Cosmos as Meditation: Sufi and ShiÕa Muslim Reflections
on the Spiritual Cosmology
By M.
Salim McCarron (autonomous@mutualaid.org)
Neo-platonic philosophy has
had a lasting and deep affect on Islamic thought, philosophy and mystical
traditions. I will be examining the similarities between the philosophy of
Plotinus and that of the Islamic Isma'ili movement, Sadrian, Shaykhi, and Sufi
movements, and the teachings of the 19th Century Iranian reformist movement of
'Ali-Muhammad Shirazi (al-Bab) and Mirza Husayn-'Ali Nur (Baha'uÕllah)
(hereafter referred to collectively as the Baha`i movement) in detail. For my
study I shall be looking at Plotinus' Eannead No. V and comparing it to the
Hierocosmos of the Isma'ili and teachings on the Divine Presence of Iranian
thought. Specifically examining the concepts of the Oneness of Divinity,
Cosmogenesis, Symbolic Hierocosmos and the Five Divine Presences. My initial
investigation shall be in regards to the Qur'anic or Orthodox understanding of Creation
in it's many modes and a philosophical interpretation of this Creation
archetype. Afterwards shall follow a sketch of the philosophy of the Isma'ili
and Islamic mystical traditions including the writings of Husayn-'Ali Nuri and
Sayyid 'Ali-Muhammad-i Shiraz. I shall be dealing with their particular
understanding of the Islamic creation archetype and how it is applied in their
Cosmology, addressing in particular the role of hierachic symbolic
(hierocosmic) cosmologies in their interpretations.
Via Lingua: As the western
logician, Ludwig Wittgenstein stated: Òall language is the world or how we
define a fact is by truth statementsÓ. For Muslims the propositions of the
world or itÕs facts are related via the Qur`an. The Qur`an gives Muslim life meaning and guidance. It even explains how life came to being
and presents itÕs own creation myth.
For many the cosmos is Text and the Text of the Cosmos is the Qur`an.
We all have the common
speech presented to us by the Qur'an. It is the Word of Divinity
(kalimatullah), the Truth Statement, the Fact. As Kant wrote of ethics that
true ethical beliefs must be universalizable rationally, only language
(classical arabic: al-lisan; modern arabic: al-lugha) can provide that
universal in the Qur'an. After all, for all believers the Book is set clear in
exact similitude (Gr. mimesis) for the last 1400 years.
So to this I posit it is
only knowing the language of the Book, defined as it is before us that can qualify
all other beliefs about it. After all it is the Sunnah of Al-Lah, according to
Muslims. Of course the further question is how do we define the facts of the
truth statement-- the contents of the ayat. I propose that it is actually a
form of self-interpretation (cf. Martin Luther) that the ayats contain their
own meaning within their many explicit statements, excluding the ambiguous
statements, the Qur`an must be understood intertextualy as Jurjani
advocated[1]. That being the case let us examine these self-defined rules,
rules of the universal "din" shared by all Hanafi texts. I propose
three categories for the hermeneutical terms:
A. Those of Discernment or Interpretive Capacity
B. Those referring to the setting of Context
C. Those referring to issues of Relations or Analogy
These
are not questions of history or human developments, these are manifestations of
the text speaking for itself, itÕs own self-contained immutability, no matter
their genre. In much the same way
that the cosmos presents itÕw own laws to emerge out of scientific discovery
the text of a book presents itÕs own rules and meanings. The following is a listing of
interpretive or hermeneutical terms that the Book, the Qur`an,
presents itself about itÕs own interpretation.
CATEGORY
A: Discerning Terms
1. Bayyana (verb form II):
bayyana, a term relating to explication is the clear explication of the words.
It is used in an eschatological context in ayah 16:92. And as resolution to
"Ikhtalaf" in ayah 16:64. It's many "intelligibles" from
the root Ba Ya Nun are:
a. tabayyana (verb)-- to make or become clear, evident. In ayah
8:6 it is used in connection with those who argue against the clear proof of
the Book.
b. bayyinah (feminine noun)-- clear or manifest signs; evidence;
clear proofs. Used in Ayah 16:103 as reference to Arabic as being clear and
manifest.
c. Abana (verb form IV)-- to make things clear. In ayah 75:19
"then Ours it (the Book) is to explain it.
d. Istabana (verb form X)-- to be manifest, clear. In ayah 37:117
"We gave them the Manifesting Book" analogously a "Book of
Judgments".
