TENSE and ASPECT IN
PROTO-DREM
Tense is defined here as “the systematic
coding of the relation between two points along the ordered linear dimension of
time” (Givón 2001:285). The two points are the reference
time and the event time, as was described in section 2. Aspect is defined here
as “the internal temporal shape of events or states” (Payne 1997:238).
Tense-Aspectual System
STUFF
…
Tense
Tense is the systematic
coding of the relationship between two points along the time axis. There are
three major tense divisions:
·
Past: Event time precedes speech time
·
Present: Event time is simultaneous with speech time
·
Future: Event time follows speech time
Absolute tense is a term
used to describe an event which is anchored to the current speech act. Some
linguists, in addition to absolute tense, also refer to relative tense, which
is when the tense divisions are anchored to a reference point preceding or
following the time of speech (Givón 2001:286).
Tense vs. Time
When discussing tense it is of importance to
note that communication is not always about when an event took place, although
some sort of temporal marking is often obligatory. Communication is as much
about who, what, how etc. Tense could thus be said to be more of a discourse
feature than a feature of individual sentences (Besha
1989:154).
Subjectivity of Tense
She
recounts a historical narrative text where an old chief is asked to tell the
ancient story about the founder of the clan. the old
chief starts his story telling with the first three sentences in the near past
tense. According to Besha, a possible interpretation
of this has to do with the relationship between the narrator and the narrated
events. The narrator, being the chief, is a direct descendant of the founder of
the clan. Thus, he regards himself as a part of the history. From his
perspective, the distant past events are viewed as being recent, since they
have present relevance for him personally.
Imprecision in TAM systems:
Not only is there a
subjective perspective on an individual’s choice of TAM marking, but there is
also imprecision in the entire system of tense, aspect and modality (Dahl
1985:20f).
The basic meaning of a
TAM marker is the constant meaning the form has. Context, however, may modify
this basic meaning, giving rise to extended meanings (Besha
1989:161ff).
Consequently, one TAM
marker cannot have more than one basic grammatical function. However, a TAM
marker may have, in certain contexts, several meanings. An aspect can thus have
temporal notions, although this is not its primary role.
Aspect
We will consider the fact that verbs are inherently
aspectual, i.e. that they inherently describe different state or event types.
Inherent Aspect
In order to understand grammatical
aspect, we first need to consider inherent aspect, which is a property of
lexical verbs. Givón (2001:287) divides verbs into
four major categories, depending on their inherent aspectuality,
as follows:
• Compact (short duration) verbs: e.g. spit, shoot, jump, hit
• Accomplishment-completion verbs: e.g. arrive/come, obtain/get,
die, be born, finish
• Activity-process verbs: e.g. break, bend, step, walk, work, read
• Stative verbs: e.g. be sad, be cold, know, want, be tall, be red
As shown above, inherent aspect can thus
be said to encode the typology of states and events in a given language (Saeed 1997:107). The inherent aspectuality
closely interacts with the morphological or grammatical aspectuality.
It is also often difficult to separate the inherent aspect from contextual
influence (Dahl 1985:26f). Grammatical aspect adds a communicative perspective
to the events or states described by the inherently aspectual verbs. The term
stative describes an unchanging situation, whereas dynamic involves some sort
of change. A dynamic situation can be either telic (built-in end point) or
atelic (no end point). A process denotes a change of state. The imperfective
aspect has traditionally been subdivided into two subgroups: the progressive-durative-continuous
aspect, which describes ongoing activity, and the habitual-repetitive aspect,
which describes repeated events (Givón 2001:288ff).
The progressive aspect describes activity
which is ongoing at reference time. Progressive is typically used with dynamic
predicates rather than stative ones. The younger and developing present often
originates from a former progressive aspect.
Habitual is an aspect which expresses
actions that take place habitually or repeatedly. It does not refer to any
particular event, and is therefore not about any particular event-time.
Habitual typically seems to be replaceable with the English equivalent of
“usually”
Perfective vs.
Imperfective
As many linguists state, in the perfective
aspect, the focus is on termination and “boundedness”,
and there is a strong association with the past tense. Compact verbs often
occur in the perfective aspect. Should a verb from the other end of the scale,
e.g. a stative verb, occur in the perfective aspect, it may be interpreted as
an event. In the imperfective aspect, on the other hand, the focus is no longer
on termination and “boundedness”. Stative verbs often
occur in the imperfective aspect. Should an inherently compact verb occur in
the imperfective aspect, it is usually interpreted as repetitive.
In Proto-Drem, it must be realized, that
with the perfective, the action and therefore, the event did in fact take
place, but it could very well have taken time. So in this way, the perfective
is as one way of calling it, an “undifferentiated ‘blob’ of time”. The event
could have taken a moment, a relatively short, long or very long time, but the
event took place nonetheless. The speaker’s cares not how long the event took,
unless the speaker wants to make clear the duration of the whole event, but
that the event took place.
Perfective: -(C)irè
The perfective denotes a completed situation. It can be said
that it is a past event with present relevance. Contrary to the perfect, it
does not refer to a past situation: One could be tempted to consider the
perfective a ‘past tense’. In my opinion, however, the emphasis is on the
completed aspect rather than on the fact that it is past. This is supported by
the use of the perfective in conditional phrases
XXX
XXX
The child grew
Progressive
The progressive aspect marker occurs in simple declarative
sentences. It describes an activity which is ongoing at the reference time. In
addition, it can occur with the past and future tense markers. It is used with
both dynamic and stative verbs.
Habitual
The habitual is mostly used to describe situations that are
characteristic of an extended period of time, to express recurrent events,
statements of general truth. It is used for example to describe what one does
in life, but, contrary to the progressive, does not stress that something is
on-going at the time of speech. The habitual shares many features with the
perfect (see below), the difference being that the
habitual does not refer to an earlier situation, and is mostly used with
dynamic verbs, whereas the perfect is commonly used with both dynamic and
stative verbs. The Habitual does not take an SCOMP, contrary to the other TA
markers.
The Perfect
The interpretation of the perfect is linked to the type of
verb: stative vs. dynamic. When used with stative verbs, the time reference is
the present. When used with dynamic
verbs, the perfect refers to a present situation which results from a preceding
process, the latter having produced a state which is either still current or
the effects of which are still felt: A perfect occurs in simple declarative
sentences. It indicates that the situation described by the verb form was
initiated before the time of reference, and that it has relevance to the
present. The perfect marker can have as reference point the actual time of
speech as well as a point before or after the time of speech. Perfective aspect
is cross-linguistically often restricted to past time, Perfect often occurs
cross-linguistically with adverbs such as “already” or “just”. Further,
perfect, contrary to perfective, is not marked on several verbs in succession
when reporting a sequence of events such as in a narrative context
Grammatical Tone
Grammatical
Tone in the Dremish family of languages goes much farther back than Proto-Drem
easily. Some conjecture even to Proto-Western, but most linguists are not as
aggressive to make such a statement. In Proto-Drem, grammatical tone lies in
several different areas and how the tones affect the language. Most linguists
agree that the grammatical tone aspects are most likely fossils from an earlier
set of affixes and thru sound changes and grammar changes, all that is left is
the differing tones.
As
in the tones section, there are allotones, which are tones influenced by the
surrounding tones and the length of the syllable. These allotones play an
interesting part in the way the grammatical tones work. Note that in the
examples below, the allotones will be shown as the ‘base’ tone, not as the
specialized allotone. Here in the section with tenses and moods, there are the
two ways to see how grammatical tones are used.
Conditional Mood
The
first way is thru the conditional mood, namely the distinction between realis and irrealis. Historical linguists have looked at
the distinction and most agree that the old affix or root would have been *-kúk, and thru sound changes, the consonants dropped
[/k/->/x/->/h/->/?/->ø] leaving just the
medial vowel. The affix strangely seems to have stayed as a root final or word
final affix, thereby changing little. The medial vowel changed over time due to
sound change [/u/->/i/->/e/] where it is now.
