PART III
J
Joints -- A joint is formed where two bones
come together. Not all joints have the same range of motion, and some joints
don't
move at all. The range of motion of a joint is limited by the structure
of the bone and the attachment of muscle to bone.
Described below are some important structures found in a joint.
K
Ketone -- Keytone bodies are produced as
intermediate products of fat metabolism. they are normally created in limited
amounts when fat is oxidized. However, in drastic conditions where
carbohydrate is insufficient or unavailable for energy needs
such as starvation or untreated diabetes, excessive amounts of fat
are oxidized and ketone bodies accumulate. This condition is
known as ketosis.
Kilocalorie -- Kilocalorie is a unit of
measurement used in metabolic studies, being the amount of heat required
to raise the
temperature of 1 kilogram of water 1 degree Celsius at a pressure of
1 atmosphere. It is 1,000 times larger than the small calorie
used in chemistry and physics. The term is used in nutrition to express
the fuel or energy value of food.
Kinesiology -- Study of musculoskeletal movement, also referred to as biomechanics.
Krebs Cycle -- Krebs cycle (citric acid
cycle) refers to a complicated series of reactions by which fragments from
any of the
energy nutrients (proteins, carbohydrates, and fats) are completely
broken down to carbon dioxide and water, releasing energy
for the formation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). It is the final
common pathway for all nutrient metabolites involved in energy
production, and provides more than 90% of the body's energy.
L
L-carnitine -- A natural substance found
in muscle tissue that helps release stored bodyfat (triglycerides) into
the bloodstream for
use in cellular energy production. Taken as a supplement, this nutritional
factor may increase energy levels for long-term aerobic
activity.
Lactic acid -- A byproduct of glucose and
glycogen metabolism in anaerobic muscle energetics. A minute accumulation
causes
muscular fatigue and pain, and retards contraction.
Lactic acid is carried by the blood to the liver, where it is reconverted
to glucose and returned as blood glucose to the muscles.
It is this elevation of blood lactic acid in sustained strenuous exercise,
which results in muscle fatigue and pain. Recovery follows when enough
oxygen gets to the muscle, part of the lactic acid being oxidized and most
of it then being built up once more into glycogen. The metabolic cooperation
between contracting skeletal muscle and the liver to support active muscle
work is called the Cori cycle.
Lactose -- Lactose is a disaccharide of
milk which on hydrolysis yields glucose and galactose. Bacteria can convert
it into lactic
acid and butyric acid, as in the souring of milk. It is used in infant
feeding formulas, in other foods and as an osmotic laxative and
diuretic. Lactose is not tolerated in many persons after weaning, owing
to a reduced lactase activity.
Lean body mass -- Includes bone, brain, organs, skin, nails, muscle, all bodily tissues. Approximately 50-60% of lean body mass is water.
Lever -- A rigid object (bone), hinged
at one point (joint) to which forces (via muscle contraction or resistance)
are applied at
two other points. A lever transmits and modifies force or motion, and
has three parts: 1) a fulcrum, 2) a force arm and 3) a
resistance arm. There are three classes of levers, depending on the
location of the three parts relative to each other.
Ligament -- A strong, fibrous band of connective tissue that supports and strengthens a joint by linking bones or cartilage.
Limit Strength -- Absolute strength enhanced
by hypnosis, electrotherapy, ergogenic substances of any form (including
nutritional
supplements or drugs) or other techniques. Such aids increase the potential
for strength above normal capacity. Absolute
strength is reached solely through training.
M
Magnesium -- A pivotal mineral important
to protein synthesis, energy production, muscle contractions and a strong
heart
muscle. Essential for metabolism of calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium
and vitamin C. Chronic muscle cramps is a typical
sign of a shortage. Dietary sources: figs, lemons, grapefruit, yellow
corn, almonds, nuts, seeds, dark green vegetables.
Manganese -- A key enzyme activator. Also
vital to the formation of thyroid and reproductive hormones, normal skeletal
development, muscle reflexes, and the proper digestion and utilization
of food. Dietary sources: whole grains, egg yolks, nuts, seeds and green
vegetables.
