YSGARTH WORLDBOOK
Copyright 1983, 1991, 1992
David F. Nalle

I: INTRODUCTION 
	This is a book intended primarily for the GameMaster.  
while it could be of use in helping a player to understand 
the world in which he plays, such knowledge is essential for 
the GM, who designs and monitor his world and scenarios. 
He can then pass the information on to his players with the 
coloring which he feels is most appropriate.  The fantasy 
campaign world is every bit as complex as the real world, 
and this requires work and knowledge, work from the GM 
based on the general knowledge which is presented here. 
	In RoleCraft and SpellCraft we saw myriad systems 
for handling character interraction in the fantasy world in 
every conceivable situation.  In running a world charts and 
tables are not enough.  There are a few mathematical 
analogues and general principles of world design which can 
be expressed in forr numerical relationships, but the vast 
majority of the work of creating the world will rest with the 
GM and his imagination. 
	Both designing and operating the fantasy world 
should be the work of a strong and active imagination, but 
even the most imaginative GM needs a solid basis of realism 
and theory to work from.  While the fantasy world should 
not be an exact clone of the real world, there are patterns 
and models in the real world which can be used to design a 
fantasy world which, while fantastical, still has an 
underpining of believable patterns of growth and life which 
will help players take it seriously.  This book is about the 
craft of world building and is full of examples and principles 
taken from history, science and from the world of Ysgarth. 
	Because the world of Ysgarth is described here in 
some detail, it would be easy to run campaigns set in the 
world as it stands.  This is a logical way to save effort if you 
aren't up to doing a complete world on your own, or a good 
way to start out if you just want to get familiar with the 
system.  Even so the GM will have to do a lot of work on 
specific situations and scenarios, and in fleshing out the 
world from the basics provided here.  For more experienced 
GameMasters or those who have the time to do the work, 
we recommend Ysgarth as an example and the material 
given here as a guideline for creating a world suited to what 
you want to do.  The main characteristic of Ysgarth as a 
game is flexibility and we hope that the ideas and rules we 
provide can be adapted to whatever kind of setting you 
want to create.  Whatever course you choose this book 
should help with examples and specific information.  What 
seems like a mere description of one world can be extended 
as principle and practiced in any world which has a similar 
basis. 

II: GEOGRAPHY, FLORA AND FAUNA
	If you are going to have a fantasy world it will 
probably need land, sea, weather, and other natural 
settings which are an essential backdrop and basis for life as 
we know it, though you can introduce some pretty wild 
variations on those basic concepts.  There are several areas 
of world creation which should be outlined, and these can 
be well illustrated from the world of Ysgarth.  Most of the 
material in this section refers to Map #1.
 