The medial vowel was all that was left of the old affix, and in the Modern
Coastal dialect that became Proto-Drem, acquired a nasal and so attached /m/ to
become /mé/.
Now
that is just one of the two affixes. The second tone is a low tone. This tone
seems to have been stuck with depressor consonants and so continuously
‘depressed’ until is became a low tone. The depressor consonants most likely to
be seen are voiced stops /p, t, k/ and sonorant /m, l/. In the case of the
conditional, historical linguists feel that the same *-kúk
obviously went a different way. As far as the sound changes and consistent tone
dropping, the only thing that is agreed is that [/u/->/1/->/i/->/e/] and that the High-tone is now a Low-tone.
XXX
MOD+3P+go+hunt+PROG+MOD
As long as we go hunting, then …
XXX
NEG+MOD+3P+go+hunt+PROG
If
we don’t go hunting, …
Knowledge
In
Proto-Drem, there were two general ‘knowledge’ stages. The differences in
Proto-Drem come across as being ‘awake’ or not. The difference is almost like
an evidential where when one is awake, the knowledge comes in thru a sensory
type, and so is direct evidentially. The other is also an evidential, but is
more like an assumption or guess. The difference is once again a basic ‘fossil’
and used in this way and shows up just as a differing tone, one being a Hi-tone
and the other being a Lo-tone. For Proto-Drem, these tonal differences stayed
as part of the mood, and in this case, it has two ways to show up, in this case
it shows up in the tenses and if it ‘direct’ or ‘assumptive’ knowledge. So the
information could be misconstrued and so care must be taken as tones can make a
large difference in meanings. The examples below will be taken from the section
on habitual aspect.
The
main thing one must note with these tones is that they add to and mutate the
tones in the original moods. Since these also act like a tense, most linguists
consider these a fossil, but as far as original affix, most feel that *-ma is
the candidate. Note also that this tone marker only is used as remote or recent
past tenses. If the subject wishes to clarify which, then a tense marker is
added. Most of the time, just like in the tenses of Proto-Drem, the ‘recent
past’ is up to 2 days, and the remote past is beyond 2 days.
The
tones act upon the tones within the moods themselves and each section will have
the tones explained. Below are two examples from the moods section to show how
the tones look.
When a high-tone precedes
The
direct marker goes on the mood as expected. The two tones would basically
create an extra-high tone which is possible in Proto-Drem. The extra-high tone /_T/
is seen, yet only rarely and is an allotone of the high-tone.
XXX
MOD+3P+go+hunt+PROG
If
we go hunting, …
The
assumptive tone on the realis conditional which is
normally a high-tone adds a low-tone so that a HL falling tone [_F] is created.
Note, that the falling tone is considered an allotone of the High-tone.
XXX
MOD+3P+go+hunt+PROG
If
we go hunting, …
When a non-tone preceded:
The
direct marker goes on the mood as expected, but in this case, without changing
a tone, it just adds to the mood. In this case, the obvious tense of the
sentence is past. Which past is unclear, and as appropriate, if the speaker
wishes to clarify the remoteness of the tense, the speaker would do so. Since
this is considered direct knowledge, this marker is considered an evidential.
The tone shows up as a simple high-tone /_H/.
XXX
1P+MOD+see+2P
I used to want to see you
The
assumptive tone on the optative gives a non-direct feel, almost as if a mistake
had been made. This marker does have a form of direct knowledge, but in an
almost irrealis way, therefore this marker is considered an evidential. The
tone shows up as a simple low-tone /_L/.
XXX
1P+MOD+see+2P
I thought I wanted to see you
When a Low-tone precedes:
The
direct marker goes on the mood as expected. The marker is on the Habitual mood
as seen, and the mood has a low-tone. The tones converge and create a LH rising
tone /_R/. The rising tone is an allotone of the low-tone.
XXX
2P+hunt+MOD+try
He used to try to hunt one at a time
The
assumptive tone goes on the mood as expected. Here the low tone adds to the
moods original low-tone to create an allotone. The allotone is known as an
extra low-tone /_B/. The allotone is of course an allotone of the Low-tone.
XXX
2P+hunt+MOD+try
He thought he tried to hunt one at a time
When a down-stepped high-tone precedes:
The
direct marker goes on the mood as expected. Here the ‘mid’-tone is added with
the high-tone and creates a mid-high rising tone /_M_R/. This tone is
considered an allotone of the ‘mid’-tone.
XXX
1P+MOD+see+2P
I used to want to see you
The
assumptive tone shows up on the mood. Here though, the original ‘mid’-tone is
added with a low tone, the allotone creates a mid-low falling tone /_M_F/. This
tone is considered an allotone of the ‘mid’-tone.
XXX
1P+MOD+see+2P
I thought I wanted to see you
Conjugations
Show the usual order Tense+Verb or
Mood+Verb; for a complex construction, it shows as Tense+Mood+Verb. Progressive is considered part of the Mood
group and so is treated as a mood. Note that some of these are actual roots and
so behave differently than the above order would normally show. Note that the
below morphemes are usually found between a subject and the verb, unless noted
in the descriptions. Therefore, most will act like a prefix or suffix depending
on where found in the sentence.
An important section often overlooked with some speakers of
Proto-Drem is evidentiality. This idea is generally
how someone comes to the knowledge of something in what they know. Verb roots such
as XXX, XXX, XXX, XXX, XXX all deal with knowledge, belief
and the basic knowledge of knowing facts. These verbs do not directly let us
know exactly just how the speakers acquired their knowledge though. Proto-Drem
as a system with evidentiality would be relatively
weak in differentiating the ways of acquiring the knowledge, compared to other
languages. The four styles of evidentiality seen are
non-visual sensory (by the speaker), inferential/assumption, hearsay and direct
knowledge. Below with the moods, those that are based on evidentiality
are talked about in this regard.
Also another important distinction in regards to
Proto-Drem modals is a somewhat archaic and fossilized distinction. That
distinction is called realis vs. irrealis. This
distinction deals with what is actually happening verses something that is
planned, wished for, contemplated. Realis is about
actual events, no matter if past, present or future. Irrealis is about events
imagined, possible, and basically an event which has not happened.
Modals/Verbal Extensions
Conversion Affixes
Sentence Affixes
Tense: Affirmative (yes+tense)
The
non-past tense is also known to replace the first syllable of the verb root,
and so a CVCV root will become a CV root.
Tense: Negative (no+tense)
The
past tenses do not replace the first syllable of the verb root, and so is one
way to tell the difference between past and non-past.
Modals/Verbal Affixes:
The
modals seen below all share a general pattern, that of preceding the verb root
and sometimes replacing the first syllable of the root. The tense marker then proceeds
the mood marker as the pattern can generally be heard as CVCV -> Tense+C+Modal To use an example, we’ll use gamu -> nàŋùmè (Negative
indicative + Immediate past + verb) … didn’t just [verb]. Notice how the first
syllable of the root is replaced, as well as the final vowel, just leaving the
C2 of the verb root.
Optative Mood: wâ-
The
optative mood is for wishes, orders, obligations, but is not for commands or
strongly addressing somebody else. In this way, the subjunctive is unlike the
imperative or Injunctive moods.
Modals only
Modal only
In
a simple sentence, this is a standard form that is seen with optative modals which
like the standard root show desire, hope and want. With this modal, there is no
time frame presented, just the nature of the desire.
XXX
1P+MOD+see+2P
I want to see you
Negating Modals
Negation of Modal
Just
like standard negation, the negation comes at the front of the sentence. Like
above, the modal doesn’t show a time frame, just the nature of the negative
want.
XXX
NEG+1P+MOD+see+2P
I don’t want to see you
Modal combinations
Modal
combinations are fairly common with some sentences. This group can show several
variations of where a modal can be seen, which mostly depends on the modal
used. The Optative modal is normally used with 3 modals, conditional –realis/irrealis, imperative and dubitative.