Maria Thistle -- The active compound in
Maria Thistle is silymarin. It is known to be 1) a potent hepatoprotector
and
antihepatotoxic agent (thereby restoring normal metabolic function
to the liver), 2) promotes cellular regeneration via increased
protein synthesis, 3) aids in protecting the kidneys, and 4) acts as
a powerful antioxidant principally through its sparing effects on
glutathione (which also probably accounts for its potency in improving
liver function).
Max -- Maximum effort for one repetition of a weight training exercise. Also expressed as one's "1-RM" or "one rep max."
Max VO2 uptake -- Oxygen utilization as measured in milliliters of oxygen per kilogram of body weight per minute.
Metabolism -- The total of all physical
and chemical reactions in the body, including catabolism (breaking down)
and anabolism
(building up).
Metabolite -- Metabolite is any substance which forms as a by-product of the catabolism, growth, or anabolism of living tissue.
Minerals -- There are 96 times more minerals
in the body than vitamins. As vitamins, they are necessary for life itself
and
combine with other basic components of food to form enzymes. Minerals
are ingested through food and water. Many minerals
are deficient in the diet because of mineral-poor agricultural soil,
the result of intensive farming and long-term use of chemical
fertilizers and pesticides.
Mitochondria -- Mitochondria are the rod-shape
organelles found in the cytoplasm of cells. They are the source of energy
in the
cell and are involved in protein synthesis and lipid metabolism.
Moment arm -- The perpendicular distance from the line of pull of a muscle to the axis of rotation.
Moment Of Force -- See Torque.
Motor unit -- The basic unit of movement: a motor nerve fiber and all of the muscle fibers it supplies. In the muscle, one neuron can activate as many as 1,000 fibers. In the eye, where great precision is required, one nerve cell may control only 3 fibers.
Motor unit recruitment -- One of the factors
affecting strength. Refers to your ability to get maximum stimulation through
the
nervous system to trigger the maximum amount of muscle contractions.
This can be built up over time through heavy resistance
and explosive strength training.
Muscle -- Tissue consisting of fibers organized into bands or bundles that contract to perform bodily movement.
Muscle fiber -- Synonymous with muscle cell. See fiber.
Muscle fiber arrangement -- Long fibers
are created for large movements and speed rather than strength. Short fibers
are
designed for strength with a lesser movement capability. Knowledge
of fiber arrangement can help you train muscle groups in a
scientific manner.
Muscle pull (strain) -- Major or minor
damage to muscles from excessive stretching or use. The key to avoiding
muscle pulls is
proper conditioning and strict adherence to a thorough program of warm-up
and cool-down.
Muscle spasm -- Sudden, involuntary contraction of muscle or muscle group.
Muscle spindle -- The "computer" of muscle
tissue, a modified fiber which responds reflexively to mental impulses
and muscle
movement such as stretching. Measures and delivers the quantity of
muscle force needed to perform a given action.
Muscle tone -- The degree of tension and
vigor in a gross muscle. Muscle tone is increased through weight training,
which results
in a greater number of muscle fiber "firing" while at rest.
Myofibril -- The functional units within muscle fibers that cause contractions. The more you have, the greater your strength.
Myofibrillarization -- increasing myofibrils -- is achieved with the use of heavy weight training.
Myofilaments -- The elements of a muscle
cell which comprise myofibrils that actually shorten (thereby providing
contractile
force) by sliding across one another via action of "cross bridges."
They are comprised of the proteins actin and myosin.
Myoglobin -- An iron-containing protein
responsible for oxygen transport and storage in muscle tissue, similar
to hemoglobin in
blood.
Myoneural Junction -- The connection of a neuron to a muscle fiber.
Myosin -- The most abundant protein (68%)
in muscle fiber. It is the main constituent of the thick contractile filaments
which
overlap with the thin actin filaments in the biochemical sequence that
produces shortening or contraction of the sarcomere.
N
Nautilus -- Variable resistance-type exercise machine which attempts to match the amount of resistance with the user's force output. Arthur Jones, developer of Nautilus equipment in the 1970s is considered one of the true pioneers of fitness technology. He coined the term "Nautilus" because of the sea shell appearance of his earlier machines' cams. However, the concept of varying resistance by using offset cams was invented and in use during the 1800s in Europe. Jones' marketing strategy involved his widely adopted "one set to failure" principle. He disavowed it in the mid 80s, however (right after selling his business), and his legion of disciples (i.e., owners or sellers of his equipment) all but vanished.
