniture was also imposed, thereby disenfranchising an entire clan. The bitterness engendered by this surrender and regrant was to lead to considerable divisiveness later.

   The Earl of Desmond was to be held in various form of confinement for the next seven years. His two brothers, James and Sir John of Desmond, were also arrested not long afterwards (12) , which meant that power in Desmond devolved entirely onto the Earl's captain-general, James Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald.  In the meantime, in the years after Affane, the objective of the government became to order Munster along English lines, with crown jurisdiction to flow throughout the lordships; the overlordship of major aristocrats was to be eliminated. The basic tool for achieving these objectives was the presidency with provincial council (a form of military government), together with colonial ventures in the southern coastal region and the cossetting of port towns. (13)

   By the end of 1568, awards of large estates were being made to any wellborn gentlemen who could show a prior claim to Desmond lands and who had had military experience. At the forefront of the plantation schemes was Sir Peter Carew, who was the first to discover ancestral claims in Ireland. He was soon followed by a legion of land-poor English knights, including Sir Richard Grenville, Sir Warham St. Leger, and Carew's kinsman Humphrey Gilbert. (14) In London, a number of prominent Englishmen applied to the Queen for a grant of the fishing of the south and south-west coast of Ireland as well as for the incorporation of the town of Baltimore, presumably with the intention of establishing a settlement there. (15) This scheme was approved by the privy council in principal in April 1569. (16) It is unknown whether the O'Driscolls were aware of this plan, but on November 2, 1568, it was reported that "Fynnye O'Driscon [chief lord of the O'Driscolls] and others, whose ancestors never came to any Deputy, are come in, of their own accord, on report of a President's coming into the West." (17)

   Before any further developments could take place, the First Desmond Rebellion broke out  June 16, 1569, when James Fitzmaurice and Donell McCarthy Mor destroyed the English colony in Kerrycurrihy, in County Cork. The rebellion grew directly out of the actions of the settlers, and in particular those of Sir Peter Carew. Fearing a piecemeal destruction of their kind, the lords and chieftains of Munster united to wipe out the Munster colony before it could be reinforced. (18) Joining McCarthy Mor in the attack on Kerrycurrihy were many of the Gaelic lords of the south-west who had been threatened with expropriation, including O'Sullivan Mor, O'Sullivan Beare, and O'Keefe. (19)

   On hearing of the rebellion, the Lord Deputy, Sir Henry Sidney, reacted immediately. He ravaged the castles and lands of the rebels, forcing them to break off from Fitzmaurice to protect their own holdings. Sydney's progress across Munster was marked by widespread slaughter, the killing of cattle, and burning fields. The destruction was so bad that for years afterwards the fields were to lie fallow-the cause of the terrible famine that was later to affect the area. In September 1569, Sidney captured the fortress of Kilmallock, Co. Limerick, forcing Fitzmaurice into the fastnesses of Kerry where the Geraldine captain adopted guerilla tactics against the government forces. Over the next three months, Sidney proceeded to march through Limerick, Galway, Athlone and finally back to Dublin. Along the way, he took the submission of the Earl of Clanricarde, the Earl of Thomond and dozens of smaller chieftains. (20) On November 13, 1569, McCarthy Mor was reported to have sent in a letter of submission (21), following a disastrous attack on Kilmallock by Fitzmaurice and himself, when 1,500 Irish foot soldiers and 60 horsemen were defeated by Captain Humphrey Gilbert and 100 English soldiers. (22) Nevertheless, the guerilla war continued. Sidney was replaced by Sir John Perrot shortly after his return to Dublin. With Perrot's arrival, a two-year campaign of attrition was waged against Fitzmaurice until he finally submitted to Perrot at Kilmallock on February 23, 1573. (23) The rebellion did break out again briefly in November of that year, when the Earl of Desmond escaped from captivity, but on September 2, 1574, the Earl of Desmond too finally submitted.

  The clans of West Cork, for the most part, appear to have been divided in their approach to the rebellion. The McCarthy's of Cork, as well as other clans, had long been in conflict with the Earls of Desmond.(24), resisting the Geraldine control over their territories. The situation had been made worse by the government's attempts to separate them, as well as the Barrys and Roches, from Desmond clientship. In 1567, Sir Donough McCarthy Reagh and Sir Dermot McCarthy of Muskerry were listed among a number of large land owners in the county of Cork, who were "so injured and exacted upon by the Earl of Desmond, 'as in effecte they are or were become his Thralls or Slaves.'" The following year, Lord Roche was attacked by McCarthy Mor, Desmond's chief supporter, and had 1,500 cattle and 7,000 sheep stolen, as well as all his corn burnt and large numbers of men, women and children killed. (25) Because of these constant attacks, many of the lesser nobility of Munster who had hoped to gain from a presidential regime-Lord Roche, Sir Dermot McCarthy of Muskerry, Viscounts Barry (Barry Oge) and Decies (formerly Sir Maurice Fitzgerald-remained loyal to the crown and were thus also targets for the rebels. (26)

   Sir Donough McCarthy Reagh appears to have been neutral for much of  the conflict, despite the fact that Kerrycurrihy was only a short distance away from Carbery and that many of his own lands were faced with expropriation because of defective titles. He may have feared a loss of all of his possessions if he joined the rebellion himself. Nevertheless, he did not try to stop many of his supporters and subordinate chieftains from rising up with their own men. These included: Owen McCarthy, brother and successor to Sir Donough McCarthy Reagh; Fineen O'Driscoll, head of the O'Driscolls of Baltimore; Fineen O'Mahony, head of the O'Mahonys of Kinalmeaky; Conor O'Mahony of Crookehaven; Donell O'Donovan, head of the O'Donovans; Fineen O'Crowley, head of the O'Crowleys; Conor O'Driscoll of Castlehaven; and Fineen O'Mahony of Dunalong in the Iveagh Peninsula. (27) Later in the war, as the tide turned against the rebels, Sir Donough began associating with the government to demonstrate his loyalty. In 1572, he was mentioned as being among the Irish leaders, including Sir Cormac McTeig McCarthy of Muskerry (28), McDonough, Lord Roche and Lord Barry, who were assisting the government forces.(29)

    As noted above, Sir Owen O'Sullivan Beare had joined his former overlord, McCarthy Mor in the attack on Kerrycurrihy in June 1569. He appears to have stayed with the rebels until November 7, 1569, when shortly after the disastrous battle at Kilmallock he went to Cork to submit to the crown, an action he was to repeat again in November 1572. (30) O'Sullivan Beare may have been playing both sides, however, since many of his followers remained in rebellion under the leadership of a relative of his, Dermot O'Sullivan (31)

   As mentioned above, Fineen O'Driscoll and several other O'Driscolls took part in the uprising. (32) It's unclear, though, what role they played during the war. Shortly after Fitzmaurice's surrender, and quite possibly because of concerns over further confiscations, Fineen O'Driscoll entered a "suit to surrender all his possessions to the Queen, and to hold them by such tenure as shall seem good to her." (33) in March 1573. This application for a surrender and regrant was formally presented to the government in September  (34) , where it received a favourable response.(35) O'Driscoll would appear to have been regranted his lands shortly afterwards, together with a knighthood. From that point onwards the O'Driscolls remained completely loyal to the crown until 1601.

   A few months after Desmond's surrender, in March 1575, James Fitzmaurice fled to the Continent  to seek help for another rebellion from the Pope and the Spanish government. On 17 July, 1579, Fitzmaurice landed near Dingle, Co. Kerry, with Spanish and Italian troops, thereby setting off the Second Desmond Rebellion. (36) The government was immediately informed of his landing by Sir Owen O'Sullivan Beare, who was once again professing his loyalty to the crown while many of his people, including Dermot O'Sullivan and possibly Donell O'Sullivan (37) flocked to the rebellion. In addition, the O'Mahonys of Rosbrin, Dunbeacon, and Kinalmeaky also joined the rebellion (38) The government  immediately ordered its adherents, including Lords Roche and Barry, to arm themselves and proceed to take action against the rebels. (39) Fitzmaurice was killed not long after he landed; but the rebellion continued, carried on initially by the Earl of Desmond's brothers, James and Sir John, and then by the Earl himself after he was proclaimed a traitor on November 2.

   In England, Sir John Perrot was proclaimed Admiral of the Queen's ships and sent to patrol the seas off Ireland's west coast.(40) On September 14, 1579, he landed with four ships at Baltimore, reportedly with several hundred men, while other naval vessels landed at Cork (41) . At that point, Baltimore was the  furthest west of the harbours available to the government on the southwestern coast and was therefore crucial to their plans. All the ports to the west as far as Limerick were either threatened by, or in the hands of, the rebels. The troops landed in Baltimore and Cork were probably designed not only to protect the county and their supporters in the south but also to act as a staging point for the invasion of Desmond territories. They were not, however, able to prevent the sack of Youghal on November 24, 1579, when Desmond's forces stormed the city, put the English garrison to the sword and had the English officials in the city hanged.

   In something of a panic, Sir Warhame Sentleger, the provost marshal of Munster, warned the government in a letter dated December 2 & 3, that Desmond was assembing "all his force at the foot of Slievloghera, intending to prey Carbery and sack Cork." (42) Desmond did head west to Cork, where he threatened the city, but he did not have the forces to attack. He subsequently withdrew into the fastnesses of Munster, although McCarthy Mor does appear to have sacked Kinsale beforehand. From those fastnesses, Desmond's forces carried out guerrilla attacks on the castles of their enemies, destroying their crops so the government forces could not use them.

   The government forces, particularly those under the command of the Earl of Ormond, responded with a scorched earth policy of their own. Undoubtedly cowed by this show of force, many of the major lords of Munster came into Cork to pledge their loyalty to the crown. They included McCarthy Mor, the Lords Barry, Roche, and Courcy, Sir Cormack McTeig McCarthy, Sir Owen McCarthy Reagh, Sir Owen O'Sullivan Beare, Barry Oge, McDonough McCarthy, and O'Keefe. (43)

  Baltimore and the O'Driscolls continued to play an important role in the government's campaign. On February 22, 1580, Sir William Morgan, who had arrived with fresh military forces from England in late 1579, and who was subsequently made Lieutenant of the province of Munster, reported on his visits to Baltimore and Cork. (44) On March 23, 1580, the O'Driscolls of Sherkin Island seized a Spanish vessel that was acting strangely. Two possible spies, who were described as "handsome men, who spoke both fine Latin and Spanish" were seized and appear to have been handed over to the authorities. (45)

   On March 17, 1580, Sir William Winter was instructed to cruise off the Irish coast with a fleet of naval vessels in order to intecept any aid intended for the rebels. (46) Shortly beforehand, in mid-February, Lord Justice Pelham set out from Waterford with a large army and joining forces with the Earl of Ormonde at Clonmel, moved west towards Limerick and Kerry, burning everything and killing everyone they found along the way. The English forces penetrated into Kerry as far as Dingle, where, on the verge of starvation, they were resupplied by Winter's squadron. Using cannon, naval gunners, and seaborne soldiers supplied by Winter, Pelham and Ormond proceeded to attack Carrigafoyle castle on the mouth of the Shannon.

  Carrigafoyle was more than just another Geraldine stronghold. With its moat, 86-foot high walls, and sturdy defenders (which included 16 Spaniards who had landed with Fitzmaurice), it was the keystone of Desmond's defences and of vital importance to both sides. If the government forces were to fail in their attempt to seize the castle, they would be stranded deep within enemy territory, cut off from the sea and rescue. For Desmond, the capture of Carrigafoyle would effectively force him to remain penned up against the mountains of Kerry, and, more importantly, would destroy the fragile alliance of the Geraldine chiefs.