Modal combination (Optative + Conditional)
Modal
combinations, especially a combination with the conditional modal can present
differing looks, nearly always depending on where the modal and following
clause is seen. Most of the time, the conditional modals will be seen at the
end of the first clause.
XXX
1P+MOD+see+2P+MOD
I want to see you if …
Modal combination (Optative + Conditional)
Here
is the more uncommonly used way that a combination modal is used with the
conditional modals.
XXX
MOD+1P+MOD+see+2P
If I want to see you, …
Modal combination (Optative + Imperative)
This
structure is seen commonly, especially with the imperative modal always being
at the end of the sentence.
XXX
1P+MOD+see+2P+MOD
I want to see you now!
Modal combination (Optative + Dubitative)
This
combination is usually the other commonly used form. This one uses the
interjection ‘regu’ which is “are you sure” or
“doubtful” and shows doubt, suspicion of an action taking place.
XXX
1P+MOD+MOD+see+2P
Are you sure I want to see you?
Tense and Modal
combinations
The
Optative modal is used with most non-past tenses, since the mood usually
implies a non-past tense anyways.
Tense + Modal
XXX
1P+TEN+MOD+see+2P
I want to see you soon.
Stative verb usage
Modal as a stative verb
This
modal can also be used as a stative verb and use it as a verb instead of as a
modal. The usage is the modal+XXX/XXX to modify the
modal. The mood is considered a ‘state of mind’ and so therefore a stative verb
as explained below in the stative verb section.
XXX
1P+MOD+STV+2P
I
want you
Indicative Mood: gè-
The
indicative mood is for a simple showing of the action done. Since most verbs
show an inherent Indicative style, this mood is rarely used. Some think that
the mood is more of a fossil from an older form of the language when
agglutinating instead of the currently slight isolating feel to the language.
The indicative is used (when it is) with all tenses.
Modals only
Modal only
In
a simple sentence, this is a standard form that is seen with indicative mood.
Since the action is a completed action, the mood inherently shows a past tense
without a time frame seen.
XXX
1P+MOD+see+2P
I saw you
Negating Modals
Negation of Modal
Just
like standard negation, the negation comes at the front of the sentence. Like
above, the modal doesn’t show a time frame, just the nature of the negative
action.
XXX
NEG+1P+MOD+see+2P
I didn’t see you
Modal combinations
Modal
combinations are fairly common with some sentences. This group can show several
variations of where a modal can be seen, which mostly depends on the modal
used. The Indicative modal is normally used with 3 modals, conditional,
habitual/iterative and dubitative.
Modal combination (Indicative + Conditional)
Modal
combinations, especially a combination with the conditional modal can present
differing looks, nearly always depending on where the modal and following
clause is seen. Most of the time, the conditional modal being
seen at the beginning of the next clause.
XXX
1P+MOD+see+2P+MOD
I saw you if …
Modal combination (Conditional + Indicative)
Here
is the more uncommonly used way that a combination modal is used with the
conditional modal.
XXX
MOD+1P+MOD+see+2P
If I saw you, …
Modal combination (Indicative + Habitual)
This
structure is seen commonly, especially with the habitual modal always being at
the beginning of the sentence.
XXX
MOD+1P+MOD+see+2P
I habitually saw you
Modal combination (Indicative + Iterative)
This
structure is seen commonly, especially with the Iterative modal always being at
the end of the sentence.
XXX
1P+MOD+see+2P+MOD
I saw you time after time …
Modal combination (Indicative + Dubitative)
This
combination is usually the other commonly used form. This one uses the
interjection ‘règù’ which is “are you sure” or
“doubtful” and shows doubt, suspicion of an action taking place.
XXX
1P+MOD+MOD+see+2P
Are you sure I saw you?
Tense and Modal
combinations
The
Indicative modal is used inherently with past tenses, since the mood usually
implies a past tense anyways.
Tense + Modal
XXX
1P+TEN+MOD+see+2P
I just saw you a moment ago.
Imperative Mood: -sí
The
Proto-Drem imperative is used for commands and orders, and is usually strongly
worded; since the injunctive or advisory below is more of the softer side of
the imperative. The main difference is that the strong imperative usually has a
long vowel, and is slightly growled to add some intimidation to the command or
order. Both forms of the imperative work with a few tenses of past, and
non-past, the real intent is for usage with the immediate non-past tense. In
formal speech, this imperative doesn’t use any politeness affixes, which makes
sense since it’s a command and order. Most of the time, this modal is seen with
other modals to emphasize the statement.
Modals only
Modal only
In
a simple sentence, this is a standard form that is seen with imperative modals.
With this modal, there is no time frame presented, just the nature of the order
or command. The modal also has the 2P (you) implied as well and so is not used.
XXX
work+MOD
Work!
Negating Modals
Negation of Modal
Just
like standard negation, the negation comes at the front of the sentence. Like
above, the modal doesn’t show a time frame, just the nature of the negative
command.
XXX
NEG+work+MOD
Stop Work!
Modal combinations
Modal
combinations are fairly common with some sentences. This group can show several
variations of where a modal can be seen, which mostly depends on the modal
used. The Optative modal is normally used with 3 modals, conditional, optative
and hortative.
Modal combination (imperative + Conditional)
Modal
combinations, especially a combination with the conditional modal can present
differing looks, nearly always depending on where the modal and following
clause is seen. Most of the time, the conditional modal being
seen at the beginning of the next clause. In the next example, the
usually implied person being spoken too, in this case 2P (you) is seen, which means that there needed to be a clarification
of just who the person was spoken to.
XXX
work+2P+MOD+MOD
You work! If …
Modal combination (Optative + Imperative)
This
structure is seen commonly, especially with the imperative modal always being
at the end of the sentence.
XXX
1P+MOD+see+2P+MOD
I want to see you now!
Modal combination (Hortative + Imperative)
This
combination is usually the other commonly used form. This one uses the ‘let’s’
style as a group command. It is especially common for raids and hunts.
XXX
MOD+work+MOD
Let’s Work!
Tense and Modal
combinations
The
Imperative modal is used with the immediate future tenses, since the mood
usually implies a non-past tense anyways.
Tense + Modal
XXX
TEN+MOD+work+MOD
let’s work immediately!
Injunctive/Advisory Mood: -sà
This mood is explained in greater detail in the
Imperative section of the grammar, where the injunction or advisory style of
imperative is a very soft common, almost a suggestion, and is only used amongst
friends, family members or clan-mates. Note that the mood leaves off the
Politeness affix, yet keeps the short vowel form of the imperative. In formal
speech the POLAFF will be kept on, while in colloquial speech, this style is
heard. Also note that the speaker will speak softly and without a growl, making
sure that the mood is understood as advice and a suggestion instead of an order
or a command.
Also, there is a subtle difference between the
Hortative and Injunctive moods. The Hortative is usually used by those of a
peer group, or friends or between a husband and wife. The intent of the
Hortative is one where the group is a group of equals. The Injunctive is
usually spoken by a ‘leader’ either chosen for a purpose, or a cultural leader
such as the shaman, family head or clan chief. The Injunctive as said before is
a weak imperative, yet does imply that those being suggested to do the action
had better do it. One can refuse an injunctive, which usually leads to a new
sentence used with an imperative.
Modals only
Modal only
In
a simple sentence, this is a standard form that is seen with imperative modals.
With this modal, there is no time frame presented, just the nature of the order
or command. The suggestion also has the 2P (you) implied (just like the imperative
mood) as well and so is not used.
XXX
1P+work+MOD
I suggest (you) work!
Negating Modals
Negation of Modal
Just
like standard negation, the negation comes at the front of the sentence. Like
above, the modal doesn’t show a time frame, just the nature of the negative
suggestion. Note that the suggestion is implied with an immediate non-past
tense. It is rare, but the verb can also have a progressive CNVA (-ing), but it is uncommonly used in colloquial usage.
XXX
NEG+1P+work+MOD
I suggest (you) stop work!
