Colonialism
and its effects on today’s world

Assignment: Discuss the effects of colonialism for the relationship between the first world and third world of today.  Make reference to economic, political, social and cultural aspects of the post- colonial era.

	Lecturer:	Dirka Grieshaber
	Course:	1st Arts Sociology
	Name:	Elaine Catherine Baker
	Student Number:	97591521
	Tutor:	John Harrington
	Date:	12th January 1998

Throughout history, there have been numerous examples of more powerful groups of people dominating those with less power.  However, the most global in nature of this type of domination has been the colonisation of vast areas of the world by various European powers from the sixteenth to the twentieth century.  This colonial empire “...was not only a political and economic, but also a social and cultural system” (King, 1991, p.5).
While colonialism, that is “...the conquest and direct political control of other people’s land...” (Williams and Chrisman, 1993, p.2), has ended, the continuing power of Europeans, and their descendants in North America, over many spheres of life in third world countries, can largely be traced back to the colonial era.  
In this essay, I use the term “first world” to refer to the more industrialised countries, including both the colonial powers and the settler colonies, in North America, Australia and New Zealand for example.  The term “third world” refers to the less developed countries with people of mostly non-European descent.

The Economic Effects of Colonialism
Economic conditions play a large role in the way in which different societies interact with each other.  The changes in the distribution of resources, in production and in trade which colonialism brought about shape world relations today.
The capitalist system
An important element of any economic system is surplus.  There is a surplus if a society produces more than its basic needs.  In some pre-colonial societies the community produced no surplus - people produced enough for their subsistence and then used their time for leisure (Bujra, 1992, p.152).  
In some kingdom systems, people were obliged to produce more than they needed and give the surplus to the provincial ruler.  In some cases, this surplus was used simply to enhance the lifestyle of the ruler or elite.  In others, it was used to provide for people to work in an army, a justice system, an exchange system or the arts (Bujra, 1992, p.154).   
The type of exchange system also varied.  In some societies, trade was limited to local areas, in others barter was used, while others had developed a currency and a merchant class, in West Africa for example (Bujra, 1992, p.156).
The principal difference between these systems and the European system which evolved during the industrial revolution was that Europeans began to use surpluses to improve production.  This is called the capitalist system. The improvement of production was not exclusive to Europe.  The Incas of Peru, for example, had organised irrigation systems to improve agriculture (Bujra, 1992, p.156).  However, the nineteenth century colonisation of African and Asian regions created a global capitalist system, integrating “...colonial territories into an international system of production and trade” (Regan, 1991, p.38).   As Europeans controlled the new system, it was organised to direct surpluses from the third world to improve production in the first world.  Without this, the transformation of production processes in Europe would not have been as great (Bujra, 1992, p.167), and the Europe of today would not be as industrially developed.  European colonialism can be best understood as “...the globalisation of the capitalist mode of production, it’s penetration of previously non-capitalist regions of the world, and destruction of pre or non-capitalist forms of social organisation.”  (Williams and Chrisman, 1993, p.2)
The emergence of present systems of economic organisation
Under colonialism, third world countries were obliged to produce for European needs as well as for their own in order to obtain currency.  This currency was needed to pay the taxes imposed on them by the colonisers and to buy European goods  (Bernstein, Johnson and Thomas, 1992, p.192).  As Europeans took over land and which had previously not been owned by individuals, and introduced property systems, money was also needed for rent or purchase of land (Bernstein, Johnson and Thomas, 1992, p.198).  In this way, European currency began to be used in the economies of the third world, some of which had been formally based on barter.    Colonialism was the beginning of the world currency system prevalent today.