   In the event, the siege of Carrigafoyle only lasted two days, before the walls of the fortress were destroyed by cannon fire and the garrison put to the sword. Pelham promptly headed for Askeaton, Co. Limerick, the traditional home of the Earls of Desmond, which surrendered a week later without a shot being fired . This was soon followed by the capture of Newcastle, Balliloghan, Rathkeale and Ballyduff, until the road to Tralee and Castlemaine, with their important harbours, lay completely open. (47) And as predicted, Desmond's followers deserted him in droves and sought pardons from the government. McCarthy Mor, Desmond's most important follower, had already submitted to Ormond in December 1579, though he would appear to have gone back to supporting Desmond sometime afterwards. (48) On March 31, 1580, McCarthy Mor submitted again to the government, and from then onwards went out of his way to prove his loyalty, supplying the garrison at Castlemaine with food on the 26 April and informing the government of the landing of Papal troops at Smerwick, Co. Kerry, in September. (49)

   Following the capture of Carrigafoyle and Askeaton, Winter resumed patroling off the coasts of Cork and Kerry, Baltimore again playing an important role in his operations. On July 25, 1580, he was resupplied off Baltimore with four ships of sea victuals from England, while in September (4-17) English naval vessels spent almost a fortnight in Baltimore, refitting and revictualing, before joining him. (50)

    Around this time, English naval vessels started to land in Bearehaven [Bear Island]. Richard Bingham, captain of the Swiftsure, a ship in Winter's squadron, wrote letters to the government from Bearhaven in July and August with news of Winter's activities. A small garrison also appears to have been established there when Sir Owen O'Sullivan Beare's castle of Beare Haven was taken over by government forces in August.(51) 

   All this was necessary, because, although the Earl of Desmond had been effectively contained, a new rebellion had broken out in Leinster led by Viscount Baltinglas and Fiach McHugh O'Byrne. In particular, the rebel's victory over Lord Deputy Grey at Glenmalure on August 25 stirred up the whole country.(52) By one of those tricks of fate, Winter chose to have his vessels refitted at Baltimore and Cork just when Papal troops arrived at Smerwick, Co. Kerry.  He was unable to get his ships out of Baltimore until September 17, a full week after the papal forces had landed (12-13 September). In the event, it was the Swiftsure under Richard Bingham that arrived off Smerwick first and drove the few remaining Spanish vessels inshore, effectively bottling up the invaders. (53)

   The government forces reacted swiftly and ruthlessly to this invasion. Winter's squadron transported 1,000 men and siege guns to the area, while over 3,000 government troops converged on Smerwick where the 600 papal troops were cooped up in the Fort Del Oro. In the event the siege lasted for only a little over a day, after which almost all the prisoners, which included a large number of Irishmen and women,  were hacked to death with swords and pikes. Only the Italian commanders were spared. (54)

    In March 1581, James Eustace Viscount Baltinglas fled Ireland, first to Scotland and then to France. The Earl of Desmond, however, continued to hold out, carrying out guerilla attacks throughout Munster. On January 12, 1582, a Captain Apsley was ordered to place 100 troops in Carbery and Bantry. In Bantry, the troops appear to have taken over an old abbey as their lodgings. (55) Just a little over three months later, on March 23, it was reported that Captain Apsley and all his men were killed during an attack by David Barry and the McSwineys, followers of the Earl of Desmond. Only James Fenton, the Constable of Bearehaven, managed to escape.(56) Sir Owen O'Sullivan Beare appears to have been arrested shortly thereafter, probably in connection with this incident. He was to be held a prisoner in Limerick Castle until July 1582. (57) This incident once again illustrated the importance of Baltimore, where troops, naval vessels, and government officials could all land safely. On January 20, 1582, it was reported that Sir Warham St. Leger, the president of Munster, had been at Baltimore, while on May 25, Conor O'Driscoll (possibly Sir Fineen's son) informed  St. Leger that a Spanish shallop had been surveying Castlehaven and the surrounding coastline. (58)

   To all the other horrors of this war, was now added perhaps the most terrible of all-famine. As early as March 1, 1580, the government were warned that famine would strike Munster by the autumn, which would cause "more death than by the sword." (59) By April 20, 1582, Sir Warham St. Leger was informing the Queen that 30,000 people had died in Munster alone of famine in the previous six months. This figure did not include the thousands more who had been hanged by the military or killed in battle. (60) In St. Leger's words: "Munster [is] nearly unpeopled by the murders done by the rebels and the killings by the soldiers." In addition, on top of everthing else, the plague had hit Cork city, causing "72, 66, and 62 [to] die in a day in Cork, which is but one street not a half a quarter of a mile in length.." (61) People continued to die of famine long after the war had ended, and it is estimated that by 1589, the population had been reduced by 30 percent.  

   The war continued to drag on through 1582 and 1583, becoming increasingly hopeless for the Geraldines, although the lands of Roche and Barry continued to be heavily raided by rebels.(62) In February 1583, the garrison in Bearhaven was withdrawn, since it was no longer needed there,(63) while on July 9, the land survey commissioners in Munster informed the Privy Council that the rebellion had been virtually suppressed. (64) this stage, the Earl of Desmond had been reduced to hiding in the mountains with only a small number of supporters, waiting desperately for foreign troops to land. On September 19, Lord Roche reported to Ormond that his men:"..overtook the Earl's chaplain and took all their bags, bottles, four beeves, and other stuff. Desmond and his followers narrowly escaped with their lives." (65) Desmond's luck finally ran out on November 11, 1583, when he was tracked down and killed in the Slieve Mish mountains. (66) A few months before this, on August 15, 1583, Sir Fineen O'Driscoll was praised by Sir Warham St. Leger as having "..loyally behaved in this dangerous time and animated the Chieftain of Carbery [McCarthy Reagh] to the finding of 100 soldiers.." in addition to having taken action against pirates in the region. (67)  

   With the death of the Earl of Desmond, the confiscation of his lands and those of his supporters began in earnest. In April 1582, the lord deputy had been instructed by London to carry out a survey of the rebel lands. Since the war was still raging in Munster, the survey initially was carried out on the lands confiscated  after the Baltinglas revolt in Leinster. In June 1584, a commission of survey was appointed for Munster and instructions issued. The commissioners entered Munster on September 1, 1584, and proceeded in an uneven circle from Tipperary to Limerick, from there to Kerry, back up to Limerick and then to Cork and Waterford, before returning to Dublin in late November. In southwest Munster, the commissioners surveyed the lands belonging to: Rory O'Donoghue Mor, who held land around Killarney; Teig McCarthy of Mollahiffe; the McCarthys of Clandermot in Beare; the McCarthys of ClanDonell Roe near Bantry; the O'Mahonys of Rosbrin, Dunbeacon, and Kinalmeaky; and two other McCarthys in West Cork. (68)

   On April 26, 1585, the Irish Parliament assembled, attracting attendees from all across the country. The House of Commons consisted of three elements: the old Anglo-Irish, who made up most of the attendees; native Irish; and English settlers, officials, and soldiers. A large number of Irish lords who did not sit in Parliament attended, including Sir Owen O'Sullivan Beare and Sir Fineen O'Driscoll, whose presence was a tribute to the prestige gained by Lord Deputy Perrot. During the course of the parliamentary session Baltinglas and Desmond, and their respective brothers were attainted and their lands escheated. (69)

   The lands in West Cork that had been surveyed were also eventually escheated and   divided into four seignories, those of Rosbrin, Cloghan, and Dunbeacon, which were south of Bantry; Glanecrym, north of Rosscarbery; and two seignories in Kinalmeaky on the Bandon river. These lands were then granted to a number of English undertakers: the first was given to Roger Warre, the second to Edward Gray, and the last two to Phane Becher and Hugh Worth respectively. Sometime before 1592, Sir Owen McCarthy Reagh managed to have the seignory of Rosbrin, Cloghan, and Dunbeacon restored to him on the basis that he was the overlord of the O'Mahonys and the McCarthys of that region. (70)  In fact, one of the unexpected results of the Desmond name and power was the growing importance of the McCarthys in Cork and to a lesser  the O'Sullivans in the south-west of the county. (71)

   Even though the rebels were unsuccessful in 1579-1583, the involvement of the Spanish and Papal courts meant that Ireland was becoming a new battleground in the conflict between Protestatism and Catholicism-a deeply disturbing prospect for Elizabeth and her government. With Anglo-Spanish relations becoming steadily worse, the attention of the English government was increasingly drawn to the defences of Ireland. On 31 October 1586, Geoffrey Fenton, a senior English official, apprised the government of a journey he undertook through Munster. In the course of his journey he found the inhabitants of West Cork to be very knowledgeable and concerned about events in Spain, and in his own words he reassured them that the government would protect them. When it came to the harbours of West Cork he was not quite so sanguine, finding the defences at Kinsale to be particularly poor. He was also worried about the defences of Castlehaven and Baltimore, although he was assured by a follower of Sir Fineen O'Driscoll that a strategic castle on Sherkin Island would be made available to the government at any time it was required. (72)

    On February 18, 1587, Mary Queen of Scots was executed, thereby providing Phillip II with a legal excuse to invade England. On March 8, 1587, it was reported that on the first of that month, a Waterford ship carrying goods from Spain was seized by an English man-of-war in Baltimore and a treasonous letter was found on board. In addition, information was provided by Sir Finnin O'Driscoll who: "saith that one of the said ship told him in secret that all the Irishry at Rome, and elsewhere in Spain, were making their repair to Lisbon,  where they think to meet the King in person." (73)

    In April 1587, Sir Francis Drake raided Cadiz where he destroyed twenty-four ships, thereby setting back the Spanish invasion. By December 23, however, Geoffrey Fenton was alerting the government to the fact that more Spanish vessels visited Baltimore and Kinsale than any other harbours, the implication being that they were scouting out the harbours for invasion. (74)In June 1588 another report was sent to the government by Sir William Herbert, one of the more concientious and diligent of the undertakers, regarding the threat of Spanish landings in Munster: "..The exterior dangers of most moment are foreign invasions and the combinations or confederacies of the Irish Lords....As touching the first...it may be conjectured....they will attempt as soon as may be to possess the towns and cities in the maritime parts of this province, and therefore will seek those havens that be nearest and most convenient for that purpose. To meet with this in readiest sort, with least charge to most purpose, the present state of this province considered, in my poor opinion it were requisite that the president or governor were appointed to lie at Cork with the horsemen and footmen allowed him, with some other convenient forces, having therewithal the forces of those two cities and counties in good "areadiness;" his particular charge to attend those coasts: Waterford, Dungarvan, Youghal, Cork, Kinsale, Ross, Baltimore, and Bearhaven." (75)

   In early 1588, the figure of Florence McCarthy began to concern the government. The son of Sir Donough McCarthy Reagh, Florence McCarthy had married the daughter of McCarthy Mor, thereby becoming his heir, an act which seriously worried the government. (76) At that time, he was already under suspicion for being a close acquaintance of Sir William Stanley, the English soldier who had handed the Dutch fort of Deventer over to the Spaniards in 1587. (77) A Geraldine on his mothers side and a possible successor to his uncle, Sir Owen McCarthy Reagh, the government was also concerned he could draw support from all of Munster and could try to resurrect the power of the McCarthys. The McCarthys themselves believed that the plantation of  the English settlers, the associated discontentment of the Irish, the poor state of the province, and the expectation of a Spanish invasion of England, would give them the opportunity to take back what had once been theirs. (78)

   At this moment of great national peril, the attention of the government in Ireland was increasingly drawn to the dispute between Sir Owen O'Sullivan Beare and his nephew Donell. Under the original grant to Sir Owen, the lands of Beare and Bantry were given to him in tail mail, with remainder to Philip his brother and Donell their nephew. (79) Since Sir Owen had sons, this had effectively excluded Donell O'Sullivan from his father's lands. In 1586, upon reaching the age of 21, Donell had sued his uncle before the Council of Ireland for his share of the lordship of Beare and Bantry. When it appeared that Donell would be successful in his suit, Sir Owen had gone to London to press his own claim before the Privy Council. Donell O'Sullivan had quickly followed his uncle, and the case had been examined extensively throughout 1587. At the time of Donell's departure for London, Sir Geoffrey Fenton had written to Elizabeth I's treasurer, Lord Burghley, recommending that the land in question should be partitioned between the two claimants since: "...in those Irish remote parts, where several competitors stand for one country, there is no better way to keep the balance even than to apportion the lands into parts, and so to make one of them to 'counterpeyse' another." (80)

   No doubt suspicious of government intentions, and: "fearing some diminution of his own estate by the suit of his nephew..", in early 1588, Sir Owen began associating with disgruntled elements among the McCarthys. First, he entered into a league with illegitimate son of McCarthy Mor, Donell McCarthy, who was well-respected among the McCarthys and who wanted to be McCarthy Mor himself. This was followed by the marriage of Sir Owen's youngest daughter to the Knight of Kerry's son and heir. Sir Owen's objective was described as: "..hoping no doubt that they two should draw onto them the evil disposed of Kerry, and Desmond, and he joining with them his forces out of Beare, Bantry, and other parts of the country of Cork, should be able when they saw their time, to do in these parts what they thought good.." (81) This idea of stirring up the country in order to get one's way was an old tactic used extensively, though with varying degrees of success, by the Geraldines of Desmond and Kildare.

