CHAPTER 4  LIFE AND THE CELL

 

I. Objective 27

B.2  The student will explain that biology is the science of life and had many different components

 

A.     Biology is the study of life

1.      Zoology- the study of animal life

2.      Botany- the study of plant life

3.      Microbiology- the study of microscopic-sized life forms

4.      Genetics- the beginning of the way in which something comes to be

5.      Ecology- the study of the environment or habitat

 

 

II. Objective 28

            B.2 The student will explain the cellular basis of life.

 

A.     Cell- is the basic unit of live- discovered by HOOK

B.     Cell theory- has 5 Parts

1.      All living things contain at least one cell.

2.      Cells are the basic units of structure and function of life processes.

3.      Cells come from other cells of like kind.

C.     Types of Cells

1.      Plant Cell- has three distinctive parts- autotrophs- self feeders

a.       cell wall- provides support

b.      Vacuole- used to store water

c.       Chloroplast-used to convert suns energy into useful plant energy and contains chlorophyll

2.      Animal Cell- heterotrophs (other feeders)

D.     Types of nucleuses

1.      Prokaryotes- before nucleus- single cell

2.      Eukaryotes- true nucleus-  multi cellular- like me and you

E.      Common Cell Organells

Structure

Location

Function

Cell membrane

Around Cell

Maintains cell shape and controlls flow of materials

Cytoplasm

Throughout cell

Fluid substance which contains cell parts

Nucleus

Center

Contains chromosomes

Nucleons

Nucleus

Production of ribosomes

Nuclear membrane

Around nucleus

Controls entrance into and out of the nucleus

Chromosomes

Nucleus

Determine geneitc traits; provide instructions for protein production

Ribosomes

Throughout cell

Protein production

Endoplasmic reticulum

Cytoplasm

Site of protein production and transport

 Golgi apparatus

Cytoplasm

Packing and transporting of materials from the endoplasmic reticulum

Mitochondria

Cytoplasm

Site of energy production for the cell

Lysosomes

Cytoplasm

Contian digestive enzymes; remove waste

Microtubules/ Microfilaments

Cytoplasm/ cell membrane

Form the cytoskeleton, or framework of cell; provide channels for transport of materials

Cilia/ flagella

Outside surface

Movement of materials from the entire cell

Vesicles

Cytoplasm

Sacs pinched off from the cell structures; contain materials for transport into or out of the cell

 

III. Object 29

 B.5 The student will analyze the transport of materials through cell membranes.

B.6  The student will explain homeostasis.

 

A.     Homeostasis- the process of maintaining a stable environment.

  1. Types of Homeostasis

a.       passive transport- does not require energy

1.      diffusion- movement from an area of high concentration to an area of low

2.      Equilibrium- when there is no difference in concentration

3.      Cell wall effects

a.       permeable-allows diffusion to occur

b.      selectively permeable- all materials cannot diffuse

4.      Osmosis- the movement of water from an area of high concentration to area of low concentration.

a.       Isotonic- the concentration of solvent and solute is equal on both sides of the cell

b.      Hypertonic- concentration of solute greater outside cell

c.       Hypotonic- concentration of solute greater inside cell

5.      Facilitated Diffusion  - materials pass through special areas in the cell membrane

6.      Gated channels- passageways made of proteins

b.  Active transport- requires energy

1.      move material from lower to higher

2.      ex. Sodium-potassium pump- by changing the shape of the molecule ions are allowed to move.

c. Special Mechanisms-  move inside a vesicle

1.      endocytosis- move into the cell

a.       Pinocytosis- movement of fluids

b.      Phagocytosis-movment of solids

2.      exocytosis- move out of the cell

 

 

IV.  Objective 30

B.7  The student will recognize that life has a chemical basis.

 

A.     What is an organism made up of?

  1. Atoms combine to make
  2. Molecules which combine to make
  3. Macromolecules which make up
  4. Organelles which function as part of a
  5. Cell which associate with like cells to create
  6. Tissue which associate with other tissues to create
  7. Organs which work with other organs to make
  8. Organ systems which make up the
  9. Organism !