Colonialism effectively created a global economic system.  The global nature of the economic system of today can be seen in it’s “set of commercial, banking and monetary institutions” (Ashworth, 1978, p.194) which today have huge influence over trade and money.  Organisations such as the “Bretton Wood institutions” - the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), now the World Trade Organisation, were set up after the end of the colonial era, but the economic power obtained through colonialism enabled first world countries to control them (Coote, 1992, pp.45-47; Hewitt, 1992, p.223).  “From a Southern perspective, GATT is an undemocratic and closed institution, dominated by a small number of developed countries that promote the interests of Northern multinational corporations” (Coote, 1992,  p.85).  During industrialisation, Europe protected its new industries (Potter, 1992, p.208), but third world countries are often unable to do this now under trade rules controlled by the first world.  Organisations in which third world countries have significant power, such as the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) have been unable to influence the economic system a great deal (Coote, 1992, p.47), and the UNCTAD “...is now little more than a North-South debating forum” (Coote, 1992, p.85). 
The world capitalist system created by colonialism continues to be centred on Western needs.   In the 1980s, some third world countries were unable to pay interest on their debts because of the bad lending decisions of banks.  “There was a real possibility of losses so heavy as to weaken the international banking system” (Ashworth, 1987, p.309) on which first world countries depend. The world bank’s solution was the imposition of  economic restructuring programs geared towards first world rather than third world needs (Coote, 1992,  pp.34-35).  These caused extreme hardship and poverty in the third world.
As well as governmental power, the influence of Western based business organisations has it’s origins in the colonial era.  Large trans-national companies control many economic resources and often have political power as a result (Coote, 1992, p.64; Giddens, 1993, p.185).  “The power of US finance capital and huge multi-nationals to direct the flows of capital, commodities, armaments and media information around the world can have an impact as massive as any colonial regime” (McClintock, 1993, p.296).  
Investment in the third world
Colonialism did bring some positive changes to the third world, such as large scale international investment (Ashworth, 1987, p.205).  “Capital imports were devoted to such things as harbour works at international ports, plantations and mines, with railways to connect then with each other and with a port, roads and some public utilities in the centres of government and foreign trade” (Ashworth, 1987, p.209).  However, it was frequently more productive to invest in one large project than many small ones (Ashworth, 1987, p.210) and many projects and Western methods were inappropriate for the environment and circumstances of the colony (Ashworth, 1987, p.46; Coote, 1992, pp.12, 15).  The first world continues to effect the environment in the third world, as the world bank can determine what investment money is to be used for, and has “...engineered one ecological disaster after another” (McClintock, 1993, p.301).
Trade and exchange
An important motivation for colonialism was trade.  There was intense rivalry between different European countries for power and economic control (Bernstein, Hewitt and Thomas, 1992, p.176).  Europeans needed raw materials for their industries and markets for their goods  (Bujra, 1992, pp.146, 177; Ashworth, 1987, p.47).  To ensure this trade could happen and that it benefited colonial countries, and that the European system of lending and repayment prevailed, Europeans took complete control of colonial states  (Ashworth, 1987, p.154).  They enforced a “monopoly of shipping to colonial trading companies” (Regan, 1991, p.38) so Europeans were in control of international trade.  There was “...considerable decline in intra-Africa, Asian and Latin American trade” (Regan, 1991, p.38) as the colonies were forced to trade with their colonisers only.
Obstruction of industrialisation
Using this control over trade, “industrial development in the colonies was suppressed” (Regan, 1991, p.38), and local industries were destroyed (Bujra, 1992, p.147) in order to prevent competition with colonial industries.   For example, during the colonial era, the British banned textile imports from India, and the Indian textile industry declined in favour of tea growing (Bernstein, Hewitt and Thomas, 1992, p.175).  Tea was processed in Britain, however, and the tea-processing industry remains centred in Britain  (Coote, 1992, p.69).  The colonial impeding of industrialisation has the effect of hindering present industrial development of third world countries due to the lack of “...business experience and familiarity with the disciplines and techniques of industrial work” (Ashworth, 1987, p.164).  The poorest countries depend on the export of agricultural products, with prices that have been falling compared to industrial goods (Coote, 1992, pp.6-8).  This means they have been unable to adjust to falling demand (Coote, 1992, pp.29, 33).  