  The English government of the 1580s was much stronger than that of previous decades, and Sir Owen's tactics appear to have backfired. A garrison was placed on Sir Owen's lands, a warrant was issued for the capture and execution of Donell McCarthy (82), sureties were extracted from the Knight of Kerry's son, and it was decided to try and bring about a division of the O'Sullivan lands in order to weaken Sir Owen. (83) These measures, together with the arrest of Florence McCarthy in June and the destruction of the Spanish Armada in August 1588, appear to have shocked Sir Owen into obedience. Nothing more is heard of him conspiring with other Irish leaders, though he continued to be viewed with suspicion by the authorities. (84)

   Despite the destruction of the armada, the plantation of undertakers continued to spark off rebellious activity. In September, Donell Grany O'Mahony of Kinalmeaky came back from England, where he appears to have been trying to recover the lands forfeited by Conor O'Mahony, his father.Upon arrival he promptly proceeded to ransack and burn Castle Mahon, which had been assigned to the undertaker Phane Beecher. It was reported that: "There is daily adhering unto him, providing of weapons and threatening to do all the murders they may, he walketh by night and often by day in Carbery at his pleasure, [and] nothing is done against him.." His forces also subsequently burned the former O'Mahony castle of Dunbeacon in the Iveagh peninsula. (85)  Donell Grano and his followers continued to live in Kinalmeaky, where it was reported he: "..doth greatly repine at the settling of the undertakers.." (86) Although no further hostile actions are reported, he remained a threat to the undertakers and in October 1594 was reported to be conspiring with Florence McCarthy. (87)

   In the 1590s, Munster began to experience a renewal and a lively trade sprang up between Cork and European ports. This trade also allowed disaffected Irish, secretly supported by Hugh O'Neill, the Earl of Tyrone, to import gunpowder and ammunition from Spain and elsewhere and pay for their purchases with Munster grain and cattle.(88) The dispute among the O'Sullivans Beare was still ongoing at this stage, and Sir Owen and his family now decided to use expressions of loyalty to further their case. On June 24, 1593, Owen O'Sullivan (son of Sir Owen O'Sullivan Beare) wrote to Sir Thomas Norreys, the president of Munster, and informed him that a fleet of 80 ships had been spotted off Dursey Island, information the government took very seriously. (89)

  A few days later, Owen O'Sullivan petitioned the government, asking that the dispute between his father and Donell O'Sullivan be referred to common law. This strategy, if it had been successful, would have allowed him, as the eldest son of Sir Owen, to inherit all of Beare and Bantry. A few months later, perhaps as a way of bolstering his suit, he brought the head of one of Donell McCarthy's followers to Sir Thomas Norreys. (90)Nevertheless, although the English government undoubtedly appreciated the actions of Owen O'Sullivan, it doesn't appear to have affected their decision. On February 7, 1594, the government was informed by its law officers that a partition of the lands in question had been worked out. Donell O'Sullivan was to receive all the lands in Beare, while Sir Owen received everything in Bantry. In the event, neither side was happy with the arrangement and the case continued with petitions and counter-petitions being sent to the government. (91)

    By this point in time, the government had more important things to worry about. In the spring of 1594, the Maguires broke through the Gap of the Erne with O'Neill's connivance and overran the plain of Roscommon. A few months later, Red Hugh O'Donnell defeated an English column at the Ford of Biscuits on the Blackwater River, and by early 1595 the O'Donnells and the Maguires had broken through the English garrison line that stretched from Newry to Lough Erne. February saw the O'Neills in the field for the first time, when Hugh O'Neill defeated Sir Henry Bagenal at the Battle of Clontibret. Although O'Neill and his supporters were driven back to Ulster in 1597, O'Neill's strength continued to grow.

   In Munster, Hugh O'Neill had raised James FitzThomas Fitzgerald, a nephew of Gerald Fitzgerald, out of poverty and recognized him as the new Earl of Desmond. Although jokingly referred to as the Hayrope Earl, James attracted the same devotion as the legitimate Desmonds had, and more importantly, acted as a rallying point for all those dispossessed in the Munster plantation. When fighting finally broke out in 1598, James was able to lead more men into battle than Gerald ever commanded-8000 foot and 1000 horse.

   As 1598 dawned, Munster was completely infiltrated by rebels. In July, Hugh O'Neill laid siege to the English fort on the Ulster Blackwater and subsequently defeated Henry Bagenal at the Battle of the Yellow Ford. O'Neill's victory at the Yellow Ford not only brought about the surrender of the Blackwater Fort and Armagh, but it also opened all Ireland to a war of liberation. Immediately after Yellow Ford, O'Neill sent 2,000 well-armed rebels under Captain Richard Tyrrell across Leinster and into Munster. After defeating Ormond outside Kilkenny, Tyrrell swept into the Aherlow Valley,  where he stripped the countrside bare to secure the supplies O'Neill would need for a winter campaign. Subsequently, Tyrrell's companies overran Counties Cork and Limerick and enveloped the major towns of the region-Waterford, Cork, Limerick, and Kilmallock.

   On the morning of October 6, the Geraldines rose all across Munster. In Cork, the Awbeg Valley, the Blackwater Valley, and most of the coastline between Cork and Youghal was pillaged, while in Kerry, Tralee, Castlemaine, and Killarney were captured. Overnight, the English colonial presence in Munster was destroyed. (92)Among the lands reclaimed by the native Irish was Castle Mahon, formerly possessed by the undertaker Phane Beecher. It was now retaken by Dermod O'Mahony and the O'Mahonys of Kinalmeaky. (93) On October 14, 1598, the Earl of Ormond reported that Donell McCarthy Reagh  had reported to him with 60 foot and 20 horse, though all ill furnished.  All the rest of his men had joined the rebels. And the situation only got worse. On December 9, Sir Thomas Norreys reported from Cork that the only principal men "..professing subjection [to the Queen] are, Lord Barry, Cormack M'Dermott, Chief of Muskerry, M'Carthy Reogh, Chief of Carbery, and John FitzEdmunds. The two first have their two brothers, with all their men and followers, for the most part in action; the other two cannot command ten men for Her Majesty's service." (94)

    On March 5, 1599, Sir Thomas Norreys reported to the Privy Council from Rosscarbery, that a force of 400 Connaughtmen, under the command of William Burke had gone into Carbery to incite McCarthy Reogh and other leaders of the barony to rebellion. McCarthy Reagh and the other clans responded by attacking and defeating Burke, though it cost them thirty dead and several captured. The dead included McCarthy Reagh's son, Sir Finnin O'Driscoll's son, Dermot Neill McCarthy, and The O'Donovan. (95) O'Donovan's successor must have sided with the rebels because subsequently McCarthy Reagh, Sir Finnin O'Driscoll, and Barry Oge were ordered to fight in Carbery and along the borders thereof, against Dermot McOwen [McCarthy],, Dermot Moyle McCarthy (brother of Florence McCarthy), and O'Donovan. A naval force sent to West Cork by the rebels was also defeated by the O'Driscolls. (96) The difficulties facing the clans in terms of family relationships is illustrated in December 1599, the James FitzThomas Fitzgerald traveled with his forces into Carbery, where he was provided with 140 cattle and 200l. by his brother-in-law McCarthy Reagh. (97)

    On March 12, 1599, Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex, was appointed lieutenant deputy and sent to Ireland with the largest army to leave England during Elizabeth's reign-17,300 men. Instead of tackling O'Neill head on, however, Essex placed his men in garrisons and proceeded on an eight-week march through Munster that did little but exhaust his troops. (98) At the same time, Sir Thomas Norreys, the Lord President of Munster headed south as far as Ross to check out reports of Spanish landings before heading north again into Kinalmeaky, where on March 16 he destroyed the lands of the O'Mahonys. (99) In September, Essex finally marched north, only to encounter O'Neill with a much larger force near Louth. A parley between the two commanders took place there, the result of which was that a truce ensued (which was to last until January 1600) and the rebels were allowed to keep all the territory they had captured. (100)

   When the truce expired, Tyrone marched south unopposed as far as Kinsale, where he proceeded to get submissions and hostages from local landowners. Among the local chieftains who went to O'Neill were Moelmoe O'Mahony, chief of Kinalmeaky, (101) and the chief of the O'Mahonys of Ivagha. Neither of them were required to give pledges to O'Neill, indicating that they were completely trusted by him, a fact not forgotten by the English. Interestingly, neither Sir Finnin O'Driscoll nor Donell Cam O'Sullivan Beare went to meet O'Neill. (102)

   Earlier that same month, as symbolic of his new expansive role as national leader, O'Neill had confirmed James FitzThomas as Earl of Desmond and Florence McCarthy as the McCarthy Mor. O'Neill was later to bitterly regret his support for Florence over his rival Donell McCarthy, the bastard son of Donell McCarthy Mor. (103) At the time, he may have thought it a better idea to support Florence, who could unite the McCarthys of Carbery and Kerry and thereby gain the major ports of the south-west for the rebel cause. While, Tyrone was in Cork, Donell McCarthy Reagh (104) met with Florence McCarthy. The latter tried to convince him to join with the rebels, but McCarthy Reagh decided to stay loyal. (105) O'Neill also sent letters to the other major lords of Cork, such as Roche and Barry, calling on them to support the struggle for the Catholic religion and the relief of the country. Roche came to an agreement with O'Neill, but Barry refused and suffered the consequences. His lands were raided by rebel forces and completely destroyed. (106)

   In February, Charles Blount, Lord Mountjoy arrived in Dublin as Lord Deputy and proceeded to take advantage of his resources to put O'Neill under pressure with winter campaigns, while utilizing sea power and planting garrisons to effectively break up rebel strongholds. To avoid envelopment by the forces of Mountjoy and Ormond, O'Neill was forced to retreat back to Ulster. (107) The impact that Tyrone nevertheless had had on the inhabitants of Munster can be deduced from a report by Geoffrey Fenton, who wrote:" But, by his long tarrying in Munster, he maketh strong his rebellion with those Irish Lords, and draweth away the hearts of the subjects from Her Majesty, when they see her army to give sufferance so long time, in the heart of their country, to an enemy stranger and a rebel of Ulster, far from them, and not known to them before." (108)

   In April, a Spanish delegation put into Donegal Bay, and met with Hugh O'Neill and Hugh O'Donnell in a nearby friary.  During the conference, O'Neill outlined his ideas for a Spanish invasion. He advised the delegation that if the expedition were small it should put into Donegal Bay, specifically Teelin or Killybegs. If the Spanish force numbered 6,000 or more, it should go to Munster. Munster was easier to live off and operate in than Connacht or Ulster, and it offered more prizes to an invading army, but only a large army could maintain itself there until O'Neill arrived with his forces. Of the ports in Munster, O'Neill overwhelmingly favoured Cork. On one side of the city lay the territories of the McCarthys, where Florence McCarthy could easily assemble his forces. On the other side lay the lands of the Earl of Desmond, FitzThomas. Both leaders could join the Spanish with their forces within two days, while O'Neill himself could arrive within ten days. (109)

   That same month, April 1600, Sir George Carew was installed as the new president of Munster following the death in action of Sir Thomas Norreys and proceeded to take the field against FitzThomas and his supporters. With O'Neill gone, 3,000 reinforcements, easy communications, and the support of major towns and local loyalists, this was a relatively easy affair. At the beginning of April, Sir Henry Power, commander of English forces in Munster, sent 1,000 men,(110)  under the command of Captain George Flower into Carbery, with orders to either waste it or take assurances from the freeholders. At the time, Carbery was regarded as Florence McCarthy's primary recruitment area and staging point for attacks.  Flower initially  marched to Kinsale, from where he proceeded south towards Rosscarbery. On the first day of march, the English forces attacked the O'Mahonys of Kinalmeaky, suppporters of Florence McCarthy, and killed large numbers of them.  This was followed two days later by an attack on a castle called The Muntan. The castle belonged to a foster father of Florence McCarthy, and a large store of weapons and other spoils were seized. From there, the army marched to Rosscarbery, where they rested for two days, before passing Leap into the country of the O'Donovans According to Flower, he and his troops:"..burned all those parts, and had the killing of many of their churls and poor people, leaving not them any one grain of corn within ten miles of our way, wherever we marched, and took a prey of 500 cows, which I caused to be drowned and killed, for that we would not trouble ourselves to drive them in that journey." (111) From O'Donovan's country, the English forces headed south towards Bantry, where they attacked the McCarthys of Clandermod, who were then in rebellion. Having burned and spoiled the McCarthy's territory, Captain Flower advanced towards the O'Mahonys of the Iveagh peninsula. On their way there, Flower became aware that Florence McCarthy had assembled a large force of 1,800 men to intercept his passage back to Rosscarbery. McCarthy had united his forces with those of Dermod O'Connor, an O'Neill supporter from Connaught who had brought a thousand men with him.