Modal combinations
Modal
combinations are fairly common with some sentences. This group can show several
variations of where a modal can be seen, which mostly depends on the modal
used. The Optative modal is normally used with 3 modals, conditional, optative
and Hortative.
Modal combination (injunctive + Conditional)
Modal
combinations, especially a combination with the conditional modal can present
differing looks, nearly always depending on where the modal and following
clause is seen. Most of the time, the conditional modal being
seen at the beginning of the next clause. In the next example, the
usually implied person being spoken too, in this case 2P (you) is seen, which means that there needed to be a clarification
of just who the person was spoken to.
XXX
1P+work+MOD+MOD
I suggest (you) work, if …
Modal combination (injunctive + Conditional)
Since
the Injunctive mood is a suggestion and advice, this modal can be used on
either side of the initial clause. The above option is more common, yet the
version below is seen.
XXX
MOD+1P+work+MOD
If I suggest (you) work, …
Modal combination (Optative + Injunctive)
This
structure is seen commonly, especially with the injunctive modal always being
at the end of the sentence.
XXX
1P+work+MOD+MOD
I suggest (you) want to work
Modal combination (Hortative + Injunctive)
This
combination is usually the other commonly used form. This one uses the ‘let’s’
style as a group command. It is especially common for raids and hunts.
XXX
MOD+work+3Pl+MOD
Let’s suggest (that) they work!
Tense and Modal
combinations
The
Injunctive modal is used with the immediate non-past tenses, since the mood
usually implies a future non-past anyways.
Tense + Modal
XXX
TEN+MOD+work+3Pl+MOD
Let’s suggest (that) they work immediately!
Ru particle: -rù or rù-
The
locative rù- is well known as a locative and rarely
used as the ‘to be’ verb in Proto-Drem, as a mood, it is used to stress a
particular location. So the whole idea is more of a weak validational,
since it’s not witnessing an event, but pointing out a location of an object.
Note that the locative can be sentence final or sentence initial, and so has
freedom of movement. The sentence final usage is more common though.
Modals only
Modal only
In
a simple sentence, this is a standard form that is seen with ru modals which stresses a
specific location. With this modal, there is no time frame presented, just the
nature of the location. Note that the location is before the ru particle which emphasizes the
locative. The modal is used two ways, and each way is slightly different. The
first is when the ru
particle is sentence final and is showing an objects imprecise location. The
second way is when the ru
particle is sentence initial and here, it shows a specific location and intent
in meaning.
Sentence final
XXX
2P+LOC+RU
It is over there (see it!)
Sentence initial
XXX
RU+2P+LOC
It is right over there (see it!)
Negating Modals
Negation of Modal
Just
like standard negation, the negation comes at the front of the sentence. Like
above, the modal doesn’t show a time frame, just the nature of the negative
location.
XXX
NEG+2P+LOC+RU
it is not over there (see!)
Modal combinations
Modal
combinations are fairly common with some sentences. This group can show several
variations of where a modal can be seen, which mostly depends on the modal
used. The Rù particle modal is normally used with 4
modals, optative, indicative, validational and
dubitative.
Modal combination (Optative + Rù)
Modal
combinations, especially a combination with the conditional modal can present
differing looks, nearly always depending on where the modal and following
clause is seen. Note in the two varying ways of using the ru modal. Where the one is sentence final, the other
is sentence initial depending on how the speaker intends to stress the
location.
XXX
1P+MOD+see+2P+MOD+LOC+RU
I want to see you over there (see!).
XXX
RU+1P+MOD+see+2P+MOD+LOC
I want to see you right over there (see!).
Modal combination (Indicative + Rù)
This
structure is seen commonly, especially with the imperative modal always being
at the end of the sentence.
XXX
put+2P+LOC+RU
Put it right over there properly(see!)
Modal combination (Conditional + Ru)
This
structure is seen commonly, especially with the conditional modal always being
at the start of the sentence.
XXX
MOD+RU+2P+LOC
If it’s right over there …
Modal combination (Conditional + Ru)
This
structure is seen somewhat commonly, as this form of the conditional modal uses
the as long as…,then… construction.
XXX
MOD+RU+2P+LOC+MOD
As long as it’s right over there,
then …
Modal combination (Validational + Ru)
This
combination is usually the other commonly used form. This one uses the validational modal, which deals with an action witnessed and
stressing that it did in fact take place.
XXX
2P+MOD+see+ LOC+RU
We saw it over there (see it!)
Modal combination (Dubitative + Ru)
This
combination is usually the other commonly used form. This one uses the
interjection ‘regu’ which is “are you sure” or
“doubtful” and shows doubt, suspicion of the location...
XXX
NEG+MOD+2P+LOC+RU
Are you sure it is not over there?
Tense and Modal
combinations
The
Ru modal is used with the “present” tenses, since the
mood usually implies a present or slightly immediate non-past tense anyways. As
seen just above, there are ways to use the ru modal and give a past tense implied meaning. So
overall, depending on how it’s used, this modal can be used with a lot of the
tenses.
Tense + Modal
XXX
2P+TEN+MOD+see+ LOC+RU
We just saw it over there (see it!)
Habitual/Iterative Mood: -fá or fá-
The
Habitual, distributive, Iterative verb fá is a
changing root. It acts more as a mood than as a verb root. The root is taken as
‘tends to, usually, habitually, frequently’ and so has the same connotations a
lot of time that it is used as being a modal. Modal position is the determiner
of which meanings the affix gives. The habitual is used for ‘repetitive
actions’, Iterative is ‘one at a time’ and distributive is ‘each’ especially
when taking of plural subjects each acting upon the object, while the
Iteration/Distributive complex is for plural subjects each taking their own
turn-one at a time-acting upon the object(s). Note that the CV is for the
initial syllable of the verb that is reduplicated.
Frequentive/Habitual – MOD+VERB
XXX
2P+LOC+RU
It is frequently over there (see it!)
Iterative
– VERB+MOD
XXX
2P+hunt+MOD+try
He tries to hunt one at a time
Distributive
– MOD+VERB+CV
XXX
2P+MOD+hunt+try+almond
She tries to hunt (for) each almond
Iterative/Distributive
complex – MOD+VERB+CV+MOD
XXX
2PP+MOD+go+RED+MOD+hut
we each went one at a time to the hut
Negating Modals
Negation of Modal
Just
like standard negation, the negation comes at the front of the sentence. Like
above, the modal doesn’t show a time frame, just the nature of the negative
location. Note that technically there is no ‘verb’ in this sentence, the ru particle in this regards acts
as the verb and so the habitual modal then attaches to it.
XXX
NEG+2P+LOC+RU
it is habitually not over there (see!)
Modal combinations
Modal
combinations are fairly common with some sentences. This group can show several
variations of where a modal can be seen, which mostly depends on the modal
used. This modal is normally used with many of the modals, but we’ll
concentrate on the four commonly seen, optative, and indicative, imperative and
hortative.
Modal combination (Optative + Habitual)
Modal
combinations, especially a combination with the
XXX
1P+MOD+MOD+see+2P
I habitually want to see you
Modal combination (Indicative + Distributive)
This
structure is seen commonly, especially with the imperative modal always being
at the end of the sentence.
XXX
1P+MOD+MOD+see+2P+day
I want to see you each (and every) day
Modal combination (Imperative + Distributive)
This
combination is usually the other commonly used form. This one uses the validational modal, which deals with an action witnessed
and stressing that it did in fact take place.
XXX
1P+MOD+see+2P+day+MOD
I must see you each (and every) day!
Modal combination (Habitual + Injunctive)
This
combination is usually the other commonly used form. This one uses with the
softer injunctive and advisory modal. Uses of this modal combination usually bring
a slight tinge of frustration and annoyance into the speaker’s voice. Parents
are apt to use this combination quite frequently.
XXX
3P+MOD+see+2P+MOD
we habitually suggest (that we) see you
Tense and Modal
combinations
The
mood can of course be used with several tenses. It is common to see them either
with past or non-past tenses.