2. The terms Hkumu, Fasala,
Fassala, and QadaÕ: The Qur'an has several terms for the power of Judgement:
Hkumu, Fasala, QadaÕ.
Hkumu is a verb it is used
in the following ayah with the given context.
1. 2:113= uses the term
"yahkumu" (to judge) in relation to the Day of Resurrection.
2. 2:213= uses scripture
(kitabu) as that which judges between people regarding their differences
(ikhtalaf). [Question: Can we say that this will also happen on the day of
Resurrection, a new scripture revealed as a judgment, only no Prophet will be a
messenger, rather the Manifestation (mujala)of Al-Lah will deliver that
risalah.
3. 4:58= the Prophet is
ordered to judge with justice.
4. 4:105= the Qur'an is the
criterion used as the basis for judgment.
5. 5:44= gives ordainment
to the Prophets to judge by the Book, also the rabbis and priests [note: only
is the Book placed as a communal guide] to also judge by the Book. [note: it is
judgment given to the rabbis and priests (rabbaniyn) not interpretation,
although the relation to the Prophet regarding the different subject matters is
analogous.].
6. 5:95= Establishes that
judgment of a believer on a penalty should be accomplished by two just men
(mu'adliyn) of the community.
7. 5:41-50= lays the
foundations of Islamic 'fiqh' science of jurisprudence. Which shall have to be
dealt with in a longer essay.
QadaÕa (Vb. form I)-- to
decree, to issue a verdict, to determine, to decide; to create; to perform, to
accomplish, to satisfy, to fulfill; (with prep. 'ala) to dispatch, to do
someone in, to terminate, to kill. (active participle) one who decides, who
decrees, who judges. (Passive Participle) that which is determined, decreed.
10:93 (eschatological
context) the Lord will decide between them on the Day of Resurrection. QadaÕ is
used exclusively for Divine Decree, not a human one. QadaÕ is a decision of
Al-Lah, only Al-Lah has the right to decide between the believers. It is
important to note that QadaÕ is not equal to the verb "Awwala" to
interpret. They are actions regarding different functions although both entail
the capacity of decision. Both senses however can be seen in two derivatives of
the root "F.S.L."
Fasala (vb. form I)-- to
set or go forth; to distinguish. Noun Verb-- decision, decisiveness. Active
Participle-- decider (between truth and falsehood). It is most prevalent in an
eschatological context regarding the Day of Decision (Yawm al-Fasl) [cf. Qur'an
37:21] It appears in ayah 38:20 as "appointment of judgment to the office
of Prophethood.
And in ayah 86:13 as the
Qur'an as decisive word.
The second form verb,
Fassala, of the root "F.S.L." means to distinguish, explain
distinctly. It's noun verb means distinguishing, explaining. Passive
participle, well distinguished, distinct. It is related that the ayah of Al-Lah
are well distinguished to the people of knowledge, of understanding (6:98), of
remembrance (6:126),and people who reflect (10:24).
In the form II we see an analogy to the verb
"awwala" (interpretation). In the form I we see an analogy to Hkumu
and Qadaa.
3. The secondary processive
term Awwala: Ta'wil: the interpretation, authority to judge. ta'wil is the noun
verb of the Form II verb of the triliteral root Alif Waw Lam, the Form II verb
'awwala' means interpretation, result, issue. It is related to other
derivatives of the root Alif Waw Lam such as Aal (folk, people and house [cf.
12:6]). In ayah 4:59 it is translated as authority of judgment, it is used in
this sense in ayat 12:53 and 17:35 also. Ta'wil is translated as interpretation
in Ayat 3:7, 10:39, 12:21, 12:36-37, 12:44-45, 12:100-101, 18:78/82.