   The same day that Flower discovered McCarthy's actions, he and his forces returned to Rosscarbery. That night, the rebels split their forces. McCarthy camped on one side of Rosscarbery, about two miles from the English forces, while O'Connor with his men camped on the other side, about three miles away. Their objective was to prevent Flower from returning to Cork. Having identified the location of the enemy forces, Flower attacked the Connaught men and forced the two halves of the rebel army to link up again.

  The two armies stayed facing each other for the next ten days. In the meantime, the Earl of Ormond, the government's most important supporter in Ireland, had been captured. On hearing this news, Sir Henry Power, immediately instructed Flower to return to Cork with his forces. On receipt of the orders, Flower set out initially for Kinsale. McCarthy's forces attacked and a running battle ensued throughout the day. Flower kept his forces a mile ahead of the enemy, never allowing them to form up for a battle. The harrying attacks of the rebels were held back by Flower's cavalry, and over forty rebels were killed. It is unknown whether the English suffered any casualties, but the Irish losses were particularly grievous.McCarthy's entire forlorn hope, (112) was destroyed and five of his captains were killed.

  Flower and his men reached Kinsale on April 20. The following day, having left 250 men under Sir Richard Percy and Captain Bostock as a garrison, he set off for Cork with 100 horsemen and 600 foot. Initially, there was no sign of the enemy. During the night, McCarthy and his men had marched ahead of the English and occupied an ambush site about half way to Cork. The Irish had positioned themselves in front of a narrow bridge, which had been built over a deep and dangerous ford, with woodland and bogs all around. McCarthy again divided his force into two sections, with Dermod O'Connor commanding one and he the other. As the English advanced, the Irish troops lay themselves flat on the ground. English scouts crossed over the bridge and returned without noticing anything amiss. Encouraged, the English forces set out to cross the bridge. A cavalry unit was sent first, but as it was coming down the hill towards the bridge the sun glinting off the morions (113) of the rebels alerted them to the ambush. The English forces began to retire in order to regroup. Realizing that their position had been given away, the Irish opened fire, and their vanguard rushed at the retreating English before they could regain the hill. Panicked by this unexpected attack, the cavalry broke and rode over their own foot soldiers. A quarter of a mile from the bridge lay a castle, where the English forces now headed for safety. At the castle, Flower was finally able to rally his troops. 60 men with guns were placed at the bawn of the castle, the banks of which were breast high. The Irish forces were following very close behind, and as they came up to the castle they were met with a fusilade that ripped through their ranks. The survivors began to retreat. Sensing his moment, Flower charged them with part of his cavalry. For over a mile, a fierce battle raged. As Flower later wrote:"..myself being at that time and in the beginning hurt; upon the first charge, with a pike, nine inches into the thigh, by their general. At that charge I had one horse killed under me, with three pikes in his body and two bullets. When we brake them, I fought hand to hand with their general, where I received my second hurt in my head, by one that carried their colours, I having part of them in my hand and he the other. There I had my second horse slain with pikes under me..." (114) Both Florence McCarthy and Dermod O'Connor were shot with pistols, McCarthy in the arm, though neither seriously. With the English having broken through their lines, the Irish were forced to retreat back up the hill where the battle had taken place. Seven or eight horsemen followed them but were forced to turn back. Any chance the English had of completely destroying the Irish force was lost at that moment by the unwillingness of the infantry to attack. McCarthy and the rest of his men were able to get away safely.

  Casualty figures vary considerably. According to Flower, nine men were killed on the English side, including a lieutenant, and sixteen wounded. He went on to claim that his forces had killed 137 Irish and seriously wounded 37 more. Florence McCarthy subsequently declared that only seventeen Irish were killed, four of them Captains (115) and fifteen wounded. Since it was in Flower's interest to exaggerate the Irish casualties, it is likely that this latter figure is correct. The battle was, nevertheless, a close run thing. As one participant later wrote: "..if the castle had been one quarter of a mile further, all Her Majesty's forces had been cut off, and scarce any had come away to tell who had hurt them." (116) Having beaten off the Irish attack, Flower again assembled his forces and proceeded to march to Cork. Along the way, McCarthy's forces began to regroup for another attack. At that moment, Sir Henry Power arrived on the scene with forty fresh horsemen and the Irish retired. The English forces marched to Cork without any further hindrances, arriving in the city that evening, April 21. (117)

   Following this battle, Florence McCarthy began to make desperate overtures to the government, protesting his innocence. (118) These overtures, were encouraged by the English, since as Sir George Carew wrote:" Florence himself is in nature a coward, and as much addicted to his ease as any man living, and therefore unmeet to be a rebel; which makes me glad that he is the chief commander of Carbery and Desmond forces. For, if he were gone, his wife's bastard brother [Donell McCarthy] would be far worse than he.” (119) The subsequent discussions between McCarthy and the government went on for a number of months, effectively paralyzing the rebels forces in large parts of Cork and Kerry.

   Throughout the summer, government forces continued to put pressure on the rebels, particularly in Munster. On September 17, Sir George Carew announced his intention to go to Kinsale at the end of the month, in order to settle Carbery. (120) Following a severe defeat inflicted on James FitzThomas by the garrison of Kilmallock, Florence McCarthy came into Cork on October 29, where he submitted himself to Sir George Carew, asking for the government's mercy. In an effort to break his power, Carew took from him his chief followers, the two O'Sullivans, the two O'Donnoughoes, McFinnin, O'Crowley, and O'Mahony Carbery. It was his intention to get pledges of loyalty from each of these chieftains, (121)although in the end, Carew was only able to get pledges of loyalty from O'Sullivan Mor, McFinnin and the two O'Donoghues, and then only in January 1601;  (122)

   In November, as part of the campaign to reduce West Cork, the commander of the English garrison in Kinsale, Sir Richard Percy raided Kinalmeaky with his forces. A number of O'Mahonys were killed and 200 cattle were seized. Following this attack, arrangements were made to watch the movements of the Kinsale garrison. On December 21, Percy sent 60 of his men against the O'Mahonys of Kinalmeaky. They were met by three hundred armed clansmen, including horsemen, under the command of Maelmoe O'Mahony and his cousin, Dermod Moyle McCarthy (Florence's brother). McCarthy was at the time hiding in Kinalmeaky from Sir George Carew, who regarded him as one of the most dangerous men in Munster. For two hours the two sides battled each other before the garrison troops were forced to retreat. (123)

   No other raid was attempted on Kinalmeaky by the Kinsale garrison. Nevertheless, by May 1601, when the sugan Earl was captured, the rebellion was practically over in Munster. Florence McCarthy was taken prisoner less than three weeks later, and the two of them were sent to England in early August.(124) Although O'Neill was able to hold out in Ulster, he was coming under severe pressure from the English. The rebels' only hope now was that Spain would send troops to help them. In fact, on July 27, a Spanish ship sailed for Ireland carrying a messenger, Ensign Pedro de Sandoval. Sandoval was to bring O'Neill and O'Donnell the news that an invasion was imminent and was to get their views on where the fleet should land. Sandoval met O'Donnell at Sligo on August 10. O'Neill was unable to attend the meeting because his territory was now completely surrounded by Mountjoy's garrisons. Nevertheless, he sent a message advising the Spanish to land either at Limerick, or in case of a mishap between Limerick and Lough Foyle. O'Neill felt that since both James FitzThomas and Florence McCarthy were in English hands, and that Waterford and Cork were both being fortified, the best chance for a successful Spanish landing was in the West. Unfortunately, contrary winds delayed Sandoval's return, and he did not get back to Spain until October 1, well after the invasion force had left. (125)  On August 6, in a prescient letter, Carew wrote to the privy council that: "As Florence McCarthy and James Fitzthomas are now Her Majesty's prisoners the Spaniards will either not come to Munster or, if they do, will hesitate which way to advance after landing, not knowing which of the Irish leaders to trust." (126) To further discourage Spanish forces from landing, Sir George Carew  began to seize anyone in Munster who could be of assistance to the enemy. In July, Carew set out to capture what he regarded as the four most dangerous men in the province: Dermod Mac Owen McCarthy alias Mac Donogh; Teig Mac Dermond McCarthy, brother and tanist to the Lord of Muskerry; Maelmoe O'Mahony of Kinalmeaky; and Dermod Moyle McCarthy, brother of Florence McCarthy. Since Carew did not have the forces to track them down, he used deception. All of the freeholders of the county were invited to the Assizes in Cork. Possibly under the mistaken impression that they had been granted amnesty, Maelmoe, McDonough, and Teig McCormack were lured to Cork where they were promptly seized and imprisoned. Dermod Moyle McCarthy, more cautious than the others, waited to see what would happen to his comrades and then fled north to join O'Neill. (127)

   In Spain itself, there was considerable disagreement about where to land. Don Juan del Aguila wanted to sail to Donegall Bay, where he felt the northern leaders could join him more easily. Fray Mateo de Oviedo, who had been on the embassy to Ireland in 1600 and claimed to speak for O'Neill, insisted on a Spanish landing at Cork, Waterford, or Limerick. On August 26, the war council of the Spanish government ordered that the armada should go wherever Oviedo ordered. Aguila continued to protest the decision to land in the south but was only able to extract one concession from Oviedo-that the Spanish forces could land at Kinsale (a port never mentioned by O'Neill) rather than Cork, which was heavily fortified. (128)

   On September 3, 1601, the armada for Ireland set sail with 4, 432 troops on board, well below the stipulated 6,000 thought necessary for a Munster landing. In addition, the weather now turned against the Spanish, with foul weather and contrary winds preventing the fleet from reaching the Irish coast for almost four weeks. Shortly before they reached Ireland, a conference was held among the Spanish leaders, and it was decided that if the fleet should become separated everyone should rendezvous at Kinsale, or if that were impossible at Castlehaven. On the evening of September 17, the Spanish fleet reached the Irish coast, and somewhere between the Blaskets and Dursey Island took on pilots preparatory to landing the following morning. That night, however, a storm hit the fleet, separating two galleons and six smaller craft from the main fleet. Despite this loss, which left him with only 1,700 men, Aguila was determined to land, and on September 21 the Spanish army landed unopposed at Kinsale. (129)

