Subjects in Proto-Drem:
Subjects in
Proto-Drem are an important building block in the language. The Subject is the
thing or person ‘doing’ the action. And example would be ‘I see you.’ Where the
Subject (I) sees the Object (you). As seen before, the structure of a Subject
is fairly easy to understand in simple terms. The Subject is only slightly
different from an object, since the Subject has no requirement to attach the
root to any other root, so the Subject root is freer to move about. In
Proto-Drem, the structure is still fairly rigid, yet gives a bit of freedom
here, instead of on the object or verb.
Here is a typical Proto-Drem noun, with its needed
information. What we see below is typical for what we see of Subjects and
Objects. Notice that the two are different for some important information,
while the rest usually gets “shoved to the side” where placement means little.
For the Subject, the Concords go to the left of the slightly more important
noun classes, pronouns and possessives that are al to the left, right next to
the root. Note that due to the “root” –ndo, the
plural creates a noun stem and forms the “macrostem”
which is seen by the parenthesis ( ).
|
CONC |
NC/Pro/POSS |
(ROOT |
PLUR) /INTS |
CMP/DEG |
LOC/MOT |
PEJ |
Structure of Subjects in Proto-Drem
Proto-Drem is
a generally strict SVO language. Subjects of all sentence types are in initial
position if the subject is not dealing with a transitivity issue. If the
subject is intransitive, however, it falls at the end of the sentence in a word
order structure seen as VS, a syntactic property that the language shares with
a number of other western languages at the eastern edge of the
1. Nominal Subjects
Nominal
subjects of all sentence types are in sentence initial position unless
transitivity is an issue. The subject noun or noun phrase has no special
marking.
Gé
sky, air
(the/a) sky/air
2. Pronominal subjects
Proto-Drem
has pronominal subjects, for all sentence types, for both non-verbal sentences
and verbal sentences. The usage below illustrates pronominal subjects by itself
with no extra marking. Most of the pronomials are
different, yet with all languages, ambiguity has crept in and Proto-Drem is no
different. In this case the ambiguity lies with the 2P
pronouns ‘He/She’ and ‘You’. So if multiple people are being talked to, the
speakers will usually point to the person spoken to/about.
I:
Ŋijə
SubP+person
I (am a) person…
He/She:
Ujə
SubP+person
He/She (am a) person…
It:
Gujə
SubP+person
It (is a) person…
You:
Ujə
SubP+person
You (are a) person…
We:
Sijə
SubP+person
We being a people…
They:
Bajə
SubP+person
They (are) people…
Impersonal subjects
To
express an “impersonal subject”, Proto-Drem uses a verb with no overt subject
marking. “It: is also used when the ‘gender’ is unknown, or if the object has
no ‘gender’. Since the impersonal subject is still used as a subject, any
modifiers will still follow general placement rules. Proto-Drem can always use
an overt pronoun for an impersonal subject, making it possible to avoid a
personal reading. Thus impersonal subjects don’t use any subject marking by
default. Note that weather expressions can’t be used as “It is snowing”, as in
Proto-Drem, one would use “The sky is snowing” as impersonal subjects aren’t
used with weather. The two examples below show for direction and statives. The
example for direction normally sounds off for English speakers, but for a Drem,
it sounds just fine.
Directions:
Guròho
2P+LOC+go
It
went (to the) right.
Statives
To
express the marking corresponding to English ‘it’, the subject pronoun such as gu- is used since they tend to be marked expressions of
state.
gub’enj’әza
2P+fish+CNVA
it’s fishing.
Subjective Complements
Verbs that take subjective complements
are those which express a transformation of the subject or a state of the subject.
Some of the more common Proto-Drem verbs of these types are the following. Such
verbs typically have other base meanings. In the definitions below, the main
meaning is first, and the complements are last. Note that the subject
complement will still (within reason) be used within the usage of the verb. The
one used commonly is Ŋ’eme ‘to make, create’ which is used for most
transformations such as X became Y, or X turned into Y as far as one object
becoming another object. The thought is similar to ‘the water became cloudy’.