2.1:  SHAPING THE WORLD 
	While we could go into plate tectonics, continental 
drift, and the hard technical background which goes into a 
world's birth, that information can be looked up in any basic 
geography text, and the results of that long process are far 
more important for world design than their mechanics.  Just 
what your world looks like is up to you, and what you 
really need are some limits within which to fit it. 
	Most of our world is sea, though this need not be so in 
your world.  Our land is made up of a number of mid-sized 
masses, usually grouped together, but surrounded by sea.  
The sea features trenches and ridges, islands, volcanoes, 
and currents.  The land is just as variable, with rivers, lakes, 
volcanoes, fault lines, mountains, steppes, and the like.  The 
easiest way to set up your world is to get a good atlas with 
detail and a variety of information, including ethnographic, 
climate and geophysical data.  This can be used as resource 
material, and using variations on real geography, or even 
tracing parts of different regions and piecing them together 
in a different order can produce a realistic but unfamiliar 
map. 
	In discussing all this we'll be using Ysgarth as an 
example frequently, so some aspects ought to be defined 
from the start.  Ysgarth is not actually the name of the 
world.  The actual name of the world varies depending on 
who you ask.  Ysgarth is the name which was given to 
their part of the world by a people called the Aes and their 
cousins the Saes quite a few years ago when they 
conquered a large part of one of the four major continents.  
The part known as Ysgarth is the western section of a 
double continent.  The people of its sister continent, 
separated from it by great natural barriers, call their world 
Jahannam.  The people of the continent to the south believe 
they live in Arojika and the people to the far east live in 
what they call Sind.  These names are generally applied to 
identify the four continents.  The world of Ysgarth is not 
actually an entire world.  The region called Ysgarth actually 
the western section of a major continent which is separated 
from other parts of the world by natural barriers. 
	Examine Map #1.  This shows the main area of 
Ysgarth.  Ignore the letters, numbers and heavy lines of 
division for the moment, and examine the geophysical 
details.  Mountains are shown with contour lines of 1000 feet 
each, which makes the highest mountain some 6000ft high, 
an acceptable height for a region roughly equivalent to 
Europe.  There are a variety of mountains, and several 
mountain ranges, generally running north-south as they 
do in North and South America. The coastline is varied, 
generally fairly rough, but not featuring the extreme 
glaciation of parts of Northern Europe, though the 
mountains, steppes and the northern coast are the work of 
prior glaciation.  There are a number of rivers, mostly short 
and originating in mountain regions.  There are few islands, 
mostly similar in form and climate to those found in the 
northern parts of the British Isles.  Of particular and 
unusual note is the large black area on the map, which 
indicates the Great Abyss, which is a rift, similar to the 
Grand Canyon, but much larger, being some 800-1000 miles 
in length, and 50 to 75 miles wide. When actually observed it 
is not black, but it was given this color on the map to set it 
apart.  Canyons of this size do not exist on our earth, 
though they are common on Mars where geological 
development took more severe routes.  In fact, the Abyss is 
so wide that when standing on the edge there are no areas 
in which the viewer would be able to see the far side, 
because of the curvature of the planet.  A river runs down 
the middle of the Abyss, because it is unavoidable that 
many rivers would erode their way into this depressed area 
and feed it.  The river ends in the Central Sea through 
rather impressive waterfall.  The cliffs at the edge are l00 to 
500 feet in height, so most of the Abyss is above sea level.  
Before making such a geophysical anomaly you should 
consider its origin, reason for be effects on ecology and 
related physical features. The Abyss has both natural and 
supernatural justifications and no one is sure which are 
correct.
	There are a few things to remember as general 
principles about geography.  First, rivers run downhill.  
They flow from melting mountain ice caps or from natural 
springs into large bodies of water which are at sea level or a 
lower level than them.  They always go from a source of 
water to a gathering point of water.  Most rivers run south, 
east or west from their origin, and very few run north, the 
Nile being our world's major north-running river. 
	Think about what made your coastline.  Glaciation 
will leave a rough, cliffy coastline, as is found in northern 
regions.  Extreme glaciation will create such things as fjords, 
which are deep channels surrounded by mountains.  The 
major fjords in the United States are mostly in Washington 
state, among them Puget Sound.  The only fjord on the east 
coast is Somes Sound in Maine.  Fjords are much more 
common in Scandinavia.  Lesser glacial coasts are often 
shaped by wind, and coasts facing open sea are often much 
rougher and rocky than those facing channels and bays.  
Consider placement of natural harbors, which should be 