   With the Spaniards was a follower of Florence McCarthy, Cormack McFineen McCarthy, who inquired of the mayor where Florence McCarthy and James Fitzthomas were. (130) Disappointed to discover that the two leaders had been captured, Aguila decided to await reinforcements from Ulster or Spain and fortified himself in Kinsale. Shortly afterwards, some of the ships that had been lost arrived at Kinsale with reinforcements, bringing the total number of Spanish forces in the town to between 3,300 and 3,400 men. The rest of ships, the galleon San Felipe, under the command of Don Pedro de Zubiaur, and three hookers tried in vain for five days to link up with the rest of the fleet or make it to Kinsale or Castlehaven. Zubiaur next tried to make for Teelin, but again the winds were against him and so he sailed for home. What made the loss of these vessels worse, apart from the 674 soldiers they had on board, was the fact that they also carried most of the munitions and match for the arquebuses, leaving Aguila very short. (131)

   Afraid that a general insurrection would take place if Aguila were not defeated, Mountjoy immediately left for Cork and was besieging the Spaniards by October 26 with a force of 7,000 men. On his arrival near Kinsale, the leading men of Carbery and Beare, with the exception of Donell Cam O'Sullivan Beare, were brought by the Lord President of Munster, Sir George Carew, before Mountjoy, where they swore their allegiance to the Crown. They included the two sons of Sir Fineen O'Driscoll, Conor and Fineen. (132)

   On Aguila's arrival in Kinsale, Donell O'Sullivan Beare had offered to provide him with two thousand men, one thousand armed, and another thousand to be armed by the Spanish, in order to block Mountjoy's progress and prevent a siege until O'Neill's army arrived.  This was quite a significant act, since, with the exception of some of Florence McCarthys adherents, no one else offered to help the Spanish.  Suspicious of O'Sullivan's motives, however, Aguila decided to wait until he had assurances from O'Neill and O'Donnell before trusting him. (133) Aguila may have been influenced in his decision by the followers of Florence McCarthy whom he had brought with him. For almost twenty years, Donell O'Sullivan Beare had studiously avoided any contact with insurgents, and he had repeatedly sworn to the government that he was loyal. Only a few months before the Spanish landing, he had written to Sir George Carew, thanking God that the times had been:"...reduced to some quiet" (134) and asked him for his help in surrendering his land to the Crown and having it regranted. His reasons for joining the rebellion can only be guessed at now. He would undoubtedly have been bitter about the division of his lands. He came from a clan that had taken part in all the major rebellions of the late 16th century. It could ultimately be that he didn't want to throw in his lot with the rebels until he thought there was a chance of success. The landing of the Spaniards offered that opportunity.

   Possibly inspired by the actions of O'Sullivan Beare, Fineen and Conor O'Driscoll, the sons of Sir Fineen O'Driscoll of Baltimore, and Donough Moyle McCarthy and his brother Fineen, the sons of Sir Owen McCarthy Reagh, together apparently with the O'Mahonys and O'Crowleys went to Aguila and gave their word to support him in early November. (135) Only days later, however, on the tenth of November,  1000 English foot and 100 horse, which had been blown off course, arrived at Castlehaven from Bristol commanded by Donough O'Brien, the third earl of Thomond. It was now that Aguila's unwillingness to allow O'Sullivan Beare to mobilize forces in support of the Spaniards first really told.  Thomond's forces do not appear to have encountered any opposition from the O'Driscolls of Castlehaven, and they were able to link up with Mountjoy shortly afterwards without incident. (136)

   On December 1, the lost portion of Aguila's fleet under Zubiaur finally arrived off the coast of West Cork. A few weeks after arriving back in Spain, Zubiar had set out from Corunna in late November with ten ships and once again headed for Ireland with the objective of reaching Kinsale. A contrary wind once more prevented him from reaching Kinsale, splitting his fleet during the course of it, and he finally decided to land at Castlehaven on December 1. This turned out to be a fortuitous occurrence, since it  prevented him from being captured by the English fleet stationed off Kinsale. Zubiaur's fleet of six ships carried food, arms, and artillery, as well as 621 infantry under the command of Captain Alonso de Ocampo. (137)

   At that time, Castlehaven, an O'Driscoll harbour, was in the possession of four brothers, who showed Zubiaur where to land. One of them, Dermot, who spoke Latin, informed the general about the political situation. Shortly thereafter, English naval vessels showed up off Castlehaven, and began firing on the Spanish transports. Fully aware of the danger an English landing in Castlehaven would pose to his forces, Zubiaur sent letters to Donell O'Sullivan Beare seeking his help. Within 24 hours after receiving the letters, O'Sullivan Beare arrived in Castlehaven with 500 men just as English troops were taking to small boats in order to land. Sir Fineen O'Driscoll and his son Conor, who appears to have overruled his elderly father's objections towards supporting the rebels, also showed up with O'Sullivan Beare.

   Daunted by the sight of the massed Irish and Spanish troops, the English remained on board their vessels. Encouraged by this turn in events, Zubiaur unloaded cannon from his ships and proceeded to bombard the English ships. Unable to get away because of contrary winds, the English were forced to endure the bombardment for two days-in the process losing two of their vessels while the Spanish lost one-before they could flee. Following the battle, Sir Fineen O'Driscoll allowed Spanish troops to occupy the O'Driscoll castles of Donnelong on Sherkin Island and Donneshed near Baltimore, while O'Sullivan Beare gave them Dunboy castle. (138)

   Zubiaur's arrival brought a general rally of the lords of south-west Cork to Castlehaven, where they took oaths of loyalty to the King of Spain, Philip III, and were armed with 350 arquebuses and 650 pikes. O'Sullivan Beare proceeded to assemble a force of 1,000 men, while Conor O'Driscoll raised a company of horse. Among the men who swore loyalty to the Spanish crown were the two sons of Sir Owen McCarthy Reagh, Donough Moyle and Finnin and almost all of the Clan Carty of Carbery; Florence McCarthy's brother Dermot Moyle; Donell O'Donovan; and Felim McCormac and his brother. (139)

   Shortly afterwards, O'Neill and his ally, Hugh Roe O'Donnell took the considerable risk of marching south in mid-winter to relieve the Spanish. To distract the attention of the government forces, O'Neill tarried for a while in Leinster raiding the property of loyalists. O'Donnell headed straight down to Cork, eluding a force of two regiments led by Sir George Carew. Once in County Cork, which he reached on December 12, he camped in the O'Mahony territory of Kinalmeaky. He was subsequently met there by 500 Munstermen under O'Sullivan Beare and 200 out of the 500 Spanish reinforcements who had landed at Castlehaven.

   O'Donnell also now had the allegiance of Thomas Fitzmaurice, Lord Kerry; John O'Conor Kerry of Carigafoyle; Donell McCarthy (now recognised by O'Neill as the McCarthy Mor); Dermot Moyle McCarthy (Florence's brother) and many others of the leading men of west Munster. He did not, however, have the allegiance of Donell McCarthy Reagh  or Cormac McDermot McCarthy of Muskerry. Fear of McCarthy Mor domination was keeping Cormac McDermot loyal to the crown and made him join Mountjoy later at the siege of Kinsale. O'Neill joined O'Donnell by the evening of December 15. Among those accompanying O'Neill were Captain Richard Tyrrell of Westmeath, who brought with him a force of between four and six hundred men. On O'Neill's orders, Tyrrell and his men joined O'Sullivan Beare's force.  By December 21,  the combined  Irish forces, numbering about 6,500 men, had arrived near Kinsale. (140)   On the day before, O'Sullivan Beare had written to the King of Spain, beqeathing himself and all he had to the Spanish monarch. This letter was subsequently intercepted by agents of Carew and was to cost O'Sullivan Beare dearly in the future. (141)

   During these critical weeks, the English were also receiving further reinforcements. They had already received a regiment of foot led by Lord Clanricarde (Burke). As mentioned above, another 1000 foot and 100 horse had arrived from Bristol commanded by Donough O'Brien, the third earl of Thomond on November 10. On November 23, another 1,000 men arrived from England, while the following day another 2,000 reinforcements were landed at Kinsale. Nevertheless, by the end of December the state of the English army was extremely bad. Exposure was killing forty men a day. (142)Sir George Carew wrote in a letter dated December 24 (143): "We cannot progress much for want of the men needed to ply our works and to form guards on our approaches. The Irish enemy are now within two miles of us and have cut us off from Cork, keeping us from our victuals and the "vivandiers" that followed the army. Our provisions have to come by sea, but northerly and easterly winds are rare here at this time of the year. We have to keep a constant look out at night for we hear by intelligence that they mean to force our camp, the Spaniards taking us in front and the Irish in the rear....The state of our army is exceedingly weak. The last 6,000 out of England are consumed. Ten or twelve able men in a company is the ordinary proportion, and 30 or 40 sick, unable to do any duty, is seen in every company; and of these few recover....I do think that a more miserable siege hath not been seen, or so great a mortality without a plague.." (144) Carew did not have much longer to wait. That night the Irish attacked.

   A few days beforehand, O'Neill had finally given in to the pleas of the besieged Aguila and ordered his forces to move up towards the English lines. During the night of December 24, the marched into position for the attack. In the vanguard was Tyrrell and his forces, the Munster Irish under O'Sullivan Beare, and the 200 Spaniards from Castlehaven. The main Irish force was commanded by O'Neil, while the rear was led by O'Donnell. During the night, however, the three sections lost touch with each other. In additon, Tyrrell failed to reach the rendezvous point where Aguila was to link up with the Irish forces. Seeing that his men were not in position and that the English were aware of the attack, O'Neill decided to retreat.

   Sensing his opportunity, Mountjoy launched his cavalry against the rebels, forcing them to embattle their forces. Tyrrell was placed in the center, O'Neill's section formed the right and O'Donnell came up with the rear to form the left. During the subsequent confusion as the various units aligned themselves, the English cavalry launched a massive attack on the Irish horse assembled in front of O'Neill's section. This intial attack was repulsed by the Irish horse, but the English attacked again shortly afterwards with reinforcements and this time the Irish horse broke. The English cavalry now attacked the Irish foot in the rear, while English infantry attacked them in front. These simultaenous attacks-and the flight of the Irish horse, composed as it was of their leading men-were too much for the Irish and they fled in a disorganized manner. Seeing the rout of O'Neill's section, Tyrrell began a flanking movement to try and place his forces between O'Neill and the English foot but was himself attacked and forced to retreat. The Spanish forces with Tyrrell were unable to move as fast as the Irish and made a stand instead. Ninety of them died on the field and another fifty were captured.