Continuing inequality
First world countries continue to hinder the industrialisation of third world countries through trade barriers (Coote, 1992, p.10).  During the colonial era the system whereby third world countries produced less profitable raw materials and first world countries produced more profitable industrial goods was established (Bernstein, Hewitt and Thomas, 1992, p.174).  When colonialism ended, changes in this system were prevented by the imposition of tariffs, quotas and other trade restrictions (Coote, 1992, pp.92-97).  In addition, “all the major industrialised countries provide substantial support for their own production of a wide range of commodities, in particular for agricultural commodities.” (Coote, 1992, p.31).  An example is the European Union’s Common Agricultural Policy, which subsidises the dumping of goods on the world market, pushing prices down for Third World producers (Coote, 1992, p.98).
New agricultural methods and new crops were introduced by the colonisers to satisfy European needs - for example rubber became a widespread crop in Asia (Ashworth, 1987, p.49).  Many countries remain dependent on the export of these goods today to earn foreign money.  For example French colonisers forced the people of Chad to produce cotton on a large scale as a raw material for the French textile industry.  Chad remains dependent on the export of cotton to pay for imports (Coote, 1992, p.41).  Dependence on a small number of agricultural commodities today means third world countries are very vulnerable to price fluctuations (Coote, 1992, p.3).

The Political Effects of Colonialism
Pre-colonial political systems
The effects of colonialism varied widely according to different types of colonising countries and different pre-colonial structures (Bernstein, Hewitt and Thomas, 1992, p.182; Regan, 1991, p.38).  In many areas of the pre-colonial world, there existed systems based on local community and family relationships.  Family relationships often determined work and exchange relations and men and women did different types of work (Bujra, 1992, p.149).  In many cases decisions were made within local communities only, with little outside political influence (Bujra, 1992, p.150).  Decisions of leaders or groups were enforced by the threat of public scorn or by the threat of withdrawal of the co-operation needed to produce or gather food (Bujra, 1992, p.151).
In other areas kingdoms had developed where there was outside influence on local communities, for example, the Bakongo kingdom in what is now Angola (Bujra, 1992, pp.152-153).  In some cases, a provincial king or group of rulers used their power over exchange or over an army, or used myths and religion (Bujra, 1992, pp.155-156) to force the payment of tributes of food and other goods.  Some kingdoms had an army that attempted to increase the size of the kingdom or capture slaves.  Some systems were feudal like that of Europe in the middle ages.  For example India had a rigid caste system (Bujra, 1992, p.158), with strict laws and different degrees of power and types of work for people of different castes.  Throughout history, very large political entities also existed.  For example, the spread of Islam produced a vast empire incorporating local rulers into a common trade and law system (Bujra, 1992, p.160).
As we can see, while some communities remained local and family based, others “...were beginning to be incorporated into more powerful and hierarchically organised states long before the arrival of European merchants and colonists” (Bujra, 1992, p.166).  “In many respects, the empires which Europe created in Africa, Asia and Latin America were merely the last (to date) in a long line...”  of such empires (Bujra, 1992, p.167).  Nevertheless, European colonialism had  profound effects on the political relations of the present world.
Changes in political structure
In order to control trade, European powers took complete political control of huge areas, including 90% of Africa (Bernstein, Hewitt and Thomas, 1992, p.176).  This had the effect of changing who had power in the colonies, but also changed the way in which power was structured.  New states and new state structures were created.  This state formation involved firstly the use of force to oblige native populations to comply, then the setting up of an administration system, and finally the new state becoming legitimate through a basic acceptance by the native people.  Legitimisation involved material incentives to local rulers and convincing native people colonialism was “right” through education and religion. (Bernstein, Hewitt and Thomas, 1992, p.181).  The “...arbitrary and artificial drawing of political boundaries...” of colonial states set up by Europeans (Regan, 1991, p.39) ignored previous tribal and regional divisions.  On independence, these administrative areas became states.  The fact that these states were not originally based on cultural entities has political effects to this day, as political parties often form along ethnic rather than policy lines.  This is a hindrance to democracy in many countries, for example in Kenya.