Note that most times, the complement will be followed by an attributive verb.
One aspect of
the subject complements are that these essentially are deverbalizers
and basically turn a verb ‘somewhat’ into a noun. The verbs used deals with
transformation where the subject seems to become another noun or is described
with an attributive verb; so generally, nowhere in the sentence or phrase does
one use a “true” verb, due to the usage. Below are the 4 main examples of this transformation
and the group below that are the main verbs that use this to a degree, but don’t
really belong into the first group. The second group which deals with the
senses, can be used like a transformation, but not as precisely as the 4 seen
below.
The main
distinction to tell the difference from a verb to a complement is thru tones.
In this case for these four and the pseudo-transformatives
below is the tone on the final verb syllable. In these cases, the final
syllable will acquire a low-tone and therefore, either become a HL contour, or
a LL, which for that essentially becomes a super-low tone /_B/. If the syllable
is a null-tone, then a low-tone will dock onto that syllable. Note that the
tone is a grammatical tone and can’t be “repaired” thru tone WFC processes.
True-transformatives:
SUBJ+SCOMP+OBJ
gbenu v.
to turn around;
scomp. to turn into
XXX
canoe+Scomp+wind
the canoe turned into the wind.
la v.
to sit,
stay; scomp. to become
XXX
dirt+Scomp+sit
the ground settled
Ŋ’eme v. to make, create; scomp. to become
XXX
lake+Scomp+quiet
the lake became tranquil.
gbaŋ’e v. to return; scomp. to turn into
XXX
2P+Scomp+
He was himself again.
Proto-Drem does not have direct
counterparts to many expressions using subjective complements as English does. The
Drem get around this by using verbs that take the following form. The verbs
below deal with the senses, which can in ways look like transformation verbs,
but not truly, and so these are here, since the transformation or state isn’t
as striking as the 4 seen above. Like the situation above, the complement is
usually followed by an attributive verb. These verbs used in this way are still
fairly rare in common speech.
Pseudo-Transformatives:
SUBJ +
SCOMP + ATTV
nd’ilu v. feel
XXX
foot+Scomp+hot
(my) foot feels hot
ndó v.
look
XXX
2P+Scomp+disease
He looks ill
b’ana v. speak
XXX
2P+Scomp+bad+2P
He speaks poorly of you
njama v.
smell
XXX
meat+Scomp+bad
the meat smelled rotted
hinte v.
taste
the hunters tasted victory.
Miscellaneous Subject Complement uses:
In Proto-Drem, these sentences with a
“sense” verb, like those seen above, can act as a subject and a descriptive
word as a predicate: Note in the first example shows thru context a present
tense without marking as such. One thing to show in context that the verb is
now a subject is to use the ru- particle between the “noun”
and the verb, since otherwise, people would mistake it as a verb chain and
think of a serial verb. Note that the usage of these complement verbs in these
cases below will be as a verb and how these verbs are used as a subject and
subject complement.
Subject:
XXX
smell RU to disappear+fast
the smell is disappearing rapidly.
Predicate:
XXX
ice+smell
the ice smells
Objects in Proto-Drem:
Objects in
Proto-Drem are an important building block in the language. The Object is the
thing or person ‘being done by’ the action. And example would be ‘I see you.’
Where the Subject (I) sees the Object (you). As seen before, the structure of
an Object is fairly easy to understand in simple terms. Note that since the
Object is directly attached to the verb, the structure of an Object is slightly
different than the Subject. The main difference is the changed position of
where the Plurality marker is. One might notice that there are no agreement
markers between objects and verbs... The reason for this is that with the verb
and object roots firmly attached, there is an assumed and automatic agreement
between the two.