   O'Donnell's men had provided no support during the battle, probably because they were stationed too far away. The sight of the other sections being routed was too much for them, however, and they too became demoralized and retreated. The English forces followed for about a mile and a half, attacking constantly and killing many of the fleeing rebels. The whole battle lasted for barely an hour but resulted in between 500 and 1,000 Irish dead. The English lost fewer than a dozen men. At the end of the battle the English fired off a volley to symbolize their victory. Believing this was finally the signal for the Spanish to surge out and link up with their Irish allies, Aguila advanced with his forces. He soon realized his mistake, however, when he saw captured Spanish colours being carried by English soldiers, and he beat a hasty retreat back into Kinsale. To emphasize the disaster that had befallen the Irish forces, Mountjoy subsequently had between 200 and 300 prisoners hanged before the walls of Kinsale. (145)

    The day after the battle, O'Neill informed Aguila that he could no longer assist him since his own lands were now being devastated by the English, and he headed back to the north. O'Donnell gave command of his forces to his brother Rory, who also headed back home, while he went to join Zubiaur at Castlehaven. O'Donnell arrived at Castlehaven on December 27, where he informed the astonished Spaniards of the rebels' defeat. The following day, Zubiaur left for Spain, together with O'Donnell who wanted to speak to the Spanish king himself, and other Irish leaders. These included Donell O'Driscoll, son of Sir Fineen, and O'Sullivan Beare's son, who was sent as a pledge for his father.(146)

  O'Sullivan Beare had decided to continue the fight in West Cork. (147)  He wrote to Aguila, urging him not to surrender Kinsale and promised to cut off English supplies with his forces. At the time, O'Sullivan Beare had with him not only his own forces, but also those of Conor O'Driscoll and Richard Tyrrell, numbering altogether between 2,000 and 3,000 men. Together with his men, O'Sullivan Beare now took up position at a mountain pass a few miles from Castlehaven, while Tyrrell placed his forces on Cape Clear where there was an O'Driscoll castle. With O'Sullivan Beare in rebellion were Dermot O'Driscoll of Castlehaven; Donell McCarthy Mor, O'Sullivan Mor's son, Donell; Thomas Fitzmaurice, baron of Lixnaw, the Knight of the Valley; and the Knight of Kerry. (148)

   Although the English felt they could deal with this situation and were confident of being able to root the Spanish out of Kinsale, they were seriously worried that further reinforcements would be landed at Baltimore, Bearhaven, and Castlehaven. Such reinforcements would not only encourage the rebels to hold out; It would also be extremely hard to capture those harbours since the Spaniards could be expected to fortify them, and moreover, they would be surrounded by allies. Just as importantly, as Sir George Carew wrote: "The West of Munster, where these havens are seated, is a mountainous, barren country, wherein no horse can serve or carriage pass..[and where] no relief can come unto us but by sea.." (149)

  As for Aguila, despite the defeat his positon was still quite strong. The wind favoured ships from Spain, raising the hope that reinforcements would arrive shortly, while the Spanish in Kinsale had six week's food left. This compared with the six day's worth of food available to Mountjoy and his men. In addition, Aguila's forces had more protection than the English, and therefore were suffering less from exposure and disease. Nevertheless, the Spanish were losing about a dozen men a day, and by late December, Agulia had only 1,800 effective troops left. More importantly, he was without the two major advantages necessary for a besieged place to hold out indefinitely in those days: strong fortifications, and control of the water approaches, allowing supplies and reinforcements to land. That, and the belief that the Irish had let him down, led him to surrender to Mountjoy on January 2, 1602.

   Under the terms of the surrender, Aguila agreed to hand over the castles of Castlehaven, Donneshed (Baltimore), Donnelong (Sherkin), and Dunboy, and promised not to take up arms again even if reinforcements arrived. Mountjoy, who was very worried about the effect such reinforcements would have, readily agreed to Aguila's terms, which involved providing the Spanish with enough shipping and food to allow him to transport his men, Spaniards and Irish back to Spain with all their arms, artillery, money, ensigns, and so forth. In the event, reinforcements did arrive two days after the surrender on board three vessels under the command of Captain Martin de Ballecilla. On arriving at Kinsale, Ballecilla discoved that the town had surrendered, and so promptly returned to Spain.(150)

   The surrender of Aguila came as a considerable shock to the chieftains of West Cork, most of whom, with the exception of McCarthy Reagh and a few others, had given their support to the Spaniards. Many of them now hurried to placate the government. On February 15, 1602, Sir George Carew wrote to the government: "..Few of the 'provincials' here were in rebellion. The best of them, namely Sir Fynin O'Driscoll, O'Donovan and Sir Owen McCartie's sons, have not joined Tyrrell and the northern rebels, and ask to be received to mercy. They say they only conversed with Tyrone, O'Donnell and the Spaniards, and did no harm to any of her Majesty's subjects. I believe this is true."(151)

    Although the Spanish commanders were sympathetic to the rebel's situation, they nevertheless followed their orders and prepared to surrender the castles in their possession to the English. Despite this, the rebels continued to believe that Spain would not abandon them and they renewed their oaths of fidelity to the Spanish king, promising to hold out until the end of May. Bad weather delayed the castles' handover, and government troops under Captain Roger Harvey did not finally arrive in Castlehaven until February 10. There they found the castle being besieged by the Spanish, who had lost it to the O'Driscolls through a ruse. However, when the O'Driscolls saw the English ships they surrendered the castle to the Spanish commander, Pedro Lopez de Soto, on condition that they be allowed to leave in safety. Harvey decided to leave his brother Gawen in command in Castlehaven and together with de Soto sailed to Baltimore where the English took over the castles of Dunashed and Dunalong. Harvey also placed troops in the O'Driscoll castle on Cape Clear. Before the troops' arrival on the island, Richard Tyrrell and his forces retired to Dunboy, where they joined up with O'Sullivan Beare. From Baltimore, two companies of troops were sent under the command of Captain George Flower to take Dunboy. Contrary winds, however, kept them out at sea, and although Harvey was eventually able to see Dunboy, he and his forces were unable to land. (152)

   On hearing that the Spanish were to hand over Dunboy to the English, O'Sullivan Beare decided to take back his castle. He marched back to Beare and on the night of February 23, he had a mason knock a hole in the wall and then sent his forces in to capture the Spanish. A short but vicious fight followed, in which three of the Irish were killed and several injured on both sides, before the Spanish surrendered. They were then sent to Baltimore where they were embarked for Spain. (153) O'Sullivan Beare subsequently garrisoned Dunboy with 150 men, while stationing 1,200 others outside the walls as skirmishers. O'Sullivan Beare was well aware of the difficulties in defending Dunboy against English bombardment, and decided to make a last stand, if necessary, on Dursey Island. For that purpose, he placed Conor O'Driscoll with 60 men, mostly O'Driscolls, and three artillery pieces there. (154) Shortly afterwards, O'Sullivan Beare received further artillery pieces (of which four were brass) from a Spanish ship that landed at Bearhaven. This brought his total number of cannon up to 12. He also got another 60 barrels of gunpowder, as well as victuals and provisions. More importantly, he was also able to detain two Spanish gunners as well as an Irish gunner to train his men to fire the cannons.(155)

   During this period, the attention of the English military forces was primarily devoted towards the defeat of O'Neill. By early March, the English had achieved the upper hand in Ulster and the Spanish had finally left for home. The English were therefore able to spare men to deal with O'Sullivan Beare, and Carew began to assemble his forces in Cork. At his disposal he had 4,300 foot, although only 1,600 were fit enough to fight, as well as auxiliary Irish forces. Among the auxiliaries were Donough O'Brien, the Earl of Thomond; Donell McCarthy Reagh; Cormac McCarthy, lord of Muskerry; Barry Mor; O'Donovan; the White Knight; Owen O'Sullivan, son of Sir Owen O'Sullivan Beare; Dermot, brother of O'Sullivan Mor; Donough and Fineen, the sons of Sir Owen McCarthy Reagh. When O'Sullivan O'Beare discovered what Owen O'Sullivan and O'Donovan had done, he destroyed O'Sullivan's castle of Carriganass and wasted O'Donovan's country. (156)

  On March 12, it was reported that Donough O'Brien, the Earl of Thomond had marched into Carbery, Beare, and the borders of Kerry with 2,500 men, while another 1,700 men under Sir Charles Wilmot ravaged Kerry and Desmond. (157) While in West Cork, the Earl of Thomond took over Whiddy Island and fortified it with a garrison of 500 men under Captain George Flower. (158)At the time, Whiddy Island belonged to Owen O'Sullivan, son of Sir Owen O'Sullivan Beare who had died in late 1600. Following Sir Owen's death, he had reached agreement with Donell O'Sullivan Beare about the division of lands between them, but the bitterness engendered by the dispute does not seem to have gone away. In fact, Owen O'Sullivan appears to have gone out of his way to prove his loyalty. On March 4, 1600, he had informed the government about the relationship between Florence McCarthy and O'Neill, while in December 1601 he again informed the government of the landing of Spanish troops at Castlehaven. (159) As mentioned above, he joined Carew in Cork in March and appears to have accompanied the Earl of Thomond down into Carbery and Beare. Thomond had been unable to reach Dunboy overland. As mentioned above, he therefore established a garrison on Whiddy Island, probably with the assistance of Owen O'Sullivan, before heading back to Cork.

   Captain Flower's forces were to stay  on Whiddy for about two months. At the end of April, they became aware of plans by O'Sullivan Beare to overrun their position and with no expectation of help arriving soon, they decided to leave the island. Guided by Owen O'Sullivan, the English took the road back to Cork. A running battle now ensued. On April 29, Owen and his brothers together with their forces, fought some of Tyrrell's men near Glengarrif, killing four and capturing another four, who were subsequently executed. The following day, the retreating soldiers were again attacked, this time by the forces of O'Sullivan Beare who killed a number of their men and captured their baggage. The English soldiers were only saved by the sudden arrival of Sir George Carew and his troops, who had landed that day at Bantry Abbey. Faced with Carew's forces, O'Sullivan Beare retreated back to Dunboy.(160)

    Carew had been temporarily detained in Cork while he waited for supplies, but on April 23 he finally set sail for Bantry Bay. On April 30, Carew and his forces landed near Bantry Abbey. The English were, nevertheless, forced by bad weather to remain in its vicinity for several weeks. As Carew wrote on May 29: "I have not dared to cross the Bay of Bantry, and we have had such storms of rain and wind that our ships have been in danger even riding in the harbour..." (161) The overland route was even worse. Dunboy was just 24 miles away by land, "but through such mountainous and boggy land and with so many straights that 100 men would hold it against 5,000. No horse can be led in it, and for the best of it three men cannot march in front and in most places but in file." (162) For that reason, Carew decided to wait until the weather improved and land his troops as close to Dunboy as he could. On May 14 he moved his forces to Bear Island, at the entrance to Bantry Bay, which allowed his forces to be provisioned easier from the sea. More importantly, the island was also just a stone's throw away from Dunboy and there the English waited for a chance to attack. (163)

    A few weeks beforehand, as the rebels' position worsened,  it was reported on April 13 that Dermot Moyle McCarthy, Florence's brother, had sent a letter to the Bishop of Cork, begging to be received into the Queen's mercy by Carew. (164)Donell McCarthy (O'Neill's McCarthy Mor) also sued for mercy and promised that if the Queen were to give him back the lands once assigned by her to him, he would subdue all of Desmond. (165) By early May, Kerry and Desmond had  been completely reduced, mainly through the actions of Dermot O'Sullivan and Donell McCarthy. Working on behalf of Sir Charles Wilmot, on May 5, they seized 5,000 cattle from O'Sullivan Mor. This broke the resistance of his son, the last remaining rebel in the region, who was unable to support his forces. The reasons why these men supported Wilmot, according to Carew, were twofold: O'Sullivan, the brother of O'Sullivan Mor, was worried that his son, who had been placed as a pledge of loyalty with the English garrison at Castlemaine, would be hanged if he didn't support the English, while McCarthy was hoping to get his land back. (166)

  Further bad news for the rebels occurred on the 13th of May. Dermot Moyle McCarthy was raiding the territory of McCarthy Reagh and had stolen some cows from one of the latter's tenants when he was intercepted by some of the O'Donovans under the command of his cousin Fineen McCarthy, son of Sir Owen McCarthy Reagh. Shortly afterwards, Donell McCarthy Reagh himself appeared on the scene with a larger force. Some shots were exchanged and Dermot Moyle McCarthy fell dead. (167) In Beare, Donell O'Sullivan's position was becoming increasingly untenable. His territory contained about 7,000 head of cattle, of which his forces were eating 50 every night. O'Sullivan's men, particularly the buonies (168) from Connaught, were getting tired of this diet and it was reported that they would have left already had not his men captured a Galway bark filled with corn and wine, which was distributed among the men. Nevertheless, O'Sullivan Beare was not going to give up. Dunboy was further fortified, and it was reported that:"...'by the advice of the Spaniards, and other Low Country soldiers of this country birth that are in it, with a strong rampart of earth twenty feet thick, and in height a pike's length and more and well flanked.' The top of the castle is taken down almost to the level of the rampart and strongly vaulted; and on this and the rampart they have placed their ordnance." (169)

   On June 5, Carew was finally able to mount an attack. Although the Irish forces were expecting an attack, they were not able to finish building their defences before Carew landed near Dunboy and their attack on the invading English forces was beaten back. (170) According to Carew, the rebels were on the verge of giving up when news arrived that a Spanish vessel had docked twelve miles away at O'Sullivan Beare's castle of Ardea in Kenmare Bay. On board was Owen McEgan, the Catholic Bishop of Ross, who brought with him a large amount of money, reportedly 12,000l., as well as large quantities of wine, gunpowder and lead. The arrival of the money and provisions gave the rebels courage to hold out until Spain sent another army, which was expected on a daily basis. (171)

   After a heavy bombardment, the castle finally fell on the 17th of June and the defenders were either killed on the spot or soon afterwards hanged. Shortly beforehand, Dursey Island was also captured when Owen O'Sullivan and some English troops under John Bostock sailed to the island and massacred its defenders, together with many of the local inhabitants-men, women and children of the O'Sullivans. A Jesuit lay brother captured on the island, Dominick Collins, was later taken to Cork where he was hanged drawn and quartered.(172) The executions and massacres appear to have had the opposite effect of that intended. Together with the expected help from Spain, they hardened the rebels' stance towards the English. (173) Freed now from having to defend Dunboy, the Irish reverted to what they knew best-guerilla warfare.