Negative reps -- An eccentric contraction. This type of exercise is extremely damaging to connective tissue, and (according to the "cataclysmic" theory of overtraining) is the elemental factor in overtraining and cumulative microtrauma.
Neuromuscular re-education (NMR) -- Therapy involving deep rolfing massage and neurological stimulation to eliminate painful strength- and movement-limiting adhesions and scar tissue in muscles caused by trauma. Developed by Drs. Gary Glum and Joseph Horrigan, Los Angeles chiropractors specializing in soft-tissue injuries in sports.
Neurotransmitter -- A biochemical that spans the gaps between nerve cells, transmitting an electrical impulse.
Nitrogen balance -- An estimate of the difference between nitrogen intake and output in the body to measure protein sufficiency. Derived by subtracting amount of urea nitrogen in a urine sample from an individual's total protein intake. If urea value is larger than protein intake, the nitrogen balance is negative, indicating that not enough protein was eaten to meet the body's nutritional needs. In this situation, muscle protein is sacrificed to provide additional protein to fund metabolic processes. Prolonged negative balance results in muscle wasting. Positive nitrogen balance is achieved by ingesting complete protein to meet the body's metabolic needs.
Non-resistance training -- Training without weights in which you pit muscle strength against body weight to develop general and aerobic fitness. Includes mild running, calisthenics, jumping, skipping, swimming, and bicycling.
Nordihydroguaiaretic Acid -- NDGA is used
as an antioxidant in fats and oils. It occurs in resinous exudates of many
plants, particularly the chapparal bush.
O
Octacosanol -- The active, energy-boosting component of wheat germ oil which is known to improve endurance, reaction time, and muscle glycogen storage. Taken as a supplement.
Origin -- The attachment of a muscle to the less moveable or proximal (closer to the center of the body) structure.
Ornithine -- Ornithine is produced in the urea cycle by splitting off the urea from arginine and is itself converted into citrulline. On decomposition it gives rise to putrescine. It has been demonstrated to be of value as a growth hormone stimulator when administered intravenously; there is no solid evidence that it stimulates growth hormone to a significant degree (enough to stimulate muscle growth) when taken orally.
Ornithine Alphaketoglutarate (OKG) -- OKG has been clinically shown to:
Overload principle -- Applying a greater load than normal to a muscle to increase its capability.
Overtraining -- Excessive training, principally of the eccentric contraction phase of pulling weights or running. Can cause injuries, loss of body weight, insomnia, anorexia, depression, chronic muscle soreness and retard workout recovery.
Overuse Syndrome -- Injury resulting from overtraining.
Oxidation -- Oxidation is the chemical act of combining with oxygen or of removing hydrogen.
Oxidative Sports -- Sports wherein oxygen must be present to allow movement to continue (see ATP/CP Sports and Glycolytic Sports).
Oxygen debt -- The oxygen consumed in recovery
from exercise above the amount that would normally be consumed at rest.
In intense endurance activities, oxygen debt refers to the amount of oxygen
that is "owed" to the system to oxidize lactic acid build-up. One's tolerance
for an accumulated debt is generally proportional to the level of fitness.
P
Partial reps -- Performing an exercise without going through a complete range of motion. Exercise mythology has it that one must exercise a muscle through a full range of motion of the joint upon which the muscle acts in order not to become "muscle bound" and to derive maximum strength and growth. In reality, partial movements often provide better overload because more weight can be moved.
Peak contraction -- Exercising a muscle until it cramps by using shortened movements.
Peptide -- A peptide is any member of a class of compounds of low molecular weight which yield two or more amino acids on hydrolysis. Formed by loss of water from the NH2 and COOH groups of adjacent amino acids, they are known as di-, tri-, tetra- (etc.) peptides, depending on the number of amino acids in the molecule. Peptides ("polypeptides")form the constituent parts of proteins.