Tense + Modal
XXX
3P+TEN+MOD+see+2P+MOD
we just habitually suggest (that we) see you
Decisional Mood: gbi-
Decisions
are fairly important things in people’s lives, and so when a decision is made,
usually a statement like ‘I decided’ is at the sentence initial spot and then
the decision being made. The Decision mood is used in three differing ways, the
first is a Habitual, next is the Perfect and therefore the decision is already
done, and the last is the Progressive, where intension is inherent, while a
negative Progressive, shows where the decision is still being carried out.
Habitual
– MOD+MOD+verb
XXX
1P+MOD+MOD+see+2P
I habitually decide to (come) see you
Perfect
– MOD+verb
XXX
1P+MOD+see+2P
I decided to see you
Negative
Perfect – NEG+MOD+verb+CV
XXX
NEG+1P+MOD+see+2P
I decided to not see you
Progressive
– MOD+PROG+verb
XXX
1P+MOD+see+2P
I am (still) deciding to come see you
Negative
Progressive: - NEG+MOD+PROG+Verb+CV
XXX
NEG+1P+MOD+see+2P
I am not (still) deciding to come see you
Modal combinations
Modal
combinations are fairly common with some sentences. This group can show several
variations of where a modal can be seen, which mostly depends on the modal
used. The modal uncommonly seen is the habitual; while the perfect and negative
perfect are the most common. Due to the usage, the perfect usually shows a past
tense form, while the progressive shows an inherent “present tense” form. This
modal is normally used with many of the modals, but we’ll concentrate on the
four commonly seen, optative, and indicative, imperative and hortative.
Modal combination (Optative + Perfect)
With
the optative mood, the decisional mood is commonly seen in a variety of
situations. The example is fairly straight forward and easy to understand.
XXX
1P+MOD+MOD+see+2P
I
want to decide to come see you
Modal combination (Indicative + Negative Progressive)
With
the negative progressive form of this modal, the main thing of contention is
the negative and how it influences the sentence. For most speakers, the
reduplicated root gives confidence that the negative doesn’t affect the whole
sentence, but it affects just the MOD which deals with a decision. So in this
case, the decision forms a negative decision, most likely a decision that
wasn’t made. Note the unusual structure of the verbs, as ‘finish’ normally
would be on the left of ‘hunt’, but due to the structure, the reduplicated
‘hunt’ needed to go first, with ‘finish’ going last.
XXX
NEG+3P+MOD+PROG+hunt+finish
We
haven’t decided to finish hunting
Modal combination (Imperative + Perfect)
This
is the first of the two examples showing how the decisional modal works with a
complex sentence that is uncommonly heard in speech. Note the placement of the
negative which normally goes sentence first, but here, it affects only the
clause it belongs to, and so is clause initial here instead of sentence
initial.
XXX
1P+MOD+speak+NEG+PROG+work+MOD
I
decided (to) say, “Don’t stop working!”
Modal combination (Perfect + Hortative)
The
example below shows a complex sentence, but unlike the one above, is easier to
handle.
XXX
1P+MOD+speak+PROG+hunt+MOD
I
decided (to) say, “Let’s go hunting!”
Tense and Modal
combinations
This
modal can be used, depending on how the speakers choose the intent, with any
tense. Common usage shows either immediate non-past or “present tense”. As
shown above with the complex perfect variants, the sentence shows past tense
intent as viable to use as well.
Tense + Modal
XXX
1P+TEN+MOD+see+2P
I decided a while ago to (come) see you
Libetic Mood: libè-
This
mood has an almost inherent sense of resignation and despair as the mood shows
something bad will happen. The mood is strictly used with non-past tenses as
the action will occur sometime in the future, usually remote future.
Translators will note that this mood is also like ‘irrealis’ in that the
feeling isn’t concrete and almost thought of as a hunch or gut-reaction.
Modals only
Modal only
In
a simple sentence, this is a standard form that is seen with libetic modals. The time frame is for an undetermined
future, yet is seen inherently as a far future instead of near future.
XXX
3P+MOD+die
We will die!
Negating Modals
Negation of Modal
For
this modal, being on of despair and resignation, the negation of this modal
seems a strange one, yet the Drem are tough survivors, and so this negative is
also rarely heard.
XXX
NEG+3P+MOD+die
we will not die!
Modal combinations
Modal
combinations are fairly common with some sentences. This group can show several
variations of where a modal can be seen, which mostly depends on the modal
used. The Libetic modal is normally used with only
two modals, optative and dubitative. Nearly always the mood is used with people
dying or very sick and generally resigned to their fate.
Modal combination (Optative + Libetic)
XXX
3P+MOD+MOD+die
We
wish to die!
Modal combination (Libetic + Dubitative)
XXX
NEG+3P+MOD+MOD+die
Are
you sure we will not die?
Tense and Modal
combinations
The
Libetic modal is exclusively non-past tense.
Tense
+ Modal
XXX
NEG+3P+TEN+MOD+MOD+die
Are
you sure we will not die soon?
Hortative Mood: -sè
This modal uses the affix sè
for the meaning of ‘Let’s’ which is a slight urging of a group of people to do
something as a collective unit, for instance a raid, hunt, setting up a camp,
etc. This mood is used strictly with non-past tense since the action is not yet
agreed upon. Note that in a small way, the hortative mood is similar to the
‘injunctive mood’ in that this mod only works for groups and it works like a
suggestion. Note: This mood being one that strongly implies a group setting and
that with the group, the speaker is included in that group.
Also, there is a subtle difference between the
Hortative and Injunctive moods. The Hortative is usually used by those of a
peer group, or friends or between a husband and wife. The intent of the
Hortative is one where the group is a group of equals. The Injunctive is
usually spoken by a ‘leader’ either chosen for a purpose, or a cultural leader
such as the shaman, family head or clan chief. The Injunctive as said before is
a weak imperative, yet does imply that those being suggested to do the action
had better do it. One can refuse an injunctive, which usually leads to a new
sentence used with an imperative.
Also note how similar the Hortative, Injunctive and
Imperative are to each other, as some scholars attest that the marker was the
same, yet the distinguishing factor was tone. They attest this contrast back in
Proto-West.
Modals only
Modal only
XXX
PROG+hunt+MOD
Let’s
go hunting!
Negating Modals
Negation of Modal
XXX
NEG+PROG+hunt+MOD
Let’s
not go hunting!
Modal combinations
Modal
combinations are fairly common with some sentences. This group can show several
variations of where a modal can be seen, which mostly depends on the modal
used. The Optative modal is normally used with 3 modals, habitual, decisional
and injunctive. The examples below will show some varied clause structure,
especially the last one where the modals are sentence final and reverses the
natural understanding of it.
Modal combination (Habitual + Hortative)
XXX
3P+MOD+go+hunt+PROG+MOD
Let’s
habitually go hunting
Modal combination (Decisional + Hortative)
This
sentence below being a complex sentence shows how the hortative mood works. It
is in the following clause, while the decision to say the statement is in the
leading clause.
XXX
1P+MOD+speak+PROG+hunt+MOD
I
decided (to) say, “Let’s go hunting!”
Modal combination (Injunctive + hortative)
In
this example, the clauses in essence are reversed, where the modals are both
sentence final modals and therefore the sentence initial clause actually go at
the end.
XXX
3P+go+hunt+PROG+MOD+MOD
Lets’
suggest (that) we go hunting
Tense and Modal
combinations
The
Hortative modal is used with most non-past tenses, since the mood usually implies
a non-past tense anyways. Being a suggestion for a course of action, the tense
used most often is the immediate non-past tense.
Tense + Modal
XXX
TEN+PROG+hunt+MOD
Let’s
go hunting immediately!
Conditional Mood -realis:
-ŋà or
This
modal is from the modal affix ‘ŋà-‘which means
‘if, as long as’. The mood always starts off a subordinate clause with inherent
agreement to the modal. The tenses that this modal works with are all of them,
as there are no restrictions to past or non-past tenses here. The examples will
show the two ways the modal is used in that the first uses a single clause,
while the second shows the modal as a sentence initial.
