Proto-Drem phrases, clauses and sentences:

Proto-Drem phrases, clauses and sentences:

Phrases are not as important to Proto-Drem due to the somewhat free word order. Another advantage is that there is no word class of ‘adjectives’ and ‘adverbs’, normal nouns and verbs can be changed to those. So phrase structure will be short and concise. Clauses will be also the same way, since syntax is somewhat free in Proto-Drem. And lastly will be the sentence structure overall. And that will be divided into two sections, simple sentences, and complex sentences.

Proto-Drem Phrases:

Verb Phrases in Proto-Drem:

The verb is the head of a phrase in a verb phrase, as shown above in the verb-object subject style sentence that Proto-Drem has. This makes a difference though in the placement of auxiliaries. Here Proto-Drem puts them in from of the verb AUX VERB+MAIN VERB so that the main verb is connected to the object like stated above. The structure of Verb phrases do not change no matter if the Verb follows the Subject or it is at the front of a sentence.

Note in the fourth example, the use of the manner adverb shows a question affix, which normally is after the phrase, and so this style is considered an exception rather than the ‘correct’ way of using a question affix.

Normal styles:

VERB+OBJECT NP:

XXX

(ImdPst)+To cry+1PS

I cried

AUX VERB+VERB:

XXX
AUX+To read
would like to read

NEGATION + VERB:

XXX
NEG+to be full
not full

Exception styles:

Note, that this style, though correct for auxiliary verbs, is still considered an exception to the normal rules, since the word ‘how’ is a question affix, and is always (like all other question particles) is placed at the end. Here though, for the use as an auxiliary verb, it is placed before the verb. So care must be taken to

Manner ADV Phrase + VERB:

XXX
QA+to hunt
How hunt?

Prepositional Phrases in Proto-Drem (NOUN/VERB):

No matter if active or passive structure, the Prepositional phrase for a Subject/Object always is after the noun. The Preposition also precedes the Verb due to the verb being glued to the Object. Note that most PP’s in Proto-Drem is normally a physical locative, but working with a verb, it does its duty as a PP.

NP+Preposition:

XXX
spear+LOC
by the spear

Preposition + VERB:

XXX
PP+to agree
close to agree(ing)

Attributive verb Phrases in Proto-Drem:

Attributive verb phrases in Proto-Drem are fairly straightforward items. Since these play a dual duty as adjective and verb, the attributive verb in essence can be both noun and verb. Most of these examples will show their ‘complement’ to the right of the attributive verb. The second example below will be used for comparatives and superlatives. The intensifiers, which deal with emotions act the same way in that the suffix goes to the right of the attributive verb

ATTV+Degree:

XXX

bright+DEG
very bright

ATTV+COMP:

XXX
stick+brown+COMP
bigger brown stick

ATTV+SUPER:

XXX
stick+brown+SUPER
biggest brown stick

Intensifier:

Intensifiers are a bit different, in that they all go to the right of the adjective. So when one looks at how the intensifier locks the other above affixes into different positions must make one careful how one uses these particles. The main issue with intensifiers is that the use is restricted to emotions and to show positive of negative ones emotions are, and so the intensifiers are very subjective and definitely depend on ones frame of mind. Note that the wide range of emotions only uses the ‘base root’ emotion and the intensification suffix.

ATTV+Intensifier

XXX
1P+Emotion+INT

I’m annoyed

ATTV+Intensifier+Comp/Super

XXX
1P+Emotion+INT+COMP
I’m even angrier

ATTV+Intensifier+DEG

XXX
1P+Emotion+INT+DEG
I’m somewhat upbeat

Noun Phrases in Proto-Drem (SVO – active voice):

Noun Phrases for the subject:

Noun phrases, those showing the subject before a verb are common in Proto-Drem. The SVO Typology of the language is seen by nearly 35% to 40% of all languages, so it quite common. The phrase types below though few, are those seen when the subject is first. The root is seen quite commonly at the ‘back’ with the phrases and relative clauses at the front. Some conjecture that the Subject root once connected to the Verb at one time, but with the verb attached to the Object, it is hard to tell, if there was a similar attachment between Subject and Verb.

Relative clause + NP:

XXX
If+3P+go, 3P+go+now
If we go, we go now!

Possession + NP + NOUN:

XXX
POSS+Black+spear
My black spear

Attributive verb Phrase + NOUN:

XXX
Black+spear
black spear

Genitive Phrase + NOUN:

XXX
shame+of+spirit
(the) spirits’ shame

Demonstrative + NOUN:

XXX
DEMO+spear
that spear

Noun Phrases for the object:

For those sentences and phrases when the verb is first present a small issue with how a noun phrase works. Here the nouns are always at the head of the object since the root is constantly attached to the verb root. And so all phrases, relative clauses, everything is after the object root.

NOUN + Attributive verb Phrase:

XXX
fall+easy
(an) easy fall

NP + Relative clause:

XXX
XXX
XXX

NOUN + Possession + NP

XXX
Heart+POSS+spirit
My spirits heart * probably spoken by a shaman since they deal with spirits on a daily basis.