The United Nations (UN) had a key role in the setting up of many post-colonial states (Giddens, 1993, p.186), and so the way in which this was done was influenced by the previous colonial powers.  The nation-state system of Europe has replaced many of the other pre-colonial administration and political systems described above.  The separate, complete administrative control of a particular area with definite borders is now a world-wide phenomenon (Giddens, 1993, p.182).

Military power and the effects of violence
Colonialism was the beginning of Western military control over the third world.  European countries often took power in their colonies through coercion.  In the East military “protection” was sold, that is, local rulers were threatened and forced to pay goods and services to Europeans (Bernstein, Hewitt and Thomas, 1992, p.173).  Military advantage gave Europeans power over the people of the colonies.  Colonisation involved “...systematic interference in the capacity of the appropriated culture...to organise its dispensations of power” (McClintock, 1993, p.295), and so previous political systems were altered considerably.  The military aspects of colonialism can also be seen in the wars of independence against colonial powers, which had devastating effects on local economies and social systems (Hewitt, 1992, p.221) and set development back.  However, Western military control continued after the colonial era into the cold war, when military imperialism meant the US and USSR often used their powers to “...install a dictatorship, prop up a puppet regime, or wreck a democracy.” (McClintock, 1993, p.296)
The brutality and dominance of colonial rule left a legacy of repression by the state.  Many colonised people had no experience of democratic or collective government (Potter, 1992, p.219).  On independence, democracy was difficult to develop, and in some countries dictatorships emerged.
Effects on present political relations
The relatively greater political power that Europe and the US have in important international political institutions, for example the in the UN (Hewitt, 1992, p.224), is largely due to their control over economic resources and their military power.  Less control of economic resources mean that weak states are small in terms of foreign trade but dependent on it (Handel, 1990, p.46).  The threat of economic sanctions and the incentives of economic investment give the first world political as well as economic control over the third world.   This is largely a legacy of the colonial era, when Europeans first took control of world trade and economic resources.  

The Social Effects of Colonialism
Colonialism affected the relations between different groups in the colonies.  “Locally formed hierarchies were the essential condition for colonial and post-colonial regimes.” (King, 1991, p.141) and colonists encouraged and used local elites to control the less powerful (Bujra, 1992, p.153; Potter, 1992, p.213).  “Divide and rule” methods were used to gain control (Bernstein, Johnson and Thomas, 1992, p.201), which widened inequalities between classes in third world countries.
Colonisation also altered gender relations and the way families were organised in many societies.  For example, colonisation had the effect on the Bemba people in Zambia of giving more power to men in the family system (Mohanty, 1993, p.203).
One important social effect of colonialism was the change in the way in which work was organised.  The colonisation of South America involved forcing native populations to work in terrible conditions (Bernstein, Hewitt and Thomas, 1992, p.173).  This, together with wars and European diseases, not only disrupted, but destroyed many societies and indigenous social systems.  The British and Dutch colonisation of the Caribbean involved taking large amounts of slaves from West Africa and bringing them to the Caribbean.  This was organised by paying local rulers in West Africa and supplying them with weapons to capture slaves from neighbouring populations,  and so conflicts and violence ensued.  This caused massive social disruption and depopulation (Bernstein, Johnson and Thomas, 1992, p.188; Regan, 1991, p.42).
Where slaves were not productive enough, Europeans employed contract labour, although the distinction between this and forced labour was not always clear.  They encouraged large scale migration, for example migration of Chinese contract workers to the plantations in the Indian Ocean region (Ashworth, 1987, p.47), and Tamils to Sri Lanka (Coote, 1992, p.70).  Colonialism also caused small scale migration and new settlements and communities were formed, for example around railroad junctions (King, 1991, p.111).