B.     Six elements in all living things

  1. SPONCH
  2. Carbon, hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur, Phosphorous

C.     Two categories of compounds

  1. inorganic- non living

a.       water – is polar making it the universal solvent

b.      Electrolytes- dissolve easily and carry electrical currents- useful for nerve impulses

  1. organic- living- all contain carbon

a.       carbohydrates- contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

1.      monosaccharides- simple sugars called momomer-are the building blocks for the other sugars

2.      disaccharides

3.      polysaccharides

b Lipids- compounds which include fats, oils, and waxes

1.      are non-polar and will not dissolve in water

2.      made up of monomers called fatty acids

3.      fats and oils are triglycerides

4.      waxes and steriods are lipids

b.      Proteins- made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen

1.      amino acids make up proteins

2.      two amino acids make a dipeptide

3.      to or more are called polypeptide

4.      Enzyme- are catalysts- they speed up reactions but do not affect it. Ex. Spit or saliva

c.       Nucleic Acids- compounds that store information in the cell

1.      DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid- directs cell’s activities

2.      RNA- ribonucleic acid- transfer the stored information

 

V. Objective 31

            B.33  The student will infer that all living organisms carry on certain common functions.

 

A.     9 common functions

1.      Absorption- taking in nutrients

2.      Excretion- the movement of waste materials

3.      Digestion- the breakdown of food particles

4.      Biosynthesis- the process of assimilation of food particles into substances that organisms need to grow.

5.      Secretion- the release of enzymes

6.      Reproduction- the process of transferring genetic information

7.      Response- describes the reaction of an organism to a stimulus

8.      Adaptation- the process of inheriting traits that increase the chance of survival

9.      Energy use- required for life’s processes

a.       Photosynthesis- uses energy to make sugar

1.      Energy + 6CO2 + 6H2O à C6H12O6 + O2

2.      ATP- stores energy then is release it forming ADP

b.      Respiration- uses sugar to make energy

1.      C6H12O6 + O2 à 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

 

VI. Objective 32

B.8 The student will deduce that life is dependent on energy.

 

A.     Energy is the ability to do work or cause change

B.     Two methods of energy production 

  1. Photosynthesis- uses energy to make sugar

a.       Energy ( from the sun) + 6CO2 + 6H2O à C6H12O6 ( glucose ) + O2

2.      Respiration- uses sugar to make energy

a.       C6H12O6   ( glucose ) + O2 à 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

C.     Energy is stored in the form of ATP adenosine triphosphate

  1. ATP à ADP + phosphate group + energy
  2. ADP + phosphate group + energy à ATP

 

VII. Objective 33

B.34  The student will assess the behavior of organisms in terms of responses which are necessary for their survival.

 

A.     Response- The characteristics of cells that cause them to react to stimuli.

  1. Behavior- a group of responses
  2. Reflex- an involuntary response- a person’s eye blinks
  3. Instinct- genetically controlled – birds migrating

B.     The ability to respond to the environment is essential to its survival.

VIII. Objective 34   Theories of Organic Variation

B.9 The student will describe theories of organic variation and evidence that supports them.

 

A.     Evolution- a theory that contends that current life forms have descended from previous live forms through changes in the structure and function of body parts.

B.     Evidence

  1. Fossils
  2. Radioactive dating- use of carbon-14 to date material
  3. Homologous structures- Characteristics that have similar structures but different functions

C.     First developed by Lamark in 1809- called the Inheritance of acquired characteristics

D.     In 1859 Darwin’s book The Origin of Species was introduced

E.      This idea was known as the theory of natural selection- called survival of the fittest

 

 

IX. Objective 35  Adaptations of Organisms

B.10 The student will apply concepts of organic variation.

 

A.     Adaptation- inherited characteristics that make survival easier

B.     Adaptations are not changes in an organism

C.     Types of Evolution

  1. convergent evolution- coming together
  2. divergent evolution- going apart
  3. coevolution- evolve together

D.     Extinction- is the result no adaptation

E.      Mass Extinction- results from catalysmic changes in the environment

 

Chapter 5   GENETICS AND REPRODUCTION

 

I. Objective 36

B.16 The student will employ appropriate terminology when describing sexual reproduction.

B.17 The student will relate methods of sexual reproduction in plants.

B.18 The student will relate methods of sexual reproduction in animals.

 

A.     Reproduction- the process of passing on genetic information

B.     Methods of reproduction

  1. Sexual- requires the union of two cells
  2. Asexual- does not require information from two cells

C.     The process

Animals

  1. sex cells- gamates

a.       ovum female gamates called egg

b.      Spermatozoan male gametes

  1. Fertilization- the combination of the two gamates
  2. Now called a Zygote
  3. As it develops it becomes a EMBRYO
  4. After eight weeks it becomes a FETUS.