Category
B: Contextual Terms
1. Wada'a (Verb form I)--
to set down, to set up, to establish. It is used in ayah 21:47 in it's
imperfect form, in ayah 18:49 in it's perfect passive form. Importantly it's
related term Muwaadi (Masculine Noun)-- meaning, context is used in relation to
the practices of previous hermeneuticists, the priests in ayat 4:46, 5:13, and
5:41. Wherein, the priests change the word from their meaning or context, or
physically alter the word.
2. Harrafa (Verb form II)--
to pervert, tamper with (the word). It is used in ayah 2:75 and importantly in
the same ayahs as Muwaadi' (4:46, 5:13, 5:41). 3. Badala (verb form I)-- whose
related terms in all forms generally mean to change or alter what has been
decreed or written. (it is prohibited in the Qur'a'n).
Category
C: Relational Terms
1. 'Adala (verb form I)--
to proportion, to create in symmetry; to be just, to be equitable; to offer an
equivalent. It is used in ayah 82:7 referring to symmetry in creation. In ayah
7:181 as acting with justice-- justice is equity or proportion in the Qur'an.
In ayah 5:8 be equitable in decision. It has a related term of 'Adl (masculine
noun)-- counterpoise, equivalent; justice, equity; (adv.) justly, equitably. It
is used in ayah 49:9 and 4:58 as a counsel to judge with justice or equity. In
ayah 6:115 the Qur'an is recorded to be perfect in it's equity or proportion. A
symmetry of wording with equal to equal.
Additional
Comments: It is my opinion that justice in judgment is the use of 'analogy'
(equivalence) as the means for decision. It is also the way in which the Qur'an
is perfected in 6:115 ( verb. tamma). Thus, the Qur'an is explained in detail
by the equivalencies within it, in it's primary sense, secondary belongs to
ta'wil (interpretation). Related to the concept of 'Adl is that of Mizan
(balance) where we are to measure with balanced weights. In this I find the
archetype for the establishment of the logical rule of universilizability in
discerning.
2.Mathal (masculine noun)--
likeness, similitude, example. It is used repetitively in the Qur'an as an
allegorical comparison. In ayah 39:29 Al-Lah asks us of the similitude of
things compared: "are the two equal in likeness?". Again, the idea of
equitable comparison is seen. And importantly hermeneutically is the ayah 62:5,
"evil is the likeness of the people who have cried lies to Divinity's
signs" also, calling those who cry lies the "likeness of an ass
carrying books."
A related term to this is
Mithl (masculine noun)-- likeness; like, as similar. It is used in a
logical/judicial context as part of an argument by analogy. And interesting
regarding abrogation Al-Lah brings "a better (verse; ayah) or the like of
it"
3. Tashabaha (Verb form
VI)-- to be alike, to resemble one another; to be ambiguous. This is a most
subtle and difficult term to understand for how can a thing be clearly alike
and ambiguous? However, when placing each use of the term in it's context or
meaning we see a clear dual usage of the term. In ayah 3:7 the active
participle meaning "ambiguous" is used-- mutashabihat. However, in
contradistinction to this, in ayah 39:23 we read "Al-Lah nazzala aahasan
al-hadiyth kitabu mutashabihaa muthaaniy taqasha'ira" [Al-Lah has sent
down the best statement, the Book, similar in goodness and truth.] How could it
be ambiguous and yet if it is similar throughout and in clear Arabic,
explicatively, apparently the context qualifies the exact meaning of the term.
"Mutashabahat". Accordingly, in ayah 3:7 it is ambiguous since the
context is negative. In 39:23 it's meaning is similar or perfect semblance since
the context is about the Book which is already established to be clear and
non-contradictory. To say the Book is ambiguous would be to say that it is
contradictory in it's clearness.
Note:
Ayah 39:23 establishes the best Hadith is the Book, not the Sunnah of the
Prophet, it is second best and an explanation in practical terms of the initial
Hadith.