If+clause
XXX
MOD+3P+go+hunt+PROG
If
we go hunting, …
As
long as+clause, then+clause
XXX
MOD+3P+go+hunt+PROG+MOD
As long as we go hunting, then …
Negating Modals
Negation of Modal
Just
like standard negation, the negation comes at the front of the sentence. Like
above, the modal doesn’t show a time frame, just the nature of the negative conditional.
XXX
NEG+MOD+3P+go+hunt+PROG
If
we don’t go hunting, …
Modal combinations
Modal
combinations are fairly common with some sentences. This group can show several
variations of where a modal can be seen, which mostly depends on the modal
used. The Conditional modal is normally used with 5 modals, Optative,
Imperative, Injunctive, Ru and Habitual.
Modal combination (Optative + Conditional)
Modal
combinations, especially a combination with the conditional modal can present
differing looks, nearly always depending on where the modal and following
clause is seen. Most of the time, the conditional modal being
seen at the beginning of the next clause.
XXX
1P+MOD+see+2P+MOD
I want to see you if …
Modal combination (Optative + Conditional)
Here
is the more uncommonly used way that a combination modal is used with the
conditional modal.
XXX
MOD+1P+MOD+see+2P+MOD
as long as I want to see you, then …
Modal combination (Conditional + Imperative)
This
structure is seen commonly, especially with the imperative modal always being
at the end of the sentence.
XXX
work+2P+MOD+MOD
You work! If …
Modal combination (Conditional + Injunctive)
This
structure is seen commonly, especially with the injunctive modal always being
at the end of the sentence
XXX
MOD+1P+work+MOD
If I suggest (you) work, …
Modal combination (Conditional + Ru)
This
structure is seen commonly, especially with the conditional modal always being
at the start of the sentence.
XXX
MOD+RU+2P+LOC
If it’s right over there …
Modal combination (Conditional + Ru)
This
structure is seen somewhat commonly, as this form of the conditional modal uses
the “as long as…,then…” construction.
XXX
MOD+RU+2P+LOC+MOD
As long as it’s right over there,
then …
Modal combination (Conditional + Habitual/Iterative)
The
Conditional modal in this way will show how sometimes, a confusing meaning can
show up. We have the conditional modal as the sentence initial connect to the 2P
pronoun. They together would form a bad vowel cluster <eu>
which normally would be turned into <ee>, but
this would give an unclear meaning and so the consonant <j> is inserted
to divide the vowels and create a clear meaning between the modal and pronoun.
XXX
MOD+2P+hunt+MOD+try
If he tries to hunt one at a time
Tense and Modal
combinations
The
Conditional modal is used with most tenses.
Tense + Modal
XXX
MOD+1P+TEN+MOD+see+2P
If I want to see you soon.
Conditional Mood -irrealis: -ŋàli or ŋàli-
This
modal is from the modal affix ‘ŋàli-‘which means
‘if, as long as’. The mood always starts off a subordinate clause with inherent
agreement to the modal. The tenses that this modal works with are all of them,
as there are no restrictions to past or non-past tenses here. The examples will
show the two ways the modal is used in that the first uses a single clause,
while the second shows the modal as a sentence initial. Some scholars think
that the li- end of the prefix is an old fossilized
marker dealing with irrealis that had a grammatical function in the past, most
likely Proto-West which those scholars state had that contrast.
If+clause
XXX
MOD+3P+go+hunt+PROG
If
we go hunting, …
As
long as+clause, then+clause
XXX
MOD+3P+go+hunt+PROG+MOD
As long as we go hunting, then …
Negating Modals
Negation of Modal
Just
like standard negation, the negation comes at the front of the sentence. Like
above, the modal doesn’t show a time frame, just the nature of the negative conditional.
XXX
NEG+MOD+3P+go+hunt+PROG
If
we don’t go hunting, …
Modal combinations
Modal
combinations are fairly common with some sentences. This group can show several
variations of where a modal can be seen, which mostly depends on the modal
used. The Conditional modal is normally used with 5 modals, Optative,
Imperative, Injunctive, Ru and Habitual.
Modal combination (Optative + Conditional)
Modal
combinations, especially a combination with the conditional modal can present
differing looks, nearly always depending on where the modal and following
clause is seen. Most of the time, the conditional modal being
seen at the beginning of the next clause.
XXX
1P+MOD+see+2P+MOD
I want to see you if …
Modal combination (Optative + Conditional)
Here
is the more uncommonly used way that a combination modal is used with the
conditional modal.
XXX
MOD+1P+MOD+see+2P+MOD
as long as I want to see you, then …
Modal combination (Conditional + Imperative)
This
structure is seen commonly, especially with the imperative modal always being
at the end of the sentence.
XXX
work+2P+MOD+MOD
You work! If …
Modal combination (Conditional + Injunctive)
This
structure is seen commonly, especially with the injunctive modal always being
at the end of the sentence
XXX
MOD+1P+work+MOD
If I suggest (you) work, …
Modal combination (Conditional + Ru)
This
structure is seen commonly, especially with the conditional modal always being
at the start of the sentence.
XXX
MOD+RU+2P+LOC
If it’s right over there …
Modal combination (Conditional + Ru)
This
structure is seen somewhat commonly, as this form of the conditional modal uses
the “as long as…,then…” construction.
XXX
MOD+RU+2P+LOC+MOD
As long as it’s right over there,
then …
Modal combination (Conditional + Habitual/Iterative)
The
Conditional modal in this way will show how sometimes, a confusing meaning can
show up. We have the conditional modal as the sentence initial connect to the
2P pronoun. They together would form a bad vowel cluster <eu> which normally would be turned into <ee>, but this would give an unclear meaning and so the
consonant <j> is inserted to divide the vowels and create a clear meaning
between the modal and pronoun.
XXX
MOD+2P+hunt+MOD+try
If he tries to hunt one at a time
Tense and Modal
combinations
The
Conditional modal is used with most tenses.
Tense + Modal
XXX
MOD+1P+TEN+MOD+see+2P
If I want to see you soon.
Validational Mood: ŋké-
When
an event is witnessed and the speaker wants to stress the fact it the event did
in fact happen, this mood is used. The Validational
mood is only used with Past tenses, as a “present tense” would mean the event
is still going on, and the non-past tense there is still some doubt that the
speaker will indeed see the event take place. So note, this mood is only used
with past tenses.
Modals only
XXX
1P+MOD+see+2P
I saw you! (I swear!)
Negating Modals
Negation of Modal
Just
like standard negation, the negation comes at the front of the sentence. Like
above, the modal doesn’t show a time frame, just the nature of the negative
action.
XXX
NEG+1P+MOD+see+2P
I didn’t see you! (I swear!)
Modal combinations
Modal
combinations are fairly common with some sentences. This group can show several
variations of where a modal can be seen, which mostly depends on the modal
used. The Validational since it places such a stress
on the witnessed action; this modal is normally used with only one other modal,
habitual/iterative.
Modal combination (Validational +
Habitual)
This
structure is seen commonly, especially with the habitual modal always being at
the beginning of the sentence.
XXX
MOD+1P+MOD+see+2P
I habitually saw you
Modal combination (Validational +
Iterative)
This
structure is seen commonly, especially with the Iterative modal always being at
the end of the sentence.
XXX
1P+MOD+see+2P+MOD
I saw you time after time …
Tense and Modal
combinations
The
Validational modal is used inherently with past
tenses, since the mood usually implies a past tense anyways.
Tense + Modal
XXX
1P+TEN+MOD+see+2P
I just saw you a moment ago.
Dubitational Mood: règù-
When
an event was not witnessed or is in doubt, this mood is used. The mood is
actually the interjection regu which is fairly common
in usage. Since this mood is sort of negating a Validational
mood, in that it casts doubt upon the witnessing of an event (Are you sure?),
this mood can be used with any tense.
Modals
XXX
2P+MOD+see
I’m doubtful that you saw it./ Are you sure you saw
it?