protected from sea-winds.  Sand beaches are usually only 
found on relatively sheltered bodies of water, and in 
southern regions where the coast is shaped primarily by 
erosion rather than glaciation.  You might also want to think 
about navigable rivers and fresh-water lakes and river-
harbors and river transport routes.  Of course, man-made 
canals are also a very viable feature of a medieval/fantasy 
setting.
	As for your oceans and lakes, lakes are mainly 
gathering points for rivers, though some are large basins 
scooped out by glaciers, like the Scottish Lochs.  These are 
deeper than most other lakes.  Oceans are big, but they can 
be of most any size. They are almost always connected, at 
least by a river, and then tend to wear down blocking land 
to join together with a wider channel.  Tides and erosion 
should be kept in mind.  Islands can be created by any of 
the same conditions which shape mountains, and are 
basically mountains surrounded by water.  Glacially formed 
islands are usually flatter with more varied terrain, most 
similar to the coastal areas near them, as they are merely 
land cut off from the coast by glacier-dug channels or 
erosion.  Coastal islands can sometimes be joined to the land 
by a tidal sand-bar or causeway, and need not be 
mountainous in origin.  Deep sea islands are almost always 
submerged mountains, either volcanic or glacial in origin.
	Mountains can be formed in three major ways.  The 
largest mountains are made when two continental plates 
meet and push against each other.  In these areas the 
earth's crust buckles, sending up mountains as high as 
several miles, in long ranges, such as the Himalayas.  Most of 
your mountains should not be of this sort, and few should 
be over a mile or two.  It is always tempting to make a 
mountain higher than Everest, but it is better to refrain, as 
gravity and other conditions on an earthlike world set a 6 or 
7 mile limit, though on a world like Mars which is more 
violently active and of smaller gravity this limit might be 
doubled. Mountains of this sort will be eroded, so they are 
not always going to be as tall and as craggy as they are 
when they are young.  It is also possible for volcanoes to 
form mountains, though these are usually more modest.  
Volcanoes come in groups and strings, and often coincide at 
least partly to areas of buckling crust or unstable fault lines.  
The final type of mountains are about the same height as 
volcanoes, but less cone-shaped and more dome-like.  Both 
types run not much higher than l0,000ft.  This last type is 
formed by glaciers, and unlike the others, the mountains 
are not pushed up, rather, the ground around them is 
scooped out by the pressure of the glacier and they are 
really more like piles of rock picked up by a glacier and then 
deposited when it leaves.  This usually happens in an area 
which was generally elevated, so it results in rounded 
mountains and sharp valleys, though this shape can 
change with erosion.
 	As for what might be considered more common 
terrain, the hills, valleys, plains, and fields of the more 
densely populated regions, there are a few basic rules.  
Rivers usually run in valleys, and these are usually the 
most fertile areas, as the currents carry silt and deposit it 
there. Not all rivers have flood plains or swampy deltas, but 
they are particularly common in rivers which flow through 
very flat territory.  Rivers either choose courses already 
existing between elevated areas, or cut a course in softer 
earth, causing the land around them to become hills.  
Swamps tend to form on low altitude border areas between 
rivers and the sea.  Steppes should be considered, but they 
are not very fertile and best for grazing herds and hunting.  
Glacial regions feature a lot of rocky hills deposited or cut 
out by glacial action.  Mesas can be formed by wind and 
water erosion and can be eroded down into hills.  Generally, 
look around and think about the terrain you know.  It is 
the best way to get an idea of other possibilities.  Some good 
atlasses also feature photos of different types of terrain.
 	The other important aspect of geology, especially in a 
game context is the presence and quantity of key minerals.  
For this you might want to consult a geology text, or an 
encyclopedia, as well as an atlas, which may have a resource 
map.  There are certain minerals and other substances 
which were available and in great demand in the middle 
ages, and thus in the fantasy world.  Chief among these are 
Iron, Copper, Salt, Tin, Clay, Lead, Peat, and Nickel.  These 
are all about in different quantities and qualities.  Iron is 
especially convenient, as it can be found easily in bogs.  Peat 
can be found in moor-type areas and in bogs, and makes an 
excellent fuel.  All of these, except nickel can be obtained 
with minimal mining.  Nickel is harder to find, usually in 
meteors, and is only used by more technically advanced 
societies, in alloying steel.  Other elements are also useful 
and easily available. Remember that not all areas are mineral 
rich, and that heavy concentrations of minerals may effect 
agriculture and other aspects of life in the area.  This is best 
illustrated with reference to Map #1.  The lettered areas 
represent different mineral distribution regions. The specific 
minerals represented are:

A: Iron, Titanium, Molybdenum, Copper, Lead, Gold, Zinc, 
S: Silver, Mica, Sulphur, Nitrates, Phosphates. 
B: Iron, Mercury, Titanium, Copper, Lead, Nickel, Gold, Silver, Aluminum, Tungsten. 
C: Nitrates, Phosphates, Sulpher, Mercury, Aluminum, Zinc, Salt. 
D: Iron, Copper, Salt. 
E: Tin, Coooer, Clay. 
F: Lead, Zinc, Salt, Iron. 
G: Iron, Cobalt, Lead, Copper, Sulphur, Uranium. 
H: Mercury, Salt, Asbestos, Talc, Lead, Borax, Tungsten, Iron. 
I: Clay, Iron, Mangenese, Lead, Zinc, Nickel, Copper,  Aluminum.
 
	Those minerals which are underlined are unusually 
large concentrations in those areas.  The uses of these 
materials are many.  Other important substances which are 
not mentioned include building-quality stone, peat and 
petroleum (which aren't really minerals), and some of the 
rarer elements and precious stones.  Exact quantities are 
variable, and this indicates the presence of that mineral in 
the area, not specific mines or veins or their accessibility.  It 
just means that that mineral is present to be mined or 
gathered in that region in an amount large enough to 
justify the effort.
 
2.2  CLIMATE AND WEATHER 
	The weather and climate in a region can be quite 
important to lifestyle, culture, and every day events. We 
have divided climate in Ysgarth into 9 main divisions. These 
play a role in weather and agriculture.  They are not the 
only climates possible, but they are the ones best suited to 
heavily populated, temperate regions.  On Map #1 the land 
area is divided into sections which are numbered.  These 
numbers indicate the climate type within that region, which 
indicates changes of temperature, rainfall, and associated 
elements.  It also has effect on crops and vegetation, but this 
is explained in section 2.3.  The nine climates are given below 
with their descriptions.
 
		Spring	Summer	Fall		Winter
#  Description	Tem	Pre	Tem	Pre	Tem	Pre	Tem	Pre
1  Rainy, mild winter, always moist.	52 	2  	62 	2	48 	1	38 	1
	Analog: London	
2  Rainy, severe winter, always moist.	44 	1	59 	3	43 	2   	14 	1
 	Analog:Moskow. 
3  Rainy, dry summer, mild winter. 	58 	2	73 	1	67 	4 	47 	2
	Analog:Rome. 
4  Rainy, mild winter, always moist.	52 	2	71 	2	57 	2  	32 	2
	Analog:Belgrad. 
5  Semi-arid steppe, cool and dry.	35 	1	69 	2	38 	1  	1  	1
	Analog:Tselinograd. 
6  Rainy, severe winter, always moist.	33 	1	60 	3	33 	3  	8  	1
	Analog:Archangel. 
7  Rainy, severe winter, always moist.	46 	3	66 	5	52 	3  	32 	3
	Analog:New York. 
8  Rainy, dry in winter.	67 	4	81 	5	65 	4  	46 	1
	Analog:Chungking. 
9  Semi-arid, warm, dry in summer. 	61 	1	78 	0	69 	2  	54 	3
	Analog:Tripoli.

These are general climate descriptions, but they can serve 
as a good guide for working out more detail.  Tem indicates 
temperature.  Temperatures are average for the season, in 
degrees farennheit.  Variation is usually plus or minus 20% 
as appropriate.  Pre stands for precipitation, in terms of 
average inches per month during that season.  The analog 
cities should help give a concrete idea of the conditions.
	Weather patterns change, but generally those 
seasons with higher levels of precipitation are more cloudy 
and wet.  Generally there is more precipitation at higher 
altitudes, and lower temperatures.  The greater the change 
in temperature between seasons the greater the winds, 
especially around the time of the season change.  Coastal 
areas tend to be up to 5% warmer than inland areas in the 
same climate zone, although the variation is less in the 
summer, and may even be reversed to the same degree in a 
windy season.  Wind Chill may lower the temperature in 
any season or circumstance and extreme humidity makes 
the effective temperature in an area seem higher.
	As far as storms and severe weather, you should 
establish storm patterns appropriate to the climate zones in 
your world.  Many areas are subject to extreme seasonal 
storms, such as the monsoons in coastal areas of Asia or the 
Hurricane season in the Gulf of Mexico. Storms tend to 
emerge on the border area between different climate zones.  
Where a hot arid area meets a cool, moist area you are going 
to have storms, especially if there is a large body of water 
involved or a change of season.
 	Don't let these examples limit your climate possibilities.  
There actually are areas which range from being hot and 
arid in the summer to cool and moist in the winter with 
storms punctuating the change of seasons, so almost 
anything is possible.  Remember to take weather into 
account in running your world, in determining patterns of 
trade and the lifestyle appropriate for people in the region.