The Symbolic World ('Alam al-Mithal) and the Symbolic Language (lughat al-mithal)
Symbolism described and
popularized in the west by Jung has for a very long time held captive our
imaginations concerning the unseen and it's representation in artistic
expression--poetry, painting, architecture, etc. As is the case in most
sciences and disciplines in the west the art of symbol, whether of the great painters
of the 19th century or the poets of the Metaphysical Movement, has it's origin
in the east. So it is in the study of Symbol that one encounters the voice of
al-Lah in the immanent and present experiential basis in Sufism. It is
interesting that the symbol understood in context in Iran of Sufi origin can be
misunderstood in the west thus, it is important to have an idea of what the
original context of a Sufi symbol carries in the context of the present page of
it's environment or field of relationships. To quote the work of Lewisohn on
this subject:
"(the symbolist) Those who approach Sufi poetry as a statement of archetypal logopoeia, that is to say, as a communication derived from the imaginal [or symbolic] world ('alam-i mithal) or the realm of archetypal meanings ('alam-i ma'na), understanding it as an expression of precise symbolic meanings working systematically at a supraconscious associative level. Although scholars such as Toshihiko Izutsu, S.H. Nasr, and Henry Corbin have examined Persian philosophical doctrines from this point of view , no one has examined Persian metaphysical poetry from this standpoint, even though this is the mode of classical literary criticism1 employed by the Sufis themselves. Considering the importance of symbolic structure and meaning as the main criterion of assessing a poem's ultimate meaning among the Sufis, it seems worthwhile to investigate the underlying philosophical assumptions of this poetic symbolism, the study of which has been neglected by Iranologists East and West alike." (Lewisohn, SH, pg. 154)
As the
title of this study suggests we are concerned with a symbolic representation of
the cosmos or intellectual world of the Islamic world, specifically, the
eastern Islamic world of Iran dominated by ShiÕism. In this world the symbol
becomes a powerful expression to convey information in an allegorical and
metaphorical context. Thus, it is important to be cognizant of the ideas behind
symbolic expression in the cultural context of Iranian mysticism. There are
several literary devices used in Sufism the important element in literary works
of Sufism is the concept of allegorical similitude (mathal). This is initially
derived from the writings within the Qur`an where it is recorded that al-Lah
disdains not to speak in allegories (Surah al-Baqara). In Sufism, the literary
devices are:
1. Ramz-- symbol, it is
said to be the manifestation of divine secrets at the level of the inner
consciousness. The inward meaning of outward utterance.
2. Ima-- an enigmatic
utterance w/o explanation, a gesturing of the inner conscious toward the light.
3. Kenaya-- metaphor,
refers to a name for a thing by a name by which it is not usually known so that
the visionary may perceive it.
4. Ishara-- Allusion,
defined by Rudbari as "Our knowledge is 'allusion', and if it were ever
stated directly, it could not be comprehended". Allusion is that which can
not be expressed directly due to the subtlety to it's meaning.Ó [tr. Nurbakhsh,
ÒIsharaÓ in Nurbakhsh Lexicon]
For most
of the authors examined here the following excerpts from the Sufi tradition
holds true on metaphor (kinaya), allusion (ishara) and symbol (ramz):
Metaphor
(kinaya) and allusion (ishara) are similar to one another. Metaphor is clearer
than allusion inasmuch as it brings news of Divinity to the seekers (taliban)
of the unseen (ghaib) through the tongue of expansion. At times, metaphor
refers to a name for a thing (musama) by a name (ism) by which it is not
usually known (mu'aruf) so that the visionary may perceive (shahid), while the
one who is absent is none the wiser. The gnostic experiences (shahud 'arif)
metaphor through vision at the station (maqam) of mysteries (asrar) and
expansion (anbasit). Metaphor is employed in the Qur=an as in the verse...
(Lahiji [tr. Nurbakhsh, ÔLexiconÕ], MA pg. 164 )
Symbol (ramz) is said to be the manifestation
(zahara) of divine secrets (asrar ilahi) at the level (tawr) of the inner
consciousness (sirr) through the devotions (`ibadat) of the nafs, as well as allusion
(isharat) of the intellect (`aql). ([tr. Nurbakhsh, ÔLexiconÕ], TT, pg. 201)
Symbol (ramz) represents the inward meaning
(ma`ni butun) of outward utterance (kalam zahir) which brings realization
(zafar) only to DivinityÕs adherents (ahl). The true nature (haqa`iqat) of
symbol (ramz) comprises the truths (haqqa) of the unseen (ghayb) in the nuances
(daqa) of knowledge (`ilm), articulated (talifaz) enigmatically (huruf mu`kusi)
by the tongue (lisan) of the inner consciousness (sirr). (Ruzbehan Baqli [tr.