Plants

  1. Fertilization occurs when

a.       Pollen from the Stamen (male)

b.      Combines with Pistil (Female)

c.       The developing embryo is called a SEED

d.      The ovary of the plant develops into fruit.

e.       Germination- when the seed splits and begins to grow

 

II. Objective 37 GENETICS

B.20 The student will explain the chemical basis of genetic expression.

 

A.     DNA- Deoxyribonucleic acid- the blue print for the organism

  1. nitrogen bases- adenine, quanine, cytosine, and thymine
  2. shape- double helix
  3. is duplicated through the process replication – where the double strands uncoil

B.     RNA- ribonucleic acid- used to transfer the information or blue print

1. nitrogen base-uracil

C.     Process of producing a new cell (PMAT)

  1. Mitosis- splitting of a cell’s nucleus

a.       Interpahse- a time of cell growth between mitosis cycles

b.      Prophase- chromosomes thicken and become visible

c.       Metaphase- chromosomes pair and line up (meta- middle)

d.      Anaphase-chromosomes separate and produce chromatids

e.       Telophase-a nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes

  1. Cytokinesis- splitting of a cells cytoplasm

 

III. Objective 38

B.23 The student will apply genetic concepts

 

A.     Heredity- the passing of traits from parent to offspring

  1. discovered by Gregor Mendel
  2. Can be predicted using punnett square
  3. Gene- is a DNA segment that controls a singe trait

a.       dominate- will hide other traits- indicated by Capital letters

b.      Recessive- will be hidden by the dominate – indicated by lower case letters

c.       Codominance- when two traits can be seen

  1. Genotype- is the type of genetic makeup  (What letters does it have?)
  2. Phenotype- the expression of the trait ( actual physical characteristics)
  3. Homozygous- if both alleles are the same

a.       Homozygous dominant (TT)

b.      Homozygous recessive (tt)

  1. Heterozygous- when the alleles are mixed

a.       the dominant trait will be expressed (Tt)

8. Examples

 

T

T

 

 

T

T

 

 

T

t

t

Tt

Tt

 

T

TT

TT

 

T

TT

Tt

t

Tt

Tt

 

t

Tt

Tt

 

t

Tt

tt

 

 

IV. Objective 39  GENETIC DISEASES

B.21  The student will relate chemical mutations to genetic diseases.

 

 

A.     Genes consist of  nucleotides

B.     Mutation- a change in one of the base pairs of the DNA

  1. Point mutation- a specific base may be substituted for another
  2. Frame-shift mutation- involves a base that may be lost resulting in a different code.
  3. Mutagens

a.       are factors that cause changes in DNA

b.      common mutagens

source

Example

Radiation

x-rays, ultraviolet light from the sun, nuclear reactors, weapons

Drugs

Thalidominde, LSD, aspestos, saccharine, formaldehyde, mustard gas

Viruses

Rous sarcoma

 

C.     Types of disorders.

  1. Down Syndrome- occurs in 21 chromosome
  2. Turner syndrome- only an X chromosome received.
  3. Klinefelter Syndrome- results from XXY combination
  4. Phenylektonuria (PKU)- lacks an enzyme can cause brain damage
  5. Cystic fibrosis (CF)- pairing of two recessive genes
  6. Dyslexia- reads backward and confuses letters
  7. Huntington’s Disease-loss of muscle control and mental ability
  8. Hemophilia- results from a single gene- persons can’t clot blood.
  9. Color blindness- sex linked trait
  10. Sicklecell anemia- occurred by nitrogen base substitution

D.     Mutations are usually bad- however some are good like plant mutation in order to make it better in a given environment

 

V. Objective 40  Asexual Reproduction

B.13  The student will identify asexual reproduction, its method, and its application to society.

 

 

A.     Asexual reproduction- involves only a single parent organism. it products an exact replica

  1. Budding-occurs when part of the cytoplasm breaks off
  2. Vegetative propagation- when part of the plant is broken off
  3. Spore formation- when fungi or mosses reproduce
  4. Binary fission- involves the direct division of a parent cell into two separate organisms

 

VI. Objective 41  MEIOSIS

B.15 The student will explain sexual reproduction at the cellular level.

 

  1. Sexual Reproduction- involves the combination of genetic material from two parents

1.      Gametes are produced through the process of Meiosis

2.      are fused into one in the fertilization

3.      In MEIOSIS- A diploid parent produces a haploid. The number of chromosomes is decreased by half

4.      In MITOSIS- a diploid parent produces a diploid parent

 

 

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