Peridoxine Alphaketoglutarate (PAK) -- Vitamin B6 (peridoxine) is ionically combined with the complexing agent, alphaketoglutarate to form a high energy compound. It is widely used as a nutritional supplement by athletes wishing to improve energy output.
Periodization --
Phosphorus -- Works with calcium to build up bones and teeth. Provides a key element in the production of ATP. Dietary sources: animal protein, whole grains.
Physiology -- The study of the body's functions.
Plyometrics -- A system of training whereby you use an implement or the ground as resistance to develop muscle tissue elasticity and stretch reflex threshold for quick explosive strength.
Post-exercise muscle soreness -- Microtrauma to connective tissue releases an amino acid called hydroxyproline which, within 48 hours, causes irritation to local nerve endings, triggering pain. Typically occurs from exertion or concentrated movement after a long period of disuse but even affects the most physically fit athletes after excessively stressful exercise.
Potassium -- Teams with sodium to regulate body's water balance and heart rhythms. Nerve and muscle function are disturbed when the two minerals are not balanced. Insufficient potassium can lead to fatigue, cramping and muscle damage. Dietary sources: citrus, cantaloupe, green leafy vegetables, bananas.
Power -- Strength with speed (Power = force X distance divided by time).
Power training -- System of weight training using low repetitions and explosive movements with heavy weights.
Preload -- The stretching of a muscle prior to contracting it, thereby providing both a "stretch reflex" and a viscoelastic component, adding to the total force output.
Progressive resistance -- The basic principle of weight training where weight is increased as muscles gain strength and endurance.
Protease -- Proteases are a category of
enzymes which attack specific bonds between amino acids and proteins. The
proteases break amino acid bonds to split up the protein molecule into
smaller pieces of lined amino acids.
Examples of proteases are renin and pepsin; these enzymes can be found
in animals. Rennin is used in the thickening of milk and is isolated from
the stomach of the calf; pepsin is found in the gastric juices of humans
and other animals where it breaks down proteins at specific places.
Protein -- One of the three basic foodstuffs
-- along with carbohydrates and fat. Proteins are complex substances present
in all living organisms. It comprises 90 percent of the dry weight of blood,
80 percent of muscles, and 70 percent of the skin. Protein provides the
connective and structural building blocks of tissue and primary constituents
of enzymes, hormones and antibodies. The components of protein are amino
acids. Dietary protein is derived from both animal and plant foods.
Protein is essential for growth, the building of new tissue, and the
repair of injured or broken-down tissue. They serve as enzymes, structural
elements, hormones, immunoglobulins, etc. and are involved in oxygen transport
and other activities throughout the body, and in photosynthesis. Protein
can be oxidized in the body, liberating heat and energy at the rate of
four calories per gram.
Protein efficiency ratio (PER) -- A system of rating the quality of dietary protein by the number and proportions of the essential amino acids contained in it. Eggs rank highest. They contain all eight essential amino acids in a proportion regarded as the most readily assimilable and usable combination of naturally-occurring amino acids. Eggs are the standard by which all other protein sources are rated for assimilability.
Proprioception-- An organism's detection of stimuli by sensory receptors called "proprioceptors."
Proprioceptor -- Sensory organs found in muscles, tendons, joints and skin which sense and provide information about movement, body position and environment.
Pulmonary (ventilatory) capacity -- The efficiency of gas exchange in the lungs.
Pumped -- Slang term to describe the tightness in a muscle made large through exercise. The pumped sensation results from blood engorgement and lactic acid accumulation in the exercised muscle.
Pyramid Training -- A training protocol incorporating an upward- then-downward progression in pulling weight, rep-per-rep or set-per-set.
Pyruvic Acid -- Pyruvic acid is the end product of the glycolytic pathway. This three-carbon metabolite is an important junction point for two reasons: it is the gateway to the final common energy-producing pathway, the Krebs cycle; and it provides acetyle coenzyme A (acetyl CoA), through which fatty acids, and in turn fat, are produced from glucose. Pyruvic acid converts to lactic acid as needed. Pyruvic acid increases in quantity in the blood and tissues in thiamine (vitamin B-1) deficiency. Thiamine is essential for its oxidation.