Nurbakhsh, ÔLexiconÕ], SS, pg. 561)
Allegory has been a large
stumbling block to others outside the Sufi tradition in understanding the
symbolic utterance of the Sufis. Perhaps the most important element of Sufi
utterance is that of Shathit, the ecstatic utterance relating the Sufis
perception of reality and identification within the Sufi as being a part of the
object of his experiential contemplation thus unifying object with subject in
an ecstatic moment. This is the basis of the famous utterance by the al-Hallaj:
"I am the Truth (Haqq)". It has been arguably related that this is
not an utterance with a literal truth but is an utterance full of symbolic
meaning relating the Sufis love and intimacy with the object of his contemplation.
It is also seen in Mirza Husayn-'Ali Nuri's writing that "I am He and He
is I" (Anna Huwa wa Huwa anna). One of the greatest Sufi and scholars of
Islam al-Ghazzali writes of the use of symbolic metaphor in Sufism as:
"We mean by metaphor or analogue (mathal) to render meaning (ma'na) into the external form (surah). So if one sees its inner meaning, he finds it true. But if he sees only its external form, he finds it deceiving...The prophets can talk to the people only by means of the metaphors (amthal), since it is necessary to talk to the people in accordance with their intellect. Their intellect is on the sleeper's level. So it is necessary to make use of metaphors to explain to the sleeper...their understanding does not go beyond the apparent meaning, because of their ignorance of the interpretation, called 'metaphorical interpretation' (ta'wil), as the decipherment symbols in dream is called 'the interpretation of dream' (ta'bir)" (GHZ, al-Ghazzali, Ihya, IV, 23-24)
Mystical Discourse through the Symbol:
In Sufism the symbolic is
expressed through a varied ways of expression. No longer do we have the common
literal meaning attached to things. No longer is a light merely a collection of photonic discharges,
but is an expression of divine source or enlightenment, a non-physical
non-literal expression attached to a common literal object but having an
internal vocabulary known to the adept which reveals itself in a code which can
exalt the adept to a higher plane understanding the code attached to the literal
object which is a symbol of the esoteric. Nicholson writes of the Sufi symbolic
style:
"...the Sufis adopt the symbolic style because there is no other way of interpreting mystical experience. So little does knowledge of the infinite revealed in ecstatic vision need an artificial disguise that it cannot be communicated at all except through types and emblems drawn from the sensible world, which, imperfect as they are, may suggest and shadow forth a deeper meaning than appears on the surface." (NCH)
Some
common symbols in Sufism according to Dr. Nurbakhsh, leader of the
Ni`matu`llahi Tariqat, are:
1. Kaa'ba: Symbolizes the
station of Union according to Iraqi. It is a spiritual place not a physical
place for Rumi and Hafiz. For Bakhrazi "the outer form of the divine focal
point of anything is called the Kaa'ba of that thing, as the earthly Kaa'ba is
the house of Al-Lah." There is also the designation of an outer Kaa'ba and
an inner Kaa'ba.
2. Qibla: symbolizes the
focus of attention of the heart. "As soon as I made your face the qibla of
my regard, I turned your way into another Kaa'ba."
3. Ma'ad (the Place of
Return):According to Tahanawi "In conventional usage, the place of return
is an allusion to the hereafter. In sufi terminology, it is said to represent
the universal names of Al-Lah, just as, the place of origin (mabda') represents
the universal existential Names. The wayfarer descends from the universal
existential Names, which are his place of origin, to the universal divine names,
which are hsi place of return."
4. Resurrection (Qiyama):
Yevgeny Bertels relates "Resurrection symbolizes the turning of the
wayfarers heart from the forms of illusory multiplicity to visions of the
theophanies of Majesty at the different levels of manifestation of the divine
beauty. At each level, of manifestation which is directed inwards, a
resurrection takes place and the phenomenal realm is constantly full of these
resurrections."