Here is a typical Proto-Drem object. One thing that
can be said immediately is the differences between it and the subject. The main
thing is that nothing can get in between the object and verb root (except for a
very few exceptions). Thus the concords, noun classes, Pronouns and Possessives
have to go on the right of the Object. Another slight change is how the
Intensifiers which were just to the left of the comparatives & degree
markers go in the same place, but for Objects, it shares the same “hole” as the
object concords which are just a bit farther away from the root as the noun
classes, pronouns and possessives which normally go right next to the root. For
objects in Proto-Drem, noun classes are usually dropped, and plurality and
possessives can be deduced from context. Note that due to the “root” –ndo, the plural creates a noun stem and forms the “macrostem” which is seen by the parenthesis ( ).
|
(ROOT |
PLUR) /NC/Pro/POSS |
CONC/INTS |
CMP/DEG |
LOC/MOT |
PEJ |
Structure
of Objects in Proto-Drem
Proto-Drem
direct and indirect objects are totally separate and distinct from one another.
However, they are both seen, when marked, with pronoun affixes, and sometimes
the affixes are identical. Since the affixes are used differently in ways
sometimes, this will lead us to have each one done separately.
Nominal Direct Objects:
A
direct object (DO) has no overt marking other than the position of being glued
next to the verb root. If a DO is present, it is always the first noun phrase
after the verb. When the object is attached to the verb, it creates one large
phrase which deals with tone changes. Due to this fact, a verb ending in
Lo-tone conditions downstep on an attached object which is rarely seen with
Hi-tone. Thus the downshifting causes a ↓ tone (in essence a mid-tone). This
is usual since most tones do not cross an obvious word boundary. But here the
verb extends it’s domain to affect the Objects tones. Some scholars state that
the verb-object complex is in essence then a compound root and as such, the
verb roots domain would extend thru the object as well. Why the verb root would
have priority over the object as far as tones is still a mystery. Notice the
second example, which is a metaphor for when the sun sets.
H↓ Downstep:
XXX
2P+cry+day
you cried today
No H↓ Downstep:
XXX
3P+pull+sun
It pulled the sun
Nominal Indirect Objects
A
nominal indirect object (IDO) is usually unmarked. If needed for clarity, The
IDO concord is used to clearly mark the IDO. In standard speed, the IDO is
sometimes missed, and so this concord is more commonly used than other
concords. Unlike the DO, the IDO does not go thru tone shifts or downstep of
its H-tones
agunab’ob
2PIO+rise
You rose
Direct and Indirect
Object Pronouns tones:
In
most contexts, pronominal DO will be attached to the verb root, while the IDO
will be independent and marked with an appropriate concord. The Verb-DO will
have direct impact on tonal changes while the independent IDO will not. And so morpho-phonology will only look at the Verb-DO connection.
The examples below will look at comparisons between a Verb-DO cluster that downsteps, and Verb-IDO that doesn’t. Note that when a verb
is attached to the IDO, that is a grammatical VERB-NOUN connection that CAN
cause downstep to occur.
Verb-DO Downstep:
agúŋes
2PIO+challenge
You challenged
IDO Non-Dwonstep:
agúnáb’ób
2PIO+rise
You rose
If
pronominal DO and IDO both occur in the same clause, like the examples in the
motive extensions section, the DO will always be attached to the verb, while
the IDO acting as a object complement will not. The
whole complex of course can shift tones around, so care must be taken. In the
second example we see a single verb with both the DO and IDO ‘sharing’ the same
verb, while only the DO is actually attached to it, so therefore; only the DO
CAN cause downstep to occur.
Downstep:
gúŋes gbe ntisajando
2P+challenge CONJ exterminate+people
You challenged and exterminated the people
No Downstep:
gúŋes gbe ntisajando aŋindebi
2P+challenge CONJ exterminate+people 1P+IDO+OCOMP
You challenged and exterminated the people for my sake.