Negating Modals
Negation of Modal
This
is one of the few times a so-called “double negative” construction can be
legally made. What the person is doing is negating their doubt, in essence,
making the original thought correct. The example below also shows the insertion
of <j> to separate vowels in order to keep their meaning clear.
XXX
NEG+2P+MOD+see
I’m not doubtful that you saw it. / Are you not sure that you saw it?
Modal combinations
Modal
combinations are fairly common with some sentences. This group can show several
variations of where a modal can be seen, which mostly depends on the modal
used. The Subjunctive modal is normally used with 4 modals, Optative,
Indicative, Ru and Libetic.
Modal combination (Optative + Dubitative)
This
combination is usually the other commonly used form. This one uses the
interjection ‘regu’ which is “are you sure” or
“doubtful” and shows doubt, suspicion of an action taking place.
XXX
1P+MOD+MOD+see+2P
Are you sure I want to see you?
Modal combination (Indicative + Dubitative)
This
combination is usually the other commonly used form. This one uses the
interjection ‘regu’ which is “are you sure” or
“doubtful” and shows doubt, suspicion of an action taking place.
XXX
1P+MOD+MOD+see+2P
Are you sure I saw you?
Modal combination (Dubitative + Ru)
This
combination is usually the other commonly used form. This one uses the
interjection ‘regu’ which is “are you sure” or
“doubtful” and shows doubt, suspicion of the location...
XXX
NEG+MOD+2P+LOC+RU
Are you sure it is not over there?
Modal combination (Libetic + Dubitative)
One
might call this more of a negation of the Libetic
mood since it does place doubt, but even this combination can be negated and
therefore the libetic mood is made correct as the
example below shows.
XXX
NEG+3P+MOD+MOD+die
Are
you sure we will not die?
Tense and Modal
combinations
The
dubitative modal is used with most tenses, so it is commonly seen in several
ways.
Tense
+ Modal
XXX
NEG+3P+TEN+MOD+MOD+die
Are
you sure we will not die soon?
Conversion Affixes
Progressive Mood: -zâ
This affix
is technically an imperfective aspect, yet in Proto-Drem is used commonly and
shows a progressive action that is currently going on, and so this has an
inherent imperfective feel, as the action is still incomplete. The English
equivalent of this affix is the suffix (-ing) as in
‘It is raining.” This affix is used when clarity requires it and is seen only
in an implied “present tense” form.
NOUN +
AFFIX
XXX
1P+run+CNVA
I am (still) running
Sentence Affixes
Benefactive Modals
Benefactive modals are generally used in the present and
past tenses, yet are found in the non-past tense as well when one is going to
do something for somebody else. The modals presented here are all considering
an action ‘for’ somebody or something. They all represent varying degrees of
this as are seen below. The modals show a general pattern where the modals can
be seen either at the end or start of the sentence. The first two usually
thought of as ‘front benefactive’ due to their
initial vowels are the ones at the end of the sentence. The other two called
‘back benefactive’ due to their initial back vowels
are the ones actually sentence initial.
ndaga is used when there’s an
idea of doing something for somebody, or getting someone to do something for
you. The example below shows how the benefactive can
be used with an imperative and used as a command. This usage shows how to have
somebody do something for you.
Front benefactive
XXX
go+hunt+MOD+MOD
Go and hunt! (for me)
ndebi (for the sake of) is
needed, and conveys an idea of altruism or self-sacrifice. Also used when
inviting to do something on one’s behalf
XXX
hunt+3P+MOD
hunt for our sake
Rear benefactive
ndubo (for, as for, as far
as… is concerned).
XXX
MOD+village
as for the village is concerned, …
ndubu (as for) is used to
introduce a statement.
XXX
MOD+village
as for the village, …
Negating Modals
Negation of Modal
The
benefactive modals can be negated as any of the
modals above. The construction is similar to nearly all negation constructions
in that the negation covers the whole statement in making it negative.
XXX
NEG+hunt+3P+MOD
don’t hunt for our sake
Modal combinations
Modal
combinations are fairly common with some sentences. This group can show several
variations of where a modal can be seen, which mostly depends on the modal
used. The Benefactive modal is commonly used and is
seen with most of the moods. Normally though, it is used with 4 modals,
Optative, Indicative, Imperative and Injunctive.
Modal combination (Optative + Benefactive)
This
combination is usually the other commonly used form.
XXX
1P+MOD+see+2P+village+MOD
I want to see you for the sake of the village
Modal combination (Indicative + Benefactive)
This
combination is usually the other commonly used form.
XXX
MOD+village 1P+MOD+see+2P
as for the village is concerned, I saw you
Modal combination (Imperative + Benefactive)
XXX
MOD+village work+MOD
as for the village is concerned, Work!
Modal combination (Injunctive + Benefactive)
XXX
MOD+village 1P+work+MOD
as for the village is concerned, I suggest (you) work!
Tense and Modal
combinations
The
benefactive modal is used with most tenses, so it is
commonly seen in several ways.
Tense + Modal
XXX
MOD+village TEN+1P+work+MOD
As
for the village is concerned, I suggest (you) work very soon!
Tenses
The
tenses in Proto-Drem use a familiar set of reference points, and that is time.
No matter if it is in the past, or non-past, time has reference points that we take
advantage of to tell where, when, how, why, and to who we have events to
describe. Also another point to make is the ‘remoteness’ of the tense depends
on the amount of time between the event and the reference point of the speaker.
In this way, Proto-Drem is not really different from other languages on the
planet. Note that there is no ‘present tense’ in Proto-Drem due to the
progressive marker za- which shows a current event
taking place and so inherently shows present time. One thing to note are the Anterior
tenses, here we have an event that occurs before another one, in that case the
one before the critical event is the anterior event, and so has a small set of
tenses just for them. The examples below will use the wè ‘to eat’. Note that all tenses occur before
the root verb, if tenses are compounded with moods, most will occur before the
root verb as well unless circumstances dictate. They will be discussed later.
And important section that should be discussed in
further detail are the ‘anterior’ tenses, since as stated above, they deal with
2 separate actions and which event comes first. In this way, an anterior tense
might make these two actions look like a serial verb construction (SVC). One
thing that anterior past tenses look at is the relation between tenses in a way
that sometimes is difficult in Proto-Drem. The first way is ‘past within past’
such as ‘he went there into the cave last night.’ This way is the simplest to
do since both actions deal with the past and so require one tense marker to make
the meaning clear. The next are is ‘past within non-past’. This way can be seen
with ‘He went there last night as he will speak of it later.’ This way is
difficult to do in Proto-Drem, and most speakers will divide the sentence up
into two separate ones, each requiring their own tense. Like the second style,
the third is generally also difficult for speakers to use. This way is the
‘non-past within past.’ construction. Like above, the speakers will divide the
thought into two sentences, each with their own tense.
Past
-immediate past dáŋú-
XXX
1P+TEN+eat
I
just ate (finished eating)
-recent past dáŋé-
XXX
1P+TEN+eat
I
just ate recently
-remote past dáŋó-
XXX
1P+TEN+eat
I
ate a long time ago
Anterior
Past
–immediate dálú-
XXX
1P+TEN+eat
I
hunted first before I ate
–recent dálé-
XXX
1P+TEN+eat
I
recently hunted first before I ate
–remote dáló-
XXX
1P+TEN+eat
I
hunted a long time ago before I ate
Non-Past
-immediate non-past nàŋù-
XXX
1P+TEN+eat
I
will eat now
-near non-past nàŋè-
XXX
1P+TEN+eat
I
will eat soon
-remote non-past nàŋə-
XXX
1P+TEN+eat
I
eat in a long time
Anterior
Non-Past
–immediate nàlù-
XXX
1P+TEN+eat
I
will now hunt before I eat
–recent nàlè-
XXX
1P+TEN+eat
I
hunt soon before I eat
–remote nàlò-
XXX
1P+TEN+eat
I
will hunt later before I eat
Miscellaneous TAM Usage:
In Proto-Drem, there are more two ways to extend verbs in the general use
of tense, aspect or moods. These ways deal with two important distinctions. The
first is the dynamic vs. static verb distinction. The second is the durative
vs. punctual verb distinction. Since these distinctions can affect the way
tense, aspect and mood works, they need to be seen in Proto-Drem, and so need
to be discussed.