5. Paradise (Jannat):
Paradise symbolizes the station of theophanies, whether of effects, Acts,
Attributes or the Essence.
6. Light (an-Nur): Sufis
consider light to be symbolic of existence, while darkness is considered
indicative of non-existence.
7. Glory (Baha'): according
to Ruzbihan, "Whenever Al-Lah wishes to adopt someone as his loving
intimate, He shows that person the glory of His Beauty, so that the person
falls in love with everything beautiful. The Prophet said, 'The red rose is
part of Al-Lah's glory. Whoever wishes to contemplate Al-Lah's glory, let him
behold the rose.' The gnostic said: 'The vision of Al-Lah's glory occurs at the
site of intimacy and expansion."
We can see from these
excerpts of Sufi symbols that common objects within Islamic vocabulary no
longer have their orthodox outer (zahiri) understanding but take on a inner
(batini) mystical representation as elements of the path. In the Kaa'ba we have
the symbolic representation of intimacy. And in the Qiyama we no longer have a
day of judgment, but rather, a level of presence and experience of spiritual
insight. It shall be seen later that some other popular symbols are those of
the Jabarut and the Malakut. Each according a symbolic relevance to itÕs realm
of meaning.
The symbolic expression of
the universe or cosmos in these traditions relates to a special system of
inspiration not based on empirical data. Thus we will find a different way of
speaking about the universe. The question of symbolic expression is taken up in the Qur`an as well. The
question of many verses is whether they are apparent (mubayna) or allegorical
(mithali). In many of the following interpretations the universe is seen in an
allegorical light (mathal). It should be kept in mind while reading these
portrayals of cosmic elements that what is intended is a description in
allegorical language of realities experienced in mystical revelation (kashf).
The cosmos, an ancient word
(kosmos) known in Greece as order for others cosmos has a mystical dimension
and among dimensions it has more than the typically thought of three that we
apparently live in. It is a realm full of more than physical contents but also
has spiritual and angelical and mystical aspects as well. This is the type of
cosmos we shall be concerning ourselves with, the symbolic. Important along
with the notion of cosmos is that of cosmogony.
"The word cosmogony is derived from the combination of two Greek terms, kosmos and genesis. Kosmos refers to the order of the universe and/or the universe as an order. Genesis means the coming into being or the process or substantial change in the process, a birth. Cosmogony thus has to do with myths, stories, or theories regarding the birth or creation of the universe as an order or the description of the original order of the universe."(Eliade ed., ER IV, Cosmology)
The
myth of the creation of the cosmos is set apart from the empirical collection
of data regarding the primal beginnings of this young universe used by science.
It should be remembered that the genesis of science was in myth also, as
philosophy grew out of the mythic stories of the world or cosmos around us. The
symbolic representations of the myth should be remembered to be symbols of an
ancient past recorded in the language of our primordial minds.
"In the cosmogenic myth the
symbols give expression to the religious imagination of the creation of the
world. As the prototypical story of founding and creation, the cosmogenic myth
provides a model that is recapitulated in the creation and founding of all other
human modes of existence ( ER IV, "Cosmology")
Of
these mythic representations there are six types: creation from nothing; from
chaos; from a cosmic egg; from world parents; through a process of emergence;
and through the agency of an earth diver. In the following discussion on the
role of the Divine Realm we shall be mostly concerned with the first type;
although, interestingly, there are parts of all six mythic types of cosmogony
in the symbolic representation of creation of the Isma'ili and in the Iranian
cosmogony there is a creation from the Word of al-Lah, which is a something
although entirely different from any something we can imagine. Which draws us
into a necessary discussion of cosmology.