NOUN + Genitive Phrase:

XXX
person+kill+of
(the) persons kill

NOUN + Demonstrative:

XXX

Tree+DEMO
this tree

Noun Phrases in Proto-Drem (VOS – Passive voice):

Noun Phrases for the subject:

These Noun phrases are opposite in ways to those up above. The Subject is now ‘Right-dislocated’ and now follows the Object leaving the Verb at Head-Initial spot, another term for being at the front of the sentence. The Subject Phrases are exactly alike from those above, since the Subject root keeps to the back of their phrases. These phrases are of ‘standard types’ for head-final phrases.

Relative clause + NP:

XXX
XXX
XXX

Possession + NP + NOUN:

XXX
POSS+Black+spear
My black spear

Adjective Phrase + NOUN:

XXX
Black+spear
black spear

Genitive Phrase + NOUN:

XXX
shame+of+spirit
(the) spirits’ shame

Demonstrative + NOUN:

XXX
DEMO+spear
that spear

Noun Phrases for the object:

The noun phrases for the Object do not change since the Object root is glued to the Verb root at all times. The phrasing structure is what is fully expected of a head-initial phrase, those with a verb at the head of a sentence.

NOUN + Adjectival Phrase:

XXX
fall+easy
(an) easy fall

NP + Relative clause:

XXX
XXX
XXX

NOUN + Possession + NP

XXX
Heart+POSS+spirit
My spirits heart * probably spoken by a shaman since they deal with spirits on a daily basis.

NOUN + Genitive Phrase:

XXX
person+kill+of
(the) persons kill

NOUN + Demonstrative:

XXX

Tree+DEMO
this tree

Proto-Drem Clauses:

CLAUSE STRUCTURE (SVO)

ADJUNCT1+SUBJECT

MODAL+PASSIVE+ADVERB+NEGATION+MAIN VERB(PREDICATE)

OBJECT+ADJUNCT2

ADJUNCT1 Prepositional Phrases separated from a comma from the rest of the clause.

SUBJECT the Subject of the Clause

MODAL Modal verbs and auxiliary verbs will be found here.

ADVERB Any verbs used as adverbs are seen here, and Adverb phrases as well.

NEGATION The negative (not, no, etc.) seen preceding the verb

PREDICATE The main verb of the clause

OBJECT The Object of the clause

ADJUNCT2 Any bits to follow the Object, usually postpositional phrases and other stuff.

CLAUSE STRUCTURE (VOS)

ADVERB+PASSIVE+MODAL+NEGATION+MAIN VERB(PREDICATE)

OBJECT+ADJUNCT2

SUBJECT+ADJUNCT1

ADJUNCT1 Postpositional Phrases separated from a comma from the rest of the clause.

SUBJECT the Subject of the Clause

MODAL Modal verbs and auxiliary verbs will be found here.

ADVERB Any verbs used as adverbs are seen here, and Adverb phrases as well.

NEGATION The negative (not, no, etc.) seen preceding the verb

PREDICATE The main verb of the clause

OBJECT The Object of the clause

ADJUNCT2 Any bits to follow the Object, usually postpositional phrases and other stuff.

Word order and topicalization:

SUBJECT + VERB + OBJECT

XXX

I love you

SUBJECT NOUN + PRONOUN

XXX

XXX
XXX

If the context is clear, the Subject, direct object and even indirect object can be left off, giving us an example with a string of 4 verbs

XXX

Must-hurry-go-buy-give

I must rush off and buy some for her.

Another common sight is putting the topic at the head of a sentence, as the topic is what the sentence is ‘about’.

XXX

Food-which-remains-1PP-eat-tomorrow

We’ll eat the food that is left over tomorrow

XXX

Spirit+CL19+(I)+think-that+is+Alorian.

I think that spirit is Alorian

At the beginning of a topic sentence, XXX (as for), XXX (about, concerning), which at the end of the sentence XXX is seen to show the end. The verb of the following clause is introduced by XXX (so, therefore, well, then…)

XXX

As-for+food+eat+with+hut+well, then+acceptable

As for the food and hut, it was alright.

Simple Verb Clauses in Proto-Drem:

In Proto-Drem, simple verb clauses are normally used as there is very little extra information needed to ‘clutter up’ the main idea wanting to convey. Clauses contain at most one verb and otherwise contain only noun phrases, prepositional phrases, and adjuncts such as adverbs.

Basic Constituent Order

Proto-Drem is generally a strict SVO language. Verbal sentences are those with the order Subject + Verb + Direct Object + other complements in that order, although due to transitivity needs, a Verb + Subject scenario is also seen.

SVO - transitive

XXX
2P+go+to+work
I went to work

VS - Intransitive

XXX

work+1P

I worked

VOS – Eastern Forest dialect

XXX
go+to+work+2P
I went to work

The positioning of subject and direct object with respect to the verb is invariable, almost nothing can intervene between the verb and object, while the subject generally ‘floats’ at the beginning of the sentence. Note that in the Eastern Forest dialect, their basic order is VOS as now the subject is last in the sentence.