2.3  CROPS & VEGETATION
	Once you have established the bare bones of a 
world, you are ready to flesh it out with living things.  It is 
always good to start at the most basic level, with plants and 
growing things, because more complex lifeforms rely on 
them for sustenance. 
	Climate has a great deal to do with what grows 
where and how well.  For the purposes of world design 
vegetation can be divided into two types, natural and 
cultivated.  Different natural flora grow in different climates, 
and cultivated crops are also better suited to some climates 
than others.  These can both be keyed to the nine climate 
types given in section 2.2, which are illustrated on Map #1, 
though adaptable to any world. 
	Given below is a chart of these nine climate types and 
both the natural and cultivated vegetation.  Included 
under the cultivated classification are the domestic animals 
suited to that climate, as all food sources should be looked at 
together for a comprehensive understanding.

Climate	Natural Vegetation
1	Broadleaf Forest, Deciduous Trees, Mountain Scrub
2	Mixed Forest, Broadleaf and Conifer, Taiga, Mountain Scrub
3	Mediterranean Scrub, Citrus, Olive, Short Grass
4	Broadleaf Forest, Mountain Scrub, Conifer, Spruce, Fir
5	Steppe Scrub, Short Grass, Prairie, Long Grass, Taiga, Shrub Growth
6	Boreal Forest, Taiga, Tundra, Moss, Lichen
7	Broadleaf Forest, Deciduous, Conifer, Long Grass
8	Dry Tropical, Scrub, Thorn, Semi-Deciduous, Selva
9	Desert, Shrub, Grass, Cactus, Short Grass, Scrub, Citrus

Climate	Cultivated Crops/Domestic Animals
1	Oats, Wheat, Barley, Horticulture, Fodder
	Sheep, Dairy Cattle, Pigs
2	Barley, Oats, Rye, Potatoes, Forage Crops
	Dairy Cattle
3	Horticulture, Grapes, Cotton, Citrus, Wheat
	Sheep, Goats, Pigs
4	Wheat, Maize, Rice, Truck Farming
	Beef Cattle, Poultry
5	Fodder, Wheat, Maize, Millet
	Cattle, Sheep, Horses
6	Barley, Oats, Rye, Forage Crops
	Goats
7	Wheat, Millet, Maize, Soy, Forage
	Cattle, Sheep
8	Wheat, Maize, Rice, Truck Farming
	Beef Cattle, Poultry
9	Millet, Wheat, Date Palms
	Sheep, Goats, Horses

Climate	Wild Animals
1	Deer, Bear, Squirrel, Fox, Bobcat, Thrush, Titmouse, Woodpecker
2	Deer, Bear, Squirrel, Fox, Bobcat, Hare, Mole, Shrew, Wolf
3	Deer, Bear, Squirrel, Fox, Hare, Thrush, Titmouse
4	Deer, Bear, Fox, Bobcat, Wolf, Thrush, Titmouse, Woodpecker
5	Deer, Auroch, Hawk, Wolf, Squirrel, Groundhog
6	Moose, Deer, Bear, Wild Goat, Lynx, Bobcat, Shrew, Grouse, Hawk, Wolf
7	Deer, Bear, Wild Goat, Thrush, Titmouse, Hawk, Hare
8	Deer, Squirrel, Fox, Hare, Thrush, Titmouse
9	Snakes, Rodents, Lizards, Deer, Antelope, Hyena, Lion

Natural vegetation is given in order of importance in the 
region.  The first item given is the general description for the 
area.  The following items are lesser presences in the area, or 
elements of the main group.  Broadleaf forest includes 
deciduous trees, such as maple, oak, and the like.  Conifers 
include all the evergreens, such as spruce, fir, and larch.  
Boreal Forest is the same as taiga, a conifer forest dominated 
by spruce and fir.  Selva is tropical rain forest and jungle.
	This gives the quality of growth in an area and its 
specific nature, but not the quantity