"Cosmology is the term for the study of cosmic views in general and also for the specific view or collection of images concerning the universe held in a religion or cultural tradition. The two fold meaning of the term is reminiscent of the double meaning of mythology, which is at the same time the study of myths and the dominant or representative assemblage of myths in a given tradition. However, the double usage of the term cosmology is still wider in one respect: quite explicitly, it relates also to inquiries in the natural sciences."(Eliade ed., ER IV, Cosmology)
In one sense the images we
have of the universe is our cosmology like signs of an invisible language they
form a sort of formula for the theory we hold of how the universe is and how it
came to be that is that it is. This image is a sort of world view or
Weltanschauung, as Kant defined it-- an image of the world, it can also be an
ideology. So what we are concerned with is an image, or theory, of the cosmos
how it was created and how it exists and how, indeed, it will ever,
philosophically, get back to its origin. For are study we shall be mainly
concerned with the type of cosmology that is usually harbingers by the
"Divine Male Fashioner" or Demiurge[2] (in our study it shall be
scene that the fashioner of the world is Third One or the Adamic Logos, in
Greek mythos Zeus).
This typology is common
amongst the monotheistic religions, ie. Zoroastrianism, Christianity, Judaism
and Islam, along with the sky as the seat of transcendence. This heavenly
transcendence is set against the fixation of the earth, another didactic
relationship is that between good and evil. In our case the good of heavenly or
idealic transcendental state and the evil state of matter in earthly existence.
A common characteristic in the cosmological myths of the differing religious
traditions is that of "the renewal of the world" celebrated in the
Solar New Year (Naw Ruz), which was common in the Mesopotamian Empire. Some
common characteristics found by Douglas A. Knight in his study of the middle
east are deserving of attention:
1. "the cosmos is viewed as a closed,
three-storied whole, all parts of which are under the control of divinity,
either polytheistically or monotheistically conceived."
2. "The cosmos and humanity did not come
into existence by chance or without intention, for some creator Divinity is
directly responsible for its existence."
3. "There is virtually no sense of creatio
ex nihilo. Something exists prior to the creation act--whether it be the
elements of chaos in Babylon, or the waters of Nun frpm which the Egyptian
creator-Divinity Atum emerged, or 'the face of tehom' in Genesis 1, or the dry
land in Genesis 2."
4. "...the creation act is not limited to
bringing the physical world into existence. Rather, above all it establishes
the proper order of things in this world."
" the underlying theological pattern of the
various creation accounts is the sovereignty of the Gods, and usually also the
identification of the creator or 'high God' with the one who ultimately
maintains and judges the world." (Knight, COHT, pg. 138-140)
We may also think of
the teachings of concerning many births and rebirths in Hinduism, Jainism, and
Buddhism; they fit in traditions that speak of world cycles (cf. also,
Isma'ili, Baha`i, Druze, 'Irfani etc.), succession of worlds, and multiple
worlds. Finally, the intimate relationship of the macrocosm and the microcosm,
which is widely attested, is a striking formal link between various views of
the cosmos."( Eliade ed., ER IV, pg. 104, Cosmology)
Another common cosmological
view is that in the field of cosmic law. "The term cosmic law designates
the principle or set of principles believed to represent the most generalized
nature of the order of things in the universe." (ER IV, Cosmic Law) For
our concerns this principle is that of the Logos or the theophany of the divine
in the physical realm, the manifestation of the spiritual in the material.
"Examples of the concept of cosmic law include the following: 'rta' and,
later, 'dharma' in Indian tradition[3]; 'dharma' (Pali, 'dhamma') in
Buddhism[4]; 'tao' or 't'ien-ming' in Confucianism and Taoism[5]; 'maat' in
ancient Egyptian religion; 'moira', 'dike', 'logos', or 'heimarmene' in the
Greco-Roman tradition[6]; haqq, qismah, shari'ah, fitrah, or khalq in
Islam[7]" (Eliade ed., ER IV, Cosmic Law) and according to Francis
Cornford the Persian or Zoroastrian equivalent is 'asha'. And in the Judaic
tradition this is 'hokma' or wisdom and in the Christian tradition this is the
Logos of the Gospel of John (cf. F. Cornford, From Religion to Philosophy). And
in the Monotheistic traditions of the Middle East we have the notion of al-Lah
as the Author of such principles which govern the order of the physical cosmos.
What is the nature and configuration of the governing principles this is the
topic of the Divine. Which brings us to the Qur'anic, Plotinian, Isma'ili,
`Irfani and Baha'i intellectual and meta-physical worlds.
NOTES:
1 The classical literary criticism developed by al-Jurjani is what
is referenced here. See his Ta'rifat for an elaboration on Sufi terminology.