Constituent Function Marking

The function of the “main parts” in a verb clause is seen in three ways. First is position due to their respective roles. Next is due to a preposition, no matter if it’s caused by an affix like a CNVA or locative. Lastly is the general meaning of the part, especially with the multiple use conjunction ‘gbe’.

Subjects:

In most dialects and in standard Proto-Drem, the first thing found in a noun phrase is the grammatical subject. Subjects have affixes, both prefixes and suffixes to add detail to the meaning, though most are prefixes. Yet, the subject will not be found after the verb unless the sentence is intransitive. With tone, the subject will only affect the tone of its affixes since it’s not connected to the verb-object complex and is independent of their interaction.

XXX
rabbit
(the/a) rabbit

Direct objects:

Immediately found after the verb lays the direct object (DO). The DO has suffixes since the object root is glued to the verb, and so the object wants absolutely nothing to interfere between it and the verb. For tone, there is lots of interaction due to the verb, with a lot of automatic downshifting of tones, and other processes due to consonant mutation and vowel harmony.

XXX
water
(the/a) water

Indirect objects:

Indirect objects (IDO) can be a full noun, or even just a postposition onto the object, yet, the key is that the IDO is always after the DO. The IDO usually has just suffixes just like the object. For tones, there is some influence on the DO, yet not as much as the verb-object complex.

XXX
LOC
(to the) right

Subjective and objective complements:

These are affixes on the Subject and DO. These affixes always follow the same general rules that affix play, subjects have prefixes and the DO has suffixes. As far as tone changes, these indeed do play a part with their partner.

XXX

SubCom

look

Gbe:

Gbe is a conjunction and is seen nearly in every sentence as a simple ‘and’ with various shades of that meaning. In verbal clauses, gbe shows a different side, as meaning ‘along with’ or ‘together with’. Note that gbe is nearly always an independent conjunction, yet here is an affix, which can throw some people off. So care must be taken with context. The usage of gbe works like comitative case in several Baltic languages.

XXX
CONJ
and

Nj’ə.

Nj’ə is a simple adverb meaning ‘by’, yet in clausal situations, it takes on a ‘by means of’ meaning and works pretty closely to an instrumental case. Since the affix has a schwa, it has a ‘hard set’ Lo tone, which means that the Lo tone cannot change. For tone changes, this affix can easily cause automatic downshift with things around it.

Downstep

XXX
by+eat+CNVA
by eating …

No Downstep

XXX
by+old
by being old …

Locatives:

In Proto-Drem, there are four locatives that are used in verb clauses. Each locative uses its own general meaning, sometimes, ‘changed a bit’ from it’s standard meaning. The first locative style is known as ‘goal’. It is seen generally as ‘here’. The only thing special about this is that the locative follows the verb directly and is ‘raised’ to a grammatical object. The second is a stationary locative, seen as -nja, which has a meaning of ‘inside, in, within, amidst’. The third style shows motion and is not really a locative at all; it is an adverb with the meaning of ‘via. By way of’, the adverb used is –nj’ə. To show the extent of motion, -guwa is used in these cases to mean ‘until, as far as’, even though it shows a bit of this with the meaning ‘to some extent’.

ru:

XXX
2P+LOC
You are here.

-nja:

XXX
go+LOC
Go inside

-nj’ə:

XXX
canoe+LOC
by way of canoe …

-guwa:

XXX
river+LOC
as far as the river…

Manner adverbs:

There are a large number of manner adverbs, some of which are verb roots with a CNVA affix to turn them into adverbs. In either case, the manner adverb must follow the DO. As far as order after the DO, the case is left unsettled as there is freedom in placement generally.

XXX
rabbit+quickly+eat+day
The rabbit ate quickly today

Temporal adverbs:

There are many temporal adverbs that Proto-Drem can use in these clauses. These adverbs can also be attached to locatives such as ‘at’, ‘until’ and ‘since’. Note that in a simple verb clause, a temporal adverb is the last item in that clause. The reason why these adverbs are placed last is that they are considered ‘outside’ of the verb clauses main idea. Sometimes this causes confusion as the word is the main idea, yet with the syntax, it must be placed at the end.

XXX
rabbit+quickly+eat+day+TIMEAFF
while the rabbit ate quickly today, …

Multiple Noun Phrases:

Proto-Drem is typical in languages where a sentence with many noun phrases sounds awkward and difficult, yet useable.

XXX
XXX
XXX

Order examples:

For the examples below, we will have a standard SVO sentence as the base. The examples will all be based on generalized word order pairings seen after the DO. (IO = indirect object, Nj’ə = ‘by means of’, Loc = locative phrase, Man = manner adverb, Gbe = ‘with’, Tim = temporal adverb):

Indirect Object

IO & nj’ə:

XXX
canoe+by means of
by means of the canoe …

IO & Loc:

XXX
canoe+LOC
the canoe (being) here,

IO & Man:

XXX
canoe+quickly
(the/a) canoe quickly …

IO & gbe:

XXX
canoe+GBE
with the canoe

Locatives

Loc & nj’ə:

XXX
LOC+by means of
(bring it) here, by means of …

Loc & Man:

XXX
LOC+quickly
(bring it) here quickly

Loc & gbe:

XXX
LOC+GBE
(bring it) here with …

Using Nj’ə-

Nj’ə & Man:

XXX
by means of+fast
(bring it) by means of (a/the) fast …

Nj’ə & Gbe:

XXX
by means of+GBE
(bring it) by means of X with …

Manner Adverb

Man & Gbe:

XXX
quickly+GBE
(bring it) quickly with …

Temporal:

Tim & Nj’ə:

XXX
TIMEAFF+by means of
(bring it) by means of X while …

Tim & Man:

XXX
TIMEAFF+quickly
(bring it) quickly while ...

Tim & Gbe:

XXX
TIMEAFF+GBE
(bring it) with X while …

Post-verb affixes in Intransitive sentences:

In Proto-Drem, there are two things which follow the verb directly in an intransitive sentence. The two items are a locative goal, which was seen above, and the second is a subject complement. Note that if both are found, only the locative goal is seen post-verb, then would come the subject and then the subject complement. Once again, the locative goal is one of the very few times anything gets in between the verb and objects in a transitive sentence or between a verb and subject in an intransitive sentence.

Locative goal:

XXX
bring+LOC
bring (it) here.

Subjective complement: - Post subject

XXX
2P+SubCom+so good
you look so good (a general pick up line used by women)

XXX
2P+SubCom+arrogant
You look arrogant.

Negation and Word Order

Negation is easily seen in all simple verb clauses, for the marker na- is always sentence initial. If the sentence has a positive and a negative usage, then the thing being negated will have a negative marker attached to it, instead of the negative being sentence initial.

DO:

XXX
NEG+box
not (the/a) box

IO:

XXX
NEG+box
not (the/a) box

Nj’ə:

XXX
NEG+by means of
not by means of …

Loc (goal):

XXX
NEG+LOC
not here

Loc (stat):

XXX
NEG+LOC
not inside

Man:

XXX
NEG+quickly
not quickly

gbe:

XXX
NEG+GBE
not with

Miscellaneous Verb Clauses in Proto-Drem:

Subordinate clauses:

CONJUNCTION + SUBORDINATE CLAUSE + CONJUNCTION + MAIN CLAUSE

XXX if…then…

XXX the fact that…so…

XXX although…but…

XXX apart from that…still…

XXX no sooner… than…

Conditional clause ‘if’:

XXX + VERB (if+verb+then)

XXX

If+rain+then…

If it rains, then…

The ‘Reason Clauses’:

These can be used with two patterns. The first is XXX (The fact that…is because…), one can see the consequence is shown first, and the cause is last.

XXX
the fact that+not+go is because+cowardly

The fact that he didn’t go is because he is a coward.

The second way is XXX (the fact/because….so….) where here the cause is up front and the consequence is last.

XXX
The fact that+eat so+not+taste+good

The fact that he ate doesn’t mean it tasted good.

The third way XXX (Owing/due to…) runs a similar way. One also sees a more formal style in XXX (Owing to the fact….)

XXX
Due to+news+not

Because there is no news…

Concessive Clauses ‘Although’:

These clauses concede a point or admit a fact. They begin with XXX (although). The main clause counters the fact, and frequently begins with XXX (but)

Another way to do concessive clauses is with XXX (regardless, no matter…) + VERB + QUESTION WORD; the main clause in then introduced by XXX (but)

XXX
No matter+how many+tell+2PS but+not+listen+2PS

No matter how many times you tell him, (but) he won’t listen.

Purpose clauses ‘In order to’:

XXX (in order to…)

Ŋi Ŋuuŋkaambala
1PS in-order-to+help+friend

I did that in order to help a friend.

Additive clauses ‘apart from’:

XXX (apart from)…XXX (still)….XXX (too)

XXX
apart-from+DEMOPRO many+thing

Apart from that, there are many reasons.

Time clauses:

XXX No sooner…than…

XXX when (past)

XXX when…

XXX after…

XXX before…

XXX while…

XXX
TIME+1PS eat+TIME feel+full

No sooner do I (start to) eat than I feel full.

Direct and Indirect Speech:

Both ways are introduced by nag. When pronouns are dropped in a second clause, direct and indirect speech becomes the same. D’am plays the role of an inverted comma in direct speech, and ‘that’ in indirect speech.

XXX
DS+2PS tell+IC+NEG+go

He said that he’s not going.

XXX
IS+2PS tell+IC+NEG+go

He said ‘I’m not going’.

Imperatives:

Most times a simple verb or verb phrase is enough for an imperative. But they usually are softened by -mbè or -zí is the more insistent of the two, as both are considered commands. Notice how both are mood suffixes, yet due to the imperative nature of the two, they fit perfectly here.

XXX
Look+MA

Look!

XXX
close+door+MA

Shut the door, please!

Commands are expressed as

VERB PHRASE + REDUPLICATED ADVERB

XXX
speak+good+MA

Speak nicely!

VERB + ADVERB

XXX

Arrange+thing+good+CNVA+MA

Arrange things tidily!

First Person Imperatives:

These can be seen as (let’s….) and seen as VERB PHRASE + -mbè

XXX
go+eat+MA

Let’s go and eat!

Exemplification:

These have a ‘wrap around feel’ with XXX (for example,)

XXX

Example 2P+person

For example, He/She (is a) person

Another is XXX (to raise) XXX (example)

XXX

Raise+2PS+example

Let me give you an example

Simple non-verb clauses in Proto-Drem:

This chapter describes structures of declarative clauses whose predication does not contain a verb. Bole has several categories of such clauses: equational sentences, identification sentences, and sentences with adjectival predicates, locative sentences, existential sentences, presentative sentences, and “have” sentences.

Equational sentences

Affirmative equational statements:

Equational sentences simply juxtapose the subject and the predicate.

XXX

1P+person

I (am a) person

He/She:

XXX

2P+person

He/She (is a) person

It:

XXX

3P+person

It’s a person

You

XXX

2P+person

You (are a) person

We:

XXX

2PP+person

We (are) people

They:

XXX

3PP+person

They (are) people

Negative equational statements.

Negative equational sentences simply add the general negative marker na- to the front of the sentence. Note on the 2P pronouns, where the a- from na- would create a diphthong with the pronoun, in these case, there is a break between the two, leaving na- as an independent root instead of as an affix.

XXX

NEG+1P+person

I (am) not a person

He/She:

XXX

NEG 2P+person

He/She (is) not a person

It:

XXX

NEG+3P+person

It’s not a person

You

XXX

NEG 2P+person

You (are) not a person

XXX

NEG+2PP+person

We (are) not people

They:

XXX

NEG+3PP+person

They (are) not people

Equational questions and answers:

STUFF…………………..

Questioning and answering the subject of equational sentences:

Questioning

Like all questions in Proto-Drem, the question suffix comes at the end of the sentence, and thus the answer can be a short direct answer or a full sentence. In sentences with questions, it is not demanded that the suffix be put on, but for clarity, the suffix is added to let the listener know that a question was just asked. Thus an example in English would be ‘Who is the shaman’? Proto-Drem uses context, other words or affixes such as the ru- particle to convey in a vague sense the is/am/are meanings. In Proto-Drem, one wants to make clear what is being asked. A sentence might be literally like ‘The Shaman is who?’, while in English we’d ask ‘Who is the shaman?’, the subject is still clear, yet in Proto-Drem, the suffix is reversed and for some can be considered strange.

XXX
Yes Tree+QUAFF
where is the yew tree?

Answering

A possible way to answer an equational sentence with a questioned subject is simply to state the word that answers the question

XXX
Yew Tree+LOC
The yew tree is over there.

Questioning and Answering the predicate of equational sentences:

it is possible to answer simply with the identifying word (see more below on identification sentences). Where the answer contains both subject and predicate, the answer takes the normal Subject-Predicate order of equational sentences. It is possible to add jì after the predicate in such responses.

Questioning:

Once again, the question suffix is at the end, therefore the structure is Subject+QUAFF.

XXX
water+QUAFF
Is that water?

Answering:

In question sentences, the answers sometimes want to emphasize the answer. Therefore, the ru- affix which is technically used for physical locations, but it is rarely used to emphasize something, in these cases the subject that was asked about.

XXX
LOC+water
(that) is water.

Identification sentences

Proto-Drem can say statements that some would consider too simple or strange. Statements like ‘it’s a knife’ or ’it’s a bear’ using just the subject, or even ‘it’s me’ using just an independent pronoun are all considered grammatical. Note that these are usually a short answer to a question and it is considered colloquial, and the shortened forms are not used in formal speech.

Subject only

XXX
rabbit
it’s a rabbit

Pronoun only

XXX
1P
It’s me

Adjectival predicates

Affirmative adjectival statements:

Like equational sentences, sentences with adjectival predicates simply …

XXX

1P+person

I (am) kind

He/She:

XXX

2P+person

He/She (is) kind

It:

XXX

3P+kind

Its kind

You

XXX

2P+kind

You (are) kind

XXX

2PP+kind

We (are both) kind

They:

XXX

3PP+kind

They (are) kind

Negative adjectival statements:

Negative adjectival predicates simply add the general negative marker nà- to the front of the sentence.

XXX

NEG+1P+person

I (am) not kind

He/She:

XXX

NEG 2P+person

He/She (is) not kind

It:

XXX

NEG+3P+kind

It’s not kind

You

XXX

NEG 2P+kind

You (are) not kind

We:

XXX

NEG+2PP+kind

We (are all) not kind

They:

XXX

NEG+3PP+kind

They (are) not kind

Questions and answers in adjectival sentences

Questioning the subject of adjectival sentences:

Questioning the subject of an adjectival sentence uses …

Affirmative

XXX
day+QUAFF+cloudy

How is this day cloudy?

Negative

XXX
NEG+day+QUAFF+cloudy

How is this day not cloudy?

Questioning the predicate of adjectival sentences:

One can question the predicate using -fòzə ‘how?’

Affirmative

XXX
day+cloudy+QUAFF

How is the day cloudy?

Negative

XXX
NEG+day+cloudy+QUAFF

How is the day not cloudy?

Degrees/Intensifier Sentences:

Intensifying adverbs and ideophones may accompany adjectives in adjectival predicates.

Affirmative

XXX
day+cloudy+DEG

The day (is) very cloudy

Negative

XXX
day+cloudy+DEG

The day (is) not very cloudy

Number clauses

Sentences with number predicates differ from the other types only in that they do not take pronominal subjects.

Affirmative

In Proto-Drem, name sentence structure of LOC+subject+NUMBER and the general translation would be ‘There are (number) X’

XXX
LOC+flounder+NUM
There are 5 flounder

Negative

In Proto-Drem, name sentence structure of NEG+subject+NUMBER and the general translation would be ‘There isn’t (number) X’

XXX
NEG+LOC+flounder+NUM
There aren’t 5 flounder

Questioning

In Proto-Drem, this sentence structure would be

XXX
LOC+flounder+NUM+QUAFF
are there 5 flounder?

Name clauses

Affirmative

In Proto-Drem, name sentence structure of subject+NAME and the general translation would be ‘I am named …’

XXX
1P+NAME
I am named Yellow cloudberry

Negative

In Proto-Drem, name sentence structure of NEG+subject+NAME and the general translation would be ‘My name is not …’

XXX
NEG+1P+NAME
I am not named Yellow cloudberry

Questioning

In Proto-Drem, this sentence structure would be PPro+NAME+ŋg’a and a translation would be seen as, “What do they say your name is?”.

XXX
2P+NAME+QUAFF
What (is your) name?

Locative clauses

Locative affirmative statements:

STUFF…

Animates:

XXX
Crayfish+LOC
The crayfish (is in) the middle

Inanimate:

XXX

Piece+LOC

The piece (is) in the middle

Negative locative statements:

Negative locative sentences simply add the general negative marker na- to the front of the sentence.

Animates:

XXX
NEG+Crayfish+LOC
The crayfish (is) not in the middle

Inanimate:

XXX
NEG+piece+LOC
The piece (is) not in the middle

Questions and answers in locative sentences

Questioning the subject of locative sentences:

Locative sentences with questioned subject are used with two general styles:

Standard style:

Subject + LOC + QUAFF

XXX
Crayfish+LOC+QUAFF
(Is) the crayfish (in) the middle?

Eastern Forest dialect styles:

LOC + subject + QUAFF

XXX
LOC+berry+QUAFF
(Is the) berry (in the) middle?

Questioning the location in locative sentences:

Locative questions in which the location is questioned have no special marking other than the question word itself, i.e. the word order is Subject + QUAFF

XXX
hut+QUAFF
Where (is the) hut?

The affix –mbé is used with these sentences to mean “where?” The word order in such a question is obligatorily subject+mbé. These sentences can be seen like (the) spear (is) where?

XXX
servant+QUAFF
Where (is the) servant?

Stative verbs and locatives:

The locatives are used here a lot like those seen in Yoruba, a West African language.

Progressive locatives

“be-at”. A locative with a main meaning of “I am here” (wherever ‘here’ is). Note that this locative is exactly like ‘(to be) situated at’.

XXX

1PP be-at+study+magic

We are studying magic

Ru locative

This locative is quite common, and is mainly used for ‘in’ as in “Get in the house”, or “He is in the room”. As a Stative verb locative, the issue here is the locative acts like a “To be” verb, specifically “is”

XXX

3PS RU+work

He is working

XXX

3PS RU+go

He is going

XXX

3PS RU+come

He is coming

Directional ‘RU’ Locatives

The ru locative, with only two examples, are powerful. They act like “to be” verbs in ways as can be seen below.

XXX

3PS RU+go+come

He is going to come

XXX

3PS RU+go+out

He is gone out (He has gone out)

Existential clauses

Sentences with

Locative:

STUFF …

Locative

In Proto-Drem, name sentence structure of Subject+EXIST+LOC and the general translation would be ‘X is/are around.’

XXX
servant+EXIST+LOC

There are servants around.

Negative-Locative

In Proto-Drem, name sentence structure of NEG+Subject+EXIST and the general translation would be ‘X is/are not around’

XXX
NEG+servant+EXIST+LOC
There aren’t any servants around.

Affirmative:

STUFF …

Affirmative

In Proto-Drem, name sentence structure of Subject+EXIST and the general translation would be ‘There is/are some X’

XXX
servant+EXIST

There are servants

Negative-Affirmative

In Proto-Drem, name sentence structure of NEG+Subject+EXIST and the general translation would be ‘There isn’t/aren’t any X’

XXX
NEG+servant+EXIST
There aren’t any servants

Questions:

STUFF …

Questioning - Locative

In Proto-Drem, this sentence structure would be Subject+EXIST+ŋgâ- and a translation would be seen as ‘Is/Are X around?’

XXX
servant+EXIST+LOC+QUAFF
Are there any servants around?

Questioning - Affirmative

In Proto-Drem, this sentence structure would be Subject+EXIST and a translation would be seen as ‘Are there any X?’

XXX
servant+EXIST+QUAFF
Are there any servants?

Presentative clauses

Proto-Drem has two locative markers, both of them are actually locatives used in this sense. The two locatives are ‘here’ and ‘over there’ and are used here to present sentences such as ‘Here it is’ and ‘There it is’.

Proximal:

There is no 1P distal. (no ‘There I am’)

XXX
LOC+3P

Here (is) it.

He/She:

XXX

LOC 2P

Here he/she (is)

It:

XXX
LOC+3P

Here (is) it.

XXX
LOC+3P

Here (is) it.

You

XXX

LOC+2P

Here you (are)

We:

XXX

LOC+2PP

Here we both (are)

They:

XXX

LOC+3PP

Here they (are)

Distal:

There is no 1P distal. (no ‘There I am’)

XXX
LOC+3P

There (is) it.

He/She:

XXX

LOC 2P

There he/she (is)

It:

XXX
LOC+3P

There (is) it.

You

XXX

LOC+2P

There you (are)

We:

XXX

LOC+2PP

There we both (are)

They:

XXX

LOC+3PP

There they (are)

“Have” clause

Affirmative “have” statements.

Sentences expressing the concept “have” in Proto-Drem have the following form: Subject + XXX ‘with’ + Possession.

XXX

1P+with+person

I have a person

He/She:

XXX

2P+with+person

He/She has a person

It:

XXX

3P+with+person

It has a person

You

XXX

2P+with+person

You have a person

XXX

2PP+with+person

We have people

They:

XXX

3PP+with+person

They have people

XXX

3PP+with+mountain

They have mountains

Negative “have” statements.

The Proto-Drem “have” construction uses the preposition -XXX- which otherwise means ‘with’. The preposition is normally used as the conjunction meaning ‘and’, but thru its other uses, it is used as ‘with’ in several types of constructions. “Have” sentences are negated by adding the general negative marker na- to the front of the sentence.

I – animate only

XXX

NEG+1P+with+person

I don’t have a person

He/She:

XXX

NEG 2P+with+person

He/She doesn’t have a person

It:

XXX

NEG+3P+with+person

It doesn’t have a person

You

XXX

NEG 2P+with+person

You don’t have a person

XXX

NEG+2PP+with+person

We don’t have people

They:

XXX

NEG+3PP+with+person

They don’t have people

XXX

NEG+3PP+with+mountain

They don’t have mountains

Questions and answers in “have” sentences:

Questioning the subject of “have” sentences:

“Have” sentences with questioned subjects avail themselves of two styles

Standard style

XXX
2P+have+3P+QUAFF
Do you have it?

Eastern Forest dialect style

XXX
QUAFF 2P+have+3P
Do you have it?

Questioning the possession in “have” sentences:

Questioned possessions in “have” sentences are

XXX
2P+have+3P+QUAFF
Do you have it?

Answering in “Have” sentences:

Answers with nominal subject:

XXX
spirit+have+3P
(the) spirit has it

Answers with pronominal subject:

XXX
2P+have+3P
You have it

Sentences in Proto-Drem:

Simple Sentence Structures:

Standard SUBJECT VERB-OBJECT: - ACTIVE VOICE

SUBJECT VERB --------------------OBJECT

Root

PLU

Suffixes

Pejor

AGR

Prefixes

Root

Suffixes

This is the standard sentence structure in Proto-Drem. In formal settings, and in colloquial, this is the style, one basically wants to do. With this structure, since Proto-Drem marks the nouns for case, the language isn’t considered Polysynthetic as say Mohawk is, yet in some ways has an Inflectional feel like Latin. One sees that the verb root is ‘permanently glued’ to the object root.

AGR – Both the Subject and Object agreement affixes go here next to the root. The agreement is obligatory and both must be written.

Prepositions vs. Postpositions: Here with the standard sentence order, Prepositions rule the day. So where one sees the columns for Suffixes, that is where you will see all the ‘ordinary’ affixes for the Subject and Object

This is the standard structure for Verb Serialization which was seen above in the chapter on Verbs. The verb roots will all be strung together where the ‘root’ is, as the affixes all go where they need to be. The word structure is fairly tight, and not apt to move from this.

Used for Imperative, Subjunctive, Indicative moods

VERB-OBJECT SUBJECT: - PASSIVE VOICE

VERB-------------------------------OBJECT SUBJECT

AGR

Prefixes

TAMV

Root

Root*

Suffixes

Root

PLU

Suffixes

Pejor

AGR – Here, only the Object agreement affix goes here next to the root. The agreement is obligatory and both must be written. The Subject agreement is assumed and not written.

Prepositions vs. Postpositions: Here with this sentence structure, Prepositions will rule the day. The prefixes in this case will precede the Verb and Subject.

Used for Interrogative mood & most questions. Used in most Negation.

Identification & Equational sentences:

Proto-Drem like many other languages does not have a copular verb.

Equational Sentences with Nominal Predicates

Affirmative equational statements:

Equational sentences in Proto-Drem are fairly straightforward in that the subject in an independent pronoun followed by the object since the ‘to be’ verb does not exist, yet is implied by context. Since the two nouns are separated, there are no worries as far as tone shifting, so the base root tones stay they way they are.

Singular

XXX

1P hut

I (am) home

Plural

XXX

3PP hut

We (are) home

Negative equational statements:

Like all negative sentences in Proto-Drem, the prefix na- is located at the front of the sentence. Thus a sentence would be almost like an answer to a question ‘No, I (am a not) Drem’, while a more understandable translation would be ‘I (am not) a Drem.’

Singular

XXX

NEG 1P hut

I (am) not home

Plural

XXX

NEG+3PP hut

We (are) not home

Equational questions and answers:

Questioning the subject of equational sentences:

XXX
shaman+QUAFF
Who (is) the shaman?

Questioning the predicate of equational sentences.

Once again, the question suffix is at the end, therefore the structure is Subject+QUAFF.

XXX
shaman+DEMO+village+QUAFF
Where is the shaman of this village?

XXX
shaman+DEMO+village+
Here is the shaman of this village

Identificational sentences

Subject only

XXX
3P+bear
It (is) a bear

Pronoun only

XXX
It (is) me
It (is) me

Adjectival and other Descriptive Predicates

Affirmative statements with adjectival predicates.

Adjectives, Ideophones, Statives are all descriptive words that can be made into predicates or subjects in Proto-Drem. The examples here will use only adjectives, but work with all groups.

Singular

XXX
day+couldy

The day (is) cloudy

Plural

XXX
day+many+couldy

The days (are) cloudy.

In Proto-Drem, plurality is always taken from context but, in some cases, plurality can be construed from adjectives, especially if the subject has no way of having a plural, such as a liquid which uses a variety of words to show number of size.

Context

XXX
LOC+blood
Here (is) blood

No plural

XXX
LOC+blood+DEG
Here Very blood (Here (is) a lot of blood)

Special cases

XXX
LOC+blood+many
Here (is) much blood

Negative adjectival statements:

Negative adjectival predicates add the general negative marker na- to the front of the sentence.

Singular

XXX
NEG+day+cloudy

The day (is) not cloudy

Plural

XXX
NEG+day+many+cloudy

The days (are) not cloudy.

Intensifier affixes and Degree affixes can be complements to these adjectives. These intensifiers and Degree suffixes can be negated and so the examples wil show both with and without negation.

Intensification:

Intensified normal

XXX

Emotion+INTS

Annoyed

Intensified negated

XXX

NEG+Emotion+INTS

Not Annoyed

Degree suffixes

Degree normal

XXX

Good+DEG

Very good (morally)

Degree negated

XXX
NEG+good+DEG

Not very good (morally)

Questions and answers in adjectival sentences

Questioning the subject of adjectival sentences:

Once again, like all questions, the QUAFF (question affix) is at the end of the sentence

XXX
day+couldy+QUAFF

How is the day cloudy?

Special cases of questioning with an adjective is asking a question in a greeting “Hows…?”. The structure is very similar to any question sentence with NOUN+ADJ+QUAFF which is literally looked at (subject talked about + doing + How?)

XXX

You+DOER+CNVA+QUAFF

How are you doing?

Number predicates

Number sentences with identification always use the ru- particle, since the particle is used in mathematics and counting commonly. So a statement like ‘two plus two is four’ sounds simple, but uses the ru- particle easily here.

XXX
NUM CONJ CUM LOC NUM
2 + 2 is 4

Name Predicates

These sentences are basically questioning equational sentences in that they ask a question or they state a fact while implying the “to be” verb, so the sentences in English would be ‘My name is John’, or ‘Is your name John?’ Note that both sentence types use possessive pronouns. In Proto-Drem, the same is true, and the possessive is mandatory to show an agreement between the pronoun and name. Once again, in these sentences, the question affix is at the back of the sentence.

As a statement

XXX

1P+NAME

I (am) Yellow Cloudberry

As a question

XXX

2P+NAME+QUAFF

Are you Yellow Cloudberry?