The settler colonisation of places such as North America and Australia had very different social effects.  It relieved the problems of a growing population in Europe (Ashworth, 1987, p.196), and wiped out many native people through disease and war.  As a result, today indigenous people in these regions form a very small portion of the population, and most are descendants of European settlers.  Williams and Chrisman (1993, p.4) question the status of these regions as colonies. These settlers are essentially colonisers rather than the colonised, and these regions are now part of the first rather than the third world.
The spread of methods and practices
Colonialism helped the spread of technology as Europeans promoted new agricultural and industrial methods of production.  These new methods had an effect on social relations within communities, as it altered the way work was organised and resources were used.  The social structure of many countries has been changed by rapid urbanisation. “Even in states which remain primarily agricultural, modern technology is often applied in such a way as to alter substantially pre-existing relationships between human social organisation and the environment.” (Giddens, 1993, p.188).  As well as technology, the spread of “institutions of modernity” such as newspapers and other media also has its origins in the colonial era (Giddens, 1993, p.188)  
The spread of social ideas
Colonialism also initiated the spread of social ideas on a larger scale.  Western enlightenment concepts of welfare, rights and democracy influenced third world thinkers and now are part of discourse in the third world.  European ideas have influenced many third world social movements.  However, ideas often changed as they travelled, and political terms, for example, often have very different meanings in different contexts and regions (Appadurai, 1993, p.331).
First world-Third world social interaction
Colonists were also influenced by social practices of the colonies.  Migration and the interaction of people of different regions affect social organisation in the first world. The migration of settlers from the first world to the third world has largely been reversed and the unequal relationship fostered by colonialism now encourages immigration from the third world to the first world.  This has many social effects in the first world (Appadurai, 1993, p.334).  Racism and friction between different ethnic groups is now taking place within the setting of the first world, where previously it was confined to the colonies, yet the nature of conflict between Europeans and non-Europeans has not changed in many fundamental ways.

The Cultural Effects of Colonialism
Many pre-colonial societies had rich and diverse cultures.  In some, written language had developed (Bujra, 1992, p.147) and cultural expression through the arts was widespread.  Colonisation involved the “...suppression of heterogeneity...” (Mohanty, 1993, p.196) and caused the demise of many previous forms of cultural expression.  The meeting of different cultures involved the more powerful one being dominant, rather than both cultures influencing each other equally (King, 1991, p.140).  The effect of the colonial cultural system “...is most obviously, and importantly, represented by language, but not only that: it includes a mass of variation of common institutions ranging from administrative and religious practices to architecture, from university curricula to literature.” (King, 1991, p.6)
Cultural destruction
To justify their actions, colonists tried “...to convince the natives that colonisation came to lighten their darkness” (Fanon, 1993, p.37).  Occupying powers often suppressed native culture because they interpreted “...attachment to tradition...as a refusal to submit” (Fanon, 1993, p.46).  In many cases cultural imperialism meant colonisers viewed other cultures as barbaric and uncivilised (Regan, 1991, p.40).  The “...fantasy of the native’s savagery that screens the ‘barbarism’ of colonialism...” justified colonial force and gave colonists moral authority (Sharpe, 1993, p.234).  The assertion that European culture was superior was in the political and economic interests of colonists.  In addition, “...consideration of prestige...” was of major importance (Ashworth, 1987, p.154).  There was often “...destruction or deliberate undermining of a people’s culture - their art, dances, religions, history, geography, education, architecture and literature...” (wa Thiong’o, 1993, p.442) and suppression of native music, law systems and language (Regan, 1991, p.40).  Western missionaries converted large amounts of people to Christianity (Appadurai, 1993, p.324), and the Christian religion was used to promote obedience and hard work (Bernstein, Johnson and Thomas, 1992, p.201). Western education was provided promoting Western value systems (Regan, 1991, p.39).  People were educated in the language of the coloniser, and as language is image-forming and a product of history (wa Thiong’o, 1993, p.441), this had a large effect on the ideas and identities of the people.  In Africa and Asia, the colonial language continues to be used for many purposes, such as in administration, and as a method of  communication between different ethnic groups in the same (colonially created) nation.  Writers who use the language of the colonists (English or French for example) are seen by some as betraying the cause of national cultural renewal (Mishra and Hodge, 1993, p.277), to which language is so central.