    Conor O'Driscoll, who does not appear to have been on Dursey Island when it was captured, was sent to Spain on July 3   to seek more help. He took with him his son and heir, as well as many of the O'Driscolls of  Castlehaven and Cape Clear. Many other Irishmen joined him, including Conor O'Mahony of Leamcon near Schull.  Conor O'Driscoll was to spend the rest of his life in Spain.(174)

   On June 28, Carew informed the government that he intended to place a strong garrison at Rosscarbery, in case O'Sullivan Beare came down from his fastnesses, and to place the rest of his troops in Kinsale and Cork where they could be easily brought together in case the threatened Spanish invasion took place. (175) Shortly afterwards, he reported that on his way home he had burnt and ransacked a castle called Lyttertenlis [Lettertinlish] belonging to Conor O'Driscoll (176) The O'Driscoll castles of Dunnalong, Duneshead, and Castlehaven were temporarily spared pending further orders from the government, although Carew did have the O'Driscoll castle on Cape Clear destroyed. Another English force under the command of Captain Roger Harvey, who was garrisoned in Baltimore, destroyed the O'Mahony castles of Dunmanus and Leamcon, in addition to the castles of Rincoluskin, Donnegall, and the Downings. All of these lay close to the sea, and were destroyed to prevent them from falling into enemy hands.(177)

    On July 13, it was reported that the sons of Sir Owen McCarthy Reagh, Donough Moyle and Fineen had gone out in rebellion. This came as a considerable shock to the English, since they couldn't understand why the brothers would risk their inheritance to join the rebellion at this stage. A large part of the reason why they did rebel appears to have been the common belief that the Spanish were shortly going to return. In addition, they had been given a large part of the money that O'Sullivan Beare had received from the Spanish. This provided them with the financial resources necessary to raise a military force. What was of most concern to the English was the fear that as expectations of another Spanish landing increased, more and more Irish lords would revolt. (178) Such fears were completely justified. Just two months later, Cormac McDermot McCarthy, lord of  Muskerry, encouraged his major  followers to join the rebellion and handed over his castle of Macroom to O'Sullivan Beare. Tyrrell moved into the area with 800 foot and 40 horsemen. (179) Carew responded by placing Cormac McDermot in custody and imposing a garrison of 500 foot and 100 horsemen on the region. (180) Shortly after his arrest, Cormac McDermot was broken out of Cork jail by some of his followers and went to join O'Sullivan Beare. (181)

   In October, news reached Ireland that Hugh O'Donnell was dead, possibly assassinated by an English agent.  This had a terrible, dispiriting effect on the remaining Irish rebels, and a number of them, including Cormac McCarthy of Muskerry now surrendered. At the end of the month, with fears of a Spanish invasion receeding and Muskerry quiet, Carew sent a strong military force of horsemen and foot into Kerry and Desmond and another to Baltimore and Bantry to attack O'Sullivan Beare and the other rebels. To catch any rebels trying to sneak out of Munster, he distributed the remainder of his forces between Cork and Limerick. Shortly afterwards, Sir Samuel Bagnall, with his own regiment, a couple of companies of foot, and some cavalry units was led to Tyrrell's camp by a spy. About half a mile from the camp a firearm discharged by accident alerted the rebels to the nearness of the enemy. Their plans foiled, the English rushed the camp and:"...followed the attempt so hotly as they forced Tyrrell and his wife (if she be not slain) to flee naked, leaving clothes and what else they had behind them. And there, besides the killing of 80 men dead on the ground, they gained above 40 horse and hackneys, besides 400 garrons, money, cows, arms and household stuff, good store of Spanish money, bolts of Holland, a piece of velvet uncut, gold and silver lace, good English apparel of satin and velvet...the richest Irish camp...in Ireland." (182)

  Thinking he had been betrayed by Cormac McDermot, Tyrrell in his fury burnt as many towns, including apparently Macroom, and as much corn as he could. He also hanged all the followers of Cormac he could find-men, women, and children-calling the men of Muskerry traitors to God and the Catholic cause. He then retreated to Desmond to consult with O'Sullivan Beare. As Carew gleefully noted:"Into Muskerry I am sure he will not return any more, but if he do, I doubt not that Cormacke will seek a revenge upon him.." (183)

  The cost of this action to the rebel side was great, for as Carew wrote, Cormac McDermot was:"...the strongest man in followers of any other in the province, and his country in strengths and fastnesses equal with the worst part of the kingdom...reaching even unto the gates of Corke; whereby we [the English] should have been enforced to hold the greatest part of Her Majesty's forces in his country of Muskerry, which would have given us great impediment for the prosecution of the rebels in Desmond, Kerry, and Beare..." (184)

   By the end of November, the actions of the English forces in Munster were starting to bear fruit. In Carbery, the forces of Sir Richard Percy, Captain Flower, and Captain Harvey had burned all the rebels' corn, and Harvey had captured two of their castles. In Kerry, Sir Charles Wilmot had captured Dunkerron, O'Sullivan Mor's house and the gateway to Beare, besides spoiling all of O'Sullivan Mor's lands. With pressure increasing on the rebels, Tyrrell started making overtures for a surrender. Carew turned down the overtures, saying that Tyrrell had to come to him alone, without his forces. Nevertheless, Carew did later write to the government stating that he would be willing to grant a pardon to Tyrrell under the right conditions, just to be able to end the war.  As he had written in a previous letter, the average cost of the rebellion in the past four years had been £300,000. It was obvious that both sides were weary of the conflict. (185)

  In an effort to bring the war to an end, Carew settled on a daring strategy. Tyrrell and his men had retired to Beare, thinking that the English would not be able to follow them into such a desolate area. Once English garrisons were safely esconced in Dunkerron and Bantry in early December, Carew ordered a general rising of men from Munster under the command of Lord Barry. Together with 550 English foot under Sir George Thornton, all the forces now started to converge on Beare-1,050 from Bantry, 1,000 from Dunkerron, and 1,600 under Lord Barry. (186)

  Realizing that they were in danger of being surrounded and destroyed, the rebels decided to split their forces in three-700 men would stay in Beare under O'Sullivan Beare and William Burke, another 400 would go to Carbery led by Sir Owen McCarthy Reagh's sons, and the final group of 500 men under Tyrrell and McMorris would head for Kerry. Tyrrell was still unhappy about the situation, despite being given a large sum of money by O'Sullivan Beare to stay in the rebellion, and on his way to Kerry he decided to give up and head for home. On the 27th of December, the English forces linked up and entered Beare. A few days later, on December 31, they finally found O'Sullivan Beare's camp at Gortnakilly near Glengarrif and assaulted it. The battle raged for six hours, during which many were killed and wounded on both sides, before the camp was taken.  The loss of the camp, and with it many of their provisions (187), had a disheartening effect on the rebels and many now started to surrender to the English. This was despite the fact that the government forces did not move for two days after the battle, as they tried to recover. (188)

    Realizing that his forces were disintegrating, William Burke decided on the night of January 3 to leave the area and flee to the north. He went to O'Sullivan Beare and offered him the choice of fleeing that night or staying behind with practically no men. Faced with certain destruction, O'Sullivan Beare agreed and left with Burke that night. The suddeness of the decision meant that the rebels had to leave everything and everyone behind who could not travel. When the English entered the rebels camp the next day they found all the rebels baggage, as well as those wounded unable to flee, women, children and churls. The wounded were killed on the spot, and the spoils were distributed among the soldiers.(189)

  O'Sullivan Beare now headed north to the O'Carrolls' country in Offaly on their way to join O'Neill. They were closely pursued by Lord Barry with his lightly armed Irish troops, but were able to get away. The English now marched through Beare and Bantry destroying everything in their path, including the two castles remaining to O'Sullivan Beare, Ardea and Carignasse, thereby making certain that he could never return.(190)

  Shortly before the English victory at Gortnakilly, Captain William Taafe had been ordered by Carew to follow and destroy Sir Owen McCarthy's sons and their forces in Carbery. The rebels consisted primarily of O'Mahonys under the command of Teig O'Mahony, brother of the captured Maelmoe, and McCarthys from Carbery. Taafe had a force of just under 500 men, including cavalry, and on January 5 he met up with the insurgents at Grillagh, west of Ballineen on the southern side of the Bandon river. As the government forces approached, their advance guard were rushed by the rebels with such fury that they broke and ran. Seeing the plight of his troops, Taafe charged the Irish forces with his horsemen, killing four of the rebel horsemen and forcing the foot to retreat. On perceiving this reversal, Bishop Owen McEgan rallied 100 men behing him and charged the enemy sword in hand. He was struck down almost immediately and killed, whereon the rest of the rebels fled, many drowning in the Bandon river as they tried to get away. In all 120 Irishmen on both sides are thought to have been killed, while the English lost one horseman killed and forty foot killed or injured.

  Immediately after their defeat, Donough Moyle and Fineen, the sons of McCarthy Reagh, sued for pardon. At that stage, Taafe was still unaware of the English victory at Gortnakilly, and so he received them into the Queen's mercy, together with Donough Keogh McCarthy, Florence's brother. Subsequently, Teig O'Mahony also tried to surrender but was seized during a truce and beheaded on the spot.(191)

   This battle effectively ended the rebellion in Cork. While it was going on, O'Sullivan Beare was desperately fighting for his life, as he and his followers struggled to link up with O'Neill in Ulster. The story of their epic march has been told elsewhere (192). By the time they had reached safety with O'Rourke in Leitrim, only 35 out of the 1,000 remained. (193) After only a few days of rest, O'Sullivan Beare mustered another army of 300 men, some the survivors of the march, some member of Tyrell's galloglasses who had also reached Leitrim, and proceeded on to find O'Neill. After another march of 100 miles, O'Sullivan Beare reached O'Neill's camp only to discover that O'Neill had traveled to Mellifont only a few days before to surrender to Mountjoy.

  Following the surrender, many of the rebels were pardoned and received their lands back, including O'Neill, Ruairi O'Donnell, and O'Connor Kerry. The only rebel not pardoned was O'Sullivan Beare, whose letter to the King of Spain now made him an exile for ever. He departed shortly afterwards for Spain where he was to spend the rest of his life. (194)

  

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Footnotes:

 

Footnotes:

 

1. O'Flanagan, Patrick and Buttimer, Cornelius G. (ed); Cork History & Society: Interdisciplinary Essays on the History of an Irish County (Dublin, 1993); pp. 157-158

2. Smith, Charles, The Ancient and Present State of the County and City of Cork (Cork, 1893); p.p. 241-278.

3. Ellis, Steven G.; Tudor Ireland: Crown, Community and the Conflict of Cultures 1470-1603 (London, 1985), p. 70.

4. Healy, James N., The Castles of County Cork, (Dublin, 1988); p. 184 ; O'Mahony, Rev. Canon; A History of the O'Mahony (1903), Septs of Kinelmeky and Ivagha, Journal of the Cork Historical and Archaeological Society (1903).; p. 67

5. Sasso, Claude Ronald; The Desmond Rebellions, 1569-1573 and 1579-1583 (Ph.D. Loyola University of Chicago 1980); p.p. 35-38

6. O'Mahony, Edward; 'The Sack of Baltimore,' The Irish Sword Vol. XXI Winter 1998 No. 84; pp. 137-154.

7. O'Mahony (1903), pp. 192-193.

8. Cal. S.P. Ire.,1509-1573, p. 254

9. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1509-1573; pp. 263, 265, 268.