The DO/IDO agreement affix:
This
affix does a double duty and is usually used in an imperative way. The affix
first acts as an agreement between the DO and IDO, as the Subject; in this case
a pronominal is dropped. The DO when used in this imperative fashion usually is
used with a pronominal. I will use the verb ‘bring’ and the IDO ‘woman’ to show
how the differing DO pronominal affect the meaning of the sentence. Notice that
like the modal placements are different depending on which modal it is,
Imperative
Style:
Verb+DO+Ocomp+IDO+TAM
The
Proto-Drem imperative is used for commands and orders, and is usually strongly
worded; since the injunctive or advisory below is more of the softer side of
the imperative. The main difference is that the strong imperative usually has a
long vowel, and is slightly growled to add some intimidation to the command or
order. Both forms of the imperative work with a few tenses of past, and
non-past, the real intent is for usage with the immediate non-past tense. In
formal speech, this imperative doesn’t use any politeness affixes, which makes
sense since it’s a command and order. Most of the time, this modal is seen with
other modals to emphasize the statement. This modal can be used usually with
the immediate non-past and the modal can be negated. As far as other modals,
the imperative can be used with the Conditional and Optative.
They:
XXX
Bring+DO+Ocomp+woman
(You) bring them their women
Optative Style:
MOD+Verb+DO+Ocomp+IDO
The
optative mood is for wishes, orders, obligations, but is not for commands or
strongly addressing somebody else. In this way, the subjunctive is unlike the
imperative or Injunctive moods. With this modal, there is no time frame
presented, just the nature of the desire. This modal can be used with
Conditional, Imperative, and Dubitative. It can also be used with tenses to
show a time frame and can be negated.
I:
XXX
bring+DO+Ocomp+woman
(You) want to bring me my woman
Indicative
Style:
MOD+Verb+DO+Ocomp+IDO
The
agreement style here works the modal the same as the normal modal works, and is
used with a feel of an action already completed. The indicative is used (when
it is) with all tenses and negated. As far as using this with other modals, it
can be used with Conditional, Iterative and Dubitative.
We:
XXX
Bring+DO+Ocomp+woman
(you) brought us our
women
Injunctive/Advisory
Style:
MOD+Verb+DO+Ocomp+IDO
The
agreement style here works the modal a bit differently from the normal way it
works. The main thing here is an example. “You suggest (that) you bring us our
women”. The key is that the ‘dropped pronominal’ MUST the same before and after
the modal, as the pronoun used is for the recipient of the object in the
sentence. In these cases, the person doing the suggesting is the person that
will do the action spoken of in the sentence. So most times a 1P will be
assumed.
We:
XXX
Bring+DO+Ocomp+woman+MOD
(I) suggest
(that I) bring us our women
Iterative
Style:
Verb+MOD+DO+Ocomp+IDO
This mood is explained in greater detail in the
Imperative section of the grammar, where the injunction or advisory style of
imperative is a very soft common, almost a suggestion, and is only used amongst
friends, family members or clan-mates. Note that the mood leaves off the
Politeness affix, yet keeps the short vowel form of the imperative. In formal
speech the POLAFF will be kept on, while in colloquial speech, this style is
heard. Also note that the speaker will speak softly and without a growl, making
sure that the mood is understood as advice and a suggestion instead of an order
or a command. Other modals to use with this are the Conditional and Optative. The
modal can be used with the immediate non-past tense and can be negated.
We:
XXX
Bring+MOD+DO+Ocomp+woman
(you) brought us our
women one at a time
Decisional style:
MOD+Verb+DO+Ocomp+IDO
The
agreement style here works like the injunctive in that most of the time, the
person making the decision will do the action spoken of. This modal when used
as an object complement will only use the Perfect and Negative Perfect
versions, since the action implies that the decision has been made or has not
been made. The moods that can be used with this are the Optative and
Imperative. Also the tenses that can be used are either the immediate non-past
or the past tenses with “will decide”.
I:
XXX
MOD+Bring+DO+Ocomp+woman
(I ) decided (that I) bring us our women
Conditional – realis style:
MOD+Verb+DO+Ocomp+IDO
This
modal is from the modal affix ‘mè-‘which means ‘if,
as long as’. The mood always starts off a subordinate clause with inherent
agreement to the modal. The tenses that this modal works with are all of them,
as there are no restrictions to past or non-past tenses here. The modals that are
used with this one are the Conditional, Imperative, Injunctive and Iterative. Most
tenses can be used with the conditional.