New cultural interaction
Colonialism also created new cultures.  The slaves brought to plantations by Europeans, for example the West Africans brought to the Caribbean, were from very diverse cultures and had different languages.  The ways in which they were brought together mean they have now largely formed new cultures and societies.  
The paradox is that it was the uprooting of slaves and their transportation and insertion into the plantation economy... of the Western world that ‘unified’ these people across their differences in the same moment as it cut them off from direct access to their past. (Hall, 1993, p.396)  
Their common history of oppression has formed them into social entities.  They often assimilated aspects of European culture also, for example English and French Creole languages are now spoken in the Caribbean.  These are based around the European language, but have evolved into new languages influenced by the different African languages of the slaves.
Effects on ideas, identities and discourse
Colonialism disfigured the history of the colonised.  The English colonists in India wrote about barbaric acts of Indians against English people without discussing the violence of the English against the Indians (Sharpe, 1993, pp.227-231). The nationalist movements against colonialism were accompanied by a rediscovery of the past and roots of the colonies (King, 1991, pp.35, 52) and attempts to create new cultural identities. 
A great deal of cultural activity today is based on reaction to the effects of colonialism, and much social discourse in post-colonial countries consciously deals with colonialism’s effects.  There has been widespread use of Western values as a basis for a critique of the West (Williams and Chrisman, 1993, p.272).  However, Immanuel Wallerstein points out that by using institutions and concepts such as “civilised” to argue or re-assert a group, you are legitimising these institutions and concepts (King, 1991, pp.100-101).  In Africa, there are many radical “...nationalist black intellectuals....critiquing enlightenment cultural forms (novels, newspapers...), political forms (parliamentary petitions, delegations) and ethical and political emancipatory values (universal human equality.. self government)” (Williams and Chrisman, 1993, p.15), in short, questioning every influence European culture has had on them.  There is “...anxiety shared by native intellectuals to shrink away from that Western culture in which they all risk being swamped” (Fanon, 1993, p.37).  However, the cultural consciousness of colonialism is diminishing over time and “...many contemporary African, Latin American, Caribbean and Asian cultures, while profoundly effected by colonisation, are not necessarily primarily pre-occupied with their erstwhile contact with Europe.” (McClintock, 1993, p.294)
Pessimistically it can be argued that many aspects of the culture of the colonies have been destroyed or become “...a set of automatic habits, some traditions of dress and a few broken down institutions” (Fanon, 1993, p.46). However, renewal of native culture linked to the nationalist anti-colonial movements has had success.  The phases Teshome H. Gabriel (1993, pp.341-245) identifies in themes of film making in the third world can also be applied to other expressions of culture.  The first phase is unqualified assimilation of Western styles, the second phase is the remembrance and idealisation of tradition and the past, and the third phase is the addressing of contemporary local issues and problems.
Effects on the cultures of the first world
Colonialism also affected the first world.  It produced a two-way view of the world, divided between the first world and the third world, rather than a concept of diversity.  For example, immigrants to the first world from the Caribbean, East Africa, Asia and Pakistan all identify with being black, as their common experience within their new society unites them  (King, 1991, p.55).  Colonialism has influenced how the first world and the third world see themselves.  Cultural expression has also been affected.  Western music has been hugely influenced by that of Africa, and art, religion and ideas have also been changed by their encounter with the cultures of the people of the colonies.

Conclusion
The globalisation of the present world, which can be seen in the vast array of world-wide organisations and movements (McGrew, 1992, p.263), was initiated by colonialism.  Colonialism was the “...first substantial encounter between...Europe and non-Europe, ... and took place in what were to become the colonies, not the metropole” (King, 1991, p.8).  The first multi-cultural societies were formed in the colonies.  This has developed into globalisation, “...the intensification of world-wide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa” (Giddens, 1993, p.181).  

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