10. Sasso; p. 7-8

11. He was later to achieve fame as Donnell Cam O'Sullivan Beare.

12. Berleth; p. 38

13. Lennon, Colm; Sixteenth Century Ireland: The Incomplete Conquest (Dublin, 1994); p. 209

14. Berleth; p. 42-43.

15. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1509-1573; p.399

16. Ellis; p. 256.

17. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1509-1573; p. 392.

18. Berleth; p. 50.

19. Lennon; p. 214.

20. Berleth;p. 58

21. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1509-1573; p. 423.

22. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1509-1573; p. 420.

23. Ellis; p. 8.

24. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1509-1573; p. 195, 214.

25. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1509-1573; p. 390.

26. Lennon; p. 214.

27. All of the above were subsequently pardoned in 1577 for their role in the rebellion. Nicholls, Kenneth and O'Canann, Tomas G.; The Irish Fiants of the Tudor Sovereigns: During the Reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI, Philip & Mary, and Elizabeth I, Vol. 2 1558-1586 (Dublin, 1994); p. 406.

28. Successor to Sir Dermot McTeig McCarthy.

29. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1509-1573; p. 483.

30. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1509-1573; p. 330, 487.

31. Father of the historian.  O'Sullivan Beare, Don Philip (translated by Mathew J. Byrne); Ireland under Elizabeth: Chapters towards A History of Ireland in the Reign of Elizabeth (London, 1970); p. 11.

32. Nicholls, K., The Irish Fiants; p. 406.

33. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1509-1573; p. 498.

34. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1509-1573; p. 523.

35. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1509-1573; p. 523, 525.

36. Ellis; pp. 8-9, p. 278-279.

37. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1574-1585; p. 172.  O'Sullivan Beare; pp. 26-27.

38. MacCarthy-Morrogh, Michael; The Munster Plantation: English Migration to Southern Ireland 1583-1641 (Oxford, 1986); p. 87.

39. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1574-1585; p. 174.

40. Sasso; p. 275.

41. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1574-1585; p. 187.

42. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1574-1585; pp. 198-199

43. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1574-1585; p. 201

44. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1574-1585; p. 210

45. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1574-1585; p. 213

46. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1574-1585; p. 212

47. Berleth; pp. 129-130, 137-139

48. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1574-1585; p. 201

49. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1574-1585; p. 214, 221.

50. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1574-1585; p. 238, p. 252-253

51. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1574-1585; p. 230, 239

52. Ellis; p. 281

53. Berleth; p. 164; Cal. S.P. Ire., 1574-1585; p. 253.

54. Berleth; pp. 165-174.

55. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1574-1585; p. 340

56. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1574-1585; p. 354, 360.

57. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1574-1585; p. 387.

58. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1574-1585; p. 342, 369.

59. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1574-1585; p. 211

60. "Persons slain in the time of the Earl of Ormond's government being 598 persons of quality besides 3,000 to 4,000 others. Also note of 158 slain since his discharge." Cal. S.P. Ire., 1574-1585, p. 363.

61. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1574-1585, pp. 361-362

62. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1574-1585, p. 428

63. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1574-1585; p. 431

64. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1574-1585, p. 456

65. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1574-1585, p. 470

66. Ellis, p. 9

67. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1574-1585, p. 470. McCarthy Reagh spent a total of £7,497 on fighting the rebels. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1574-1585, p. 459

68. McCarthy Morrough, pp. 5, 11, 87-88 

69. Falls, p. 156

70. McCarthy Morrough 11, 87-88

71. Falls, p. 170

72. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1586-1588, p. 191-192

73. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1586-1588, p. 279

74. Cal. S.P. Ire.,  1586-1588, p. 454

75.  Cal. S.P. Ire., 1586-1588, p. 529

76. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1586-1588, p. 537

77.  Falls, p. 258

78.  Cal. S.P. Ire., 1586-1588, 537-538

79.  Cal. Carew MSS, p. 457

80.  Cal. S.P. Ire., 1586-1588, pp. 341-344

81.  Cal. S.P. Ire., 1586-1588, p. 542-543

82.  Donell McCarthy stayed on the run, so this sentence was never carried out.

83.  Cal. S.P. Ire., 1586-1588, p. 543

84.  Cal. S.P. Ire., 1588, August-1592, September p. 250

85.  Cal. S.P. Ire., 1588, August-1592, September, p. 45

86.  Cal. S.P. Ire., 1588, August-1592, September, p. 456

87.  Cal. S.P. Ire., 1592, October-1596, June; p. 277

88.  Berleth, p. 223. Note: In December 1599, it was reported that: "Many and great are the hurts that grow to this state by the merchants of the port-towns, who with their monies repair into England, and bestow all their wealth on swords, guns, headpieces, powder and lead; and notwithstanding restraint by law both in England and Ireland, yet the gain is so excessive, that the merchant, stopping the searcher's mouth, makes treble gain by selling to subjects; if to rebels, as much more. And by secret confederacy among themselves, the inhabitants of Muskerry, Barry's country, and the rest of the province, being pretended subjects, buy of the merchants and sell to the rebels after these rates, viz. six cows for a sword, six cows for a culiver or musket, six cows for a headpiece, and a cow for a pound of powder..." Cal. S.P. Ire., 1598, January-1599, March; pp. 285-286.

89.  Cal. S.P. Ire., 1592, October-1596, June; p. 121

90.  Cal. S.P. Ire., 1592, October-1596, June; p. 121, 169

91.  Cal. S.P. Ire., 1592, October-1596, June; p. 209, 213, 219, 231, 286, 301, 384

92.  Berleth, pp. 258-259, 266, 268-273, 277, 278-279

93.  O'Mahony (1903), p. 7; Cal. S.P. Ire.,  1598, January-1599, March; p. 326

94.  Cal. S.P. Ire., 1598, January-1599, March; p. 294, 400

95.  Cal. S.P. Ire., 1598, January-1599, March; p. 486-487

96.  O'Sullivan Beare, p. 177; Cal. S.P. Ire., 1599, April-1600, February, p. 364

97.  Cal. S.P. Ire., 1599, April-1600, February, p. 476

98.  Ellis, p. 306

99.  Cal. S.P. Ire., 1598, January-1599, March; p. 496-497

100.  Ellis, p. 306

101.  Note: Dermod O'Mahony, his brother who had succeeded Donell Grano in 1595, died in late 1599. O'Mahony (1903), p. 8

102. O 'Mahony (1903), p. 9. Donell O'Sullivan had assumed the title of  O'Sullivan Beare on the death of Sir Owen in late 1599.

103. O'Faolain, p. 232

104 Known as Donal na Pipy (na piopa=of the pipes), he succeeded Sir Owen McCarthy Reagh in March 1594. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1586-88, p. 239

105. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1600, March-October, p. 71

106. Lennon, p. 298; 1599, April-1600, February; p. 498-499

107. Lennon, p. 299

108. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1600, March-October, p. 37

109. Silke, p. 73, 87-88

110. One third of his troops. On April 30, 1600, it was reported that English troops in Munster numbered 250 horse and 2,920 foot. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1600, March-October, p. 134

111. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1600, March-October, p. 116

112. An advance guard sent into the thick of the battle

113. A peaked helmet common in European warfare of the period

114. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1600, March-October, p. 117

115. Captain in this context appears to have meant a clan leader rather than a specific military title.

116. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1600 March-October, p. 113

117. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1600 March-October, p. 112-113, 116-117, 133

118. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1600 March-October, p. 154, 157-163

119. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1600 March-October, p. 144

120. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1600 March-October, p. 435

121. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1 November, 1600-31 July, 1601, p. 3-4

122. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1 November, 1600-31 July, 1601, p. 3-4

123. O'Mahony (1903), p. 9

124. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1601-3, p. 27; Falls, p.288

125. Silke, pp. 100-103

126. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1601-3, p. 4

127. O'Mahony, p. 10; 1601-3, p. 5

128. Silke, p. 102-103

129. Silke, p. 109-111; 1601-3, p. 81

130. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1601-3, pp. 84-85

131. Silke, p. 110

132. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1601-3, p. 217

133. Silke, p. 111

134. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1 November, 1600-31 July, 1601, pp. 309-310

135. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1601-3, p. 161

136. Falls, p.298

137. Silke, p. 131

138. O'Sullivan Beare, p. 143

139. Silke, p. 132

140. Silke, p. 126-127; O'Mahony (1903), p. 11

141. De Blacam, p.89

142. Silke, p. 127-128. Six thousand English troops were to die during the siege, most of them from exposure and disease. Silke, p. 128

143. January 3, 1602, according to the Gregorian calendar used by the Spanish and Irish.

144. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1601-3, p. 234

145. Silke, p. 140-146

146. Silke, p. 147-148; Cal. Carew MSS., 1601-1603, p. 200

147. He may have been... Cal. S.P. Ire., 1601-3, p. 244

148. Silke, p. 155

149. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1601-3, p. 243

150. Silke, p. 149-151

151. 1601-3, p. 296 By this stage...Cal. Carew MSS., 1601-1603, p. 215

152. Falls, p. 314, Silke, p. 153-155, 1601-3, p. 329

153. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1601-3, p. 299

154. The artillery... Cal. S.P. Ire., 1601-3, p. 299

155. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1601-3, p. 329

156. O'Sulllivan Beare, p. 152; Cal. S.P. Ire., 1601-3, p. 329

157. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1601-3. p. 329

158. Cal. Carew MSS., 1601-1603, p. 222

159. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1600, March-October, p. 71; 1601-3, p. 198

160. O'Sullivan Beare, p. 153; 1601-3, p. 329

161. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1601-3, p. 392-393

162. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1601-3, p. 392-393

163. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1601-3, p. 424; Ted O'Sullivan, p. 15

164. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1601-3, p. 361

165. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1601-3, p. 362

166. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1601-3, p. 393

167. O'Sullivan Beare, p. 153; 1601-3, p. 394

168. From "buannadha". These were professional mercenary troops in Ireland in the 16^th century. Falls, p. 68

169. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1601-3, p. 395

170. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1601-3, p.424

171. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1601-3, pp. 424-425; Cal. Carew MSS., 1601-1603, p. 251

172. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1601-3, p. 414; Cal. Carew MSS., p. 251; O'Sullivan Beare, p. 156

173. Cal. Carew MSS., p. 254

174. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1601-3, p. 448

175. Cal. Carew MSS., 1601-1603, p. 257

176. Cal. Carew MSS., 1601-1603, p. 267

177. Cal. Carew MSS., 1601-1603, p. 267

178. Cal. S.P. Ire., 1601-3, p. 437

179. Cal. Carew MSS., 1601-1603, p. 339

180. Cal. Carew MSS., 1601-1603, p. 339

181. O'Sullivan Beare, p. 158)

182. Cal. Carew MSS., 1601-1603, p. 367

183. Cal. Carew MSS., 1601-1603, p. 368

184. Cal. Carew MSS., 1601-1603, p. 371

185. Cal. Carew MSS., 1601-1603, p. 376, 382-383

186. Cal. Carew MSS., 1601-1603, p. 403

187. Carew estimated that the rebels had lost 1,000 cows, 1,000 garrons, and 2,000 sheep. Cal. Carew MSS., 1601-1603, p. 404

188. Don Philip O'Sullivan Beare estimated that the English lost 300 men. O'Sullivan Beare, p. 160

189. Cal. Carew MSS., 1601-1603, p. 404-405

190. Cal. Carew MSS., 1601-1603, p. 405

191. O'Mahony (1903), p. 12; Cal. Carew MSS., 1601-1603, p. 403-406

192. De Blacam, pp. 98-138; Falls, pp. 324-325

193. De Blacam, p. 78

194. De Blacam, pp. 138-140

 

 

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