We:
XXX
Bring+MOD+DO+Ocomp+woman
If (we) bring us our women
Dubatative style:
MOD+Verb+DO+Ocomp+IDO
The
agreement style here works like the the normal mood
and acts as being in doubt that the action will happen. When an event was not
witnessed or is in doubt, this mood is used. The mood is actually the
interjection regu which is fairly common in usage.
Since this mood is sort of negating a Validational
mood, in that it casts doubt upon the witnessing of an event (Are you sure?),
this mood can be used with any tense. The modals that can be used with the
dubitative are the Optative and Indicative.
We:
XXX
MOD+Bring+DO+Ocomp+woman
Are (we) sure that (we) will bring us our women
(home).
Objective Complements
Object complements are things that tell
us more about objects. They can be used to give very simple sentences, but for
more clear information, the complement is often used. Thus an object complement
is often a predicate in a sentence. In English, there are three major classes
of object complements, but in Proto-Drem, there is one class, and that class
uses verbs in varied ways. Since Proto-Drem uses verbs as nouns and adjectives
to complement objects, there are varied ways to see this occur. Note that since
Proto-Drem only uses verbs as complements, Proto-Drem is more limited than
English in this way. In Proto-Drem, main sentence verbs that take objective
complements will be verbs of two general sorts:
Verbs
that create a relationship:
OBJ + Ocomp
nciwe v. to install
XXX
arrowhead+Ocomp
The installed arrowhead
B’aŋu v. to call (someone something)
XXX
boy+Ocomp
the called boy
Ŋ’eme v. to make, create’ (scomp. use of this verb to mean ‘become’)
XXX
trap+Ocomp
the newly made trap
gbénu ocomp. to turn into
XXX
fish+Ocomp
the fish was to be sacrificed
wà v. to want
XXX
young woman+Ocomp
the desired young woman
Verbs of
discovery or perception:
OBJ + Ocomp
domó v.
to find,
come across
XXX
cave+Ocomp
the cave which we found
g’arə v. to leave (behind)
XXX
hut+Ocomp
the hut which we left behind
ndó v.
to see,
look
XXX
disease+Ocomp
looks ill/sickly
Object
transformation:
Verbs involving a transformation of the
object, at least optionally, can usually use a phrase with ndebi in the capacity of, in the guise of’ as the
objective complement. Note, however, that for these verbs, an object pronoun is
attached to the verb, since all objects are glued to the verb. Due to this, the
complement is “raised” to become grammatical object when it is a pronoun. Note
in the second example the vowel mutation, whereby the final vowel of ‘install’
is dropped and the object pronoun is attached, and lengthened to a long final
vowel.
Verb+Object+Ocomp
XXX
2P+see+person+Ocomp
He/She saw the person (is) easy going
Verb+Ocomp (acting as object)
XXX
install+2P
installed it
Downstep in Object Complements:
What
happens with Verb + complement where tone shifts could potentially take place?
It takes place, and therefore the tones change, and depending on the meaning,
ambiguity can be an issue. Since objects are usually seen with Low-tone, and
complements being in essence verbs have a tendency for High-tone, thus when a
verb root and complement are combined, downstep of tones occurs as we’ll see in
the example below.
Downstep:
XXX
post+install
installed post
No Downstep:
XXX
arrowhead+install
installed arrowhead
Ideophones as Object Complements:
In
Proto-Drem, there is a group of roots that are roots, yet have a whole idea as a
meaning, thus they are called ideophones. They are like objective complements,
since they are roots involving ideophones such as the following mbowaŋə ‘v. to disappear
suddenly as if by magic’. As with sentences having
ideophones as “complements”, such as these are different from sentences with
regular object complements, first, because the ideophone seems to describe the
action or state of the entire verb + object, and second, because, unlike words
that appear as objective complements, the ideophone could not be the predicate
of a sentence since it works with both the verb and object. Note that with
ideophones, these will always have a complement, and with ideophones, tones can
both shift or stay the same.
Downstep:
Ŋimbowaŋə
1P+disappear suddenly
I disappeared suddenly as if by magic
No Downstep:
Umbowaŋə
2P+disappear suddenly
He/She disappeared suddenly as if by magic