2 "Demiurge" is defined in the Encyclopedia of Religion
as the Greek term 'demiourgos' (together with its variants) is derived from the
words 'demos' (people) and 'ergon' (work) and thus has the basic meaning of
'one who works for the people,' an artisan or a professional. This etymological
basis subsequently developed in two directions. On the one hand, 'demiourgos'
came to refer to a magistrate; on the other hand, it became a name of the
original creator of the world, in the specific sense of an ordainer or
arranger, someone who as an artist fashions the world out of pre-existing
matter in accord with a preesixting model. It is this second meaning that is of
primary concern here. The verb for making is demiourgeo.
3 "Hindus developed a concept of cosmic law during the
earliest stage of their religious history and the idea has served as the
central basis for the development of the entire tradition up to the present
day.Two terms have usually been used to refer to cosmic law, namely 'rta' and
'dharma'. In the Vedic literature 'rta' designates cosmic order, the law
governing the natural world, or simply the course of things. Derivative uses
include such related meanings as established order or divine law; reality or
truth; what is fitting, proper, or right; or, by extension, righteousness.
'Dharma', the post-Vedic term that supplanted 'rta', is derived from 'dha' (to
establish, create, or support). Hence the term refers to what is established
and firm, with regard to both the natural order and the socio-moral order (i.e.
law, ordinance, customary observances, duty, right, justice, or virtue). When
interpreted as referring to the general principle of human behaviour, the term
is a virtual equivalent of 'religion'. ("Cosmic Law" in ER )
4 "...dharma is nothing more or less thatn reality reflected
in the Buddha Dharma. As a philosophical or metaphysical term, dharma is used
in singular form to refer to ultimate, eternal, and unconditioned reality and
in the plural form to designate the plethora of subtle factors or conditions
that constitute finite things and states of being. Hence there is nothing
within the universe or beyond that is not embraced by this term. The word
includes all aspects of reality: eternal and temporal, infinite and finite,
conditioned and unconditioned, good and evil. As the appellation for the whole
of reality, dharma is manifestyed in the dharmas, or fundamental constituents
of the universe." ("Cosmic Law" in ER)
5 "...Confucious employed 'tao' in two ways, quite similar to
the use of 'dharmas' by the Buddhists. As a single and singular universal law,
the Tao governs the production and transformation of all things. Its
generational activities are articulated succinclty in the aphorism 'One yand
and one yin, this is the Tao'. In it's pluralistic and multifaceted
manifestation, the Tao is a myriad of 'tao' principles that determine the
definitive essences of various classes of objects--that is, thw wetness of wet
things, the finitude of finiet things, thw sovereignty of sovereigns, ans so
forth. The concept is somewhat similar in function to Plato's use of ther ideas
and varius other Western thinker's notions of universals." ("Cosmic
Law" in ER )
6 "Confusion reigned in ancient Greece as to the precise
identity of the root cause of all events of whatever nature. Among the numerous
candidates for this office were fate (moira), destiny (heimarmene), natural law
(dike), a cosmic source of all existing entities (phusis), chance or universal randomness
(tuche), the decrees of heaven or the Divinitys, universal reason (logos), the
wandering stars, the four elements in varying combinations, or, finally, the
decisions of the individual which set events moving in a given direction with
ineluctable determination." ("Cosmic Law" in ER ) Hesoid, the
early Greek mythographer, laid the foundation for the use of 'dike' and
'heimarmene' and it was from early myth that the later philosophical concepts
developed.
7 Cyril Glasse defines 'fitrah' as (lit. primordial nature). The
primordial norm; a harmony between man, creation and Divinity, such as existed
beteen Divinity and Adam in the Garden. Islam sees itself as the restoration of
the religion Abraham, which itself is a re-consecration and a prolongation of
the religion of Adam as primordial man after his fall, and reconciliation with
Divinity. The concept of 'fitrah', the primordial norm, is at once the measure
of truth in our actions and being, and at the same time the quality of harmony
between ourselves and cosmos. It corresponds exactly to the Hindu notion of
universal 'dharma', or to the Chinese 'Tao".
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