Dynamic
vs. Stative verbs
This distinction is fairly easy to
spot. The dynamic verb is essentially an action verb, an action that is an
activity, process, bodily sensation, transitional event or momentary action.
With verbs such as ‘play’, ‘ache’, ‘arrive’, ‘grow’, ‘melt’ and ‘hit’, the
dynamic of the verb can be seen. Stative verbs are seen as a perception or
relation. Verbs such as hate, believe, contain and own are still verbs, yet
don’t show the ‘dynamic action’ as seen above.
Dynamic verbs
XXX
1P+TEN+speak
I
just spoke
XXX
1P+TEN+eat
I
just ate
XXX
1P+TEN+go+hunt
I
just went to hunt
Stative verbs:
There are generally two kinds of stative verbs in
Proto-Drem. The first are the stative verbs that deal with perception and relation.
Those stative verbs do not require an extension. The next group
seen below are the verbs that do require an extension, those verbs are
the ones that deal with color and a ‘state of mind’.
XXX
1P+hear+2P
I
hear you
XXX
1P+hate+3P
I
hate them
XXX
1P+love+2P
I
love you
Stative verbs
–XXX/XXX
The most common of these stative verbs needing an extension
are colors such as red, white, or black. These verbs can also be a state of
mind such as want. Now as seen above, want is a mood, but the mood can have the
stative verb extension to make it into a stative verb.
XXX
2P+red+STV
It’s red
XXX
1P+understand+2P
I
understand you
XXX
1P+MOD+STV+2P
I
want you
Durative
vs. Punctual verbs:
This distinction is usually
missed, yet can be important when needing clarity. In Proto-Drem, nearly all
verbs have a ‘length’ of action implied in them being action verbs, yet there
is no distinct ‘duration’ attached to them. The constructions sometimes seem
confusing to those not used to looking for this.
Durative verbs
The
first area is known as durative in which most verbs have duration, an action
which has a start and an end. Durative verbs explicitly express duration of
time, although the duration might not be an exact amount. Note that the degree
affixes extend the verb and generally give duration as seen in the examples
below.
XXX
1PS
(LOC)+Stand+DEG
I
stood there for a very short time
XXX
3PS+lived+time+DEG
He
lived for a very long time
XXX
battle+CNVA continue/to last Fist+Sleep
The
*Fist is the name for the 5 fingers of the fist, and
therefore is also the name for the ordinal number 5. Sleep represents a period
of rest, (around 8 earth hours) and each period of sleep is considered a “day”
Punctual Verbs -su-
The
other area are the punctual verbs like ‘cough’, ‘slap’ and the likes where the
verb is a momentary action, over very quickly. The punctual perfect is often
confused with the immediate past tense, but while the immediate past tense can
mean an action was just completed, the punctual perfect means that the entire
action is just a few seconds long.
XXX
1PS+PncPft+Cough
I
coughed
In the example above, we see that the verb ‘cough’ is marked
with the punctual perfective “su-“. We realize that this
is a single quick cough instead of a series of coughs, which would of been marked as progressive -za-
in that case. Not that the punctual perfective implies an immediate past tense
and does not need to be marked as such. This verbal extension can be used with
a several of the moods discussed. The most common ones are the Validational, Dubitative and Benefactive
moods.
VOICE IN PROTO-DREM:
Proto-Drem does not have a voice distinction. This makes the
language unusual for some areas, and not unusual for others. Since there is no
active voice, nor a ‘true’ passive voice, the way to tell if a sentence is a
‘passive’ construction can be tricky for some. The passive voice is always
portrayed as a bringer of bad news, and is usually intransitive in that it has
a VS system where there is no direct object. The passive voice being strictly
intransitive is also not marked for transitivity.
PASSIVE VOICE:
They
are formed by the structure seen below. Note that the structure is Intransitive
since there is just a subject and a verb.
VERB
PHRASE + SUBJECT
XXX
PASS+To raid+1PP
We
were raided
XXX
PASS+To kill+friend+POSS
My
friend was killed
Another
passive that is rarely uses ndus ‘To receive’ is also
seen. This one looks just like the one above, but used the adverb above instead
of the marker in the first example. One sees below the structure with a subject
and noun; in that example, ndus being an adverb also
acts as a verb root for the subject root to attach to.
Ndus (receive) + VERB PHRASE + SUBJECT
XXX
PASS+To invite+1PP
We
were invited to…
XXX
PASS+To permit+1PS
I
was permitted to ….
Ndus (receive) + SUBJECT + NOUN
XXX
PASS+3PS+influence
He
was influenced by …
Nd’aŋә + VERB is the third style of passive in
Proto-Drem. This form means ‘it is generally accepted that…’ or ‘It is well known that…’
XXX
3PS+PASS+influence
It
is well known that he was influenced by …
XXX
1PP+PASS+To invite
It
is generally accepted that we were invited to…
Reference/Research
Biliography
A RECONSTRUCTION OF THE PROTO-RUTARA
TENSE/ASPECT SYSTEM
by
Henry R.T. Muzaie
The Emergence of Tense in Early
Bantu
Derek
Nurse
The Tone System of Geviya (Bantu B30/Gabon)
Lolke J. Van der Veen
Dynamique du Langage (U.M.R. 5596)
TONE CASES IN UMBUNDU
by
Thilo C. SCHADEBERG
Rijksuniversiteit te
Tone and History of Nyamwezi Verb Forms
with Complex Final Tones*
by Thilo C. Schadeberg
The Unnatural Tonology
of Zina Kotoko1
David Odden
University of
Voiceless Tone Depressors in Nambya and
LAURA
J. DOWNING, ZAS, & BRYAN GICK, UBC
BLS 27, February 16-18, 2001
Tone (Non-) Transfer in Bantu Verbal
Reduplication
Laura J.
Downing
ZAS
The
Emergence of the Marked: Tone in some African Reduplicative Systems
Laura
J. Downing,
ZAS
On the ambiguous segmental status of
nasals in homorganic NC sequences1
Laura J. Downing, ZAS
Tonal Transfer in Kisukuma
Masangu Matondo
Tone reduction vs. metrical attraction in the evolution
of Eastern Bantu tone systems
Gérard PHILIPPSON
Tonal Variation across Emakhuwa dialects
By
Farida Cassimjee, Charles W. Kisseberth
Tone and timing: two problems and
two methods for prosodic typology
Dafydd Gibbon
Universit¨at
High Tone Spread in the Sotho Verb
Sabine Zerbian
Center for
General Linguistics (ZAS),
Privative Tone in Bantu
Larry M. Hyman
Kuki-Thaadow: An African Tone System in
Larry M. Hyman
Initial Vowel and Prefix Tone in Kom:
Related to the Bantu Augment?
Larry M. Hyman
Morphological Parsing of Tone
An Experiment with Two-Level Morphology on the Ha language
High-toned Mora Insertion between Onsetless
Morphemes in Cilungu
Lee Bickmore
University
at
More on the tone versus pitch accent
typology:
evidence from Barasana
and other
Elsa Gomez-Imbert
CNRS & Université
Toulouse 2
Proposed segmental
orthography of Moloko
Dianne Friesen
A grammar of Makonde (
Kraal,
Pieter J
NDEBELE AND ZULU: SOME PHONETIC AND
TONAL
COMPARISONS
D. K. RYCROFT
Strategies for Representing Tone in African Writing
Systems: A Critical Review
Steven Bird
CONSTRAINING HIGH TONE SPANS IN EKEGUSII VERBAL TONOLOGY
Lee S. Bickmore
DENYA PHONOLOGY
by
Tanyi Eyong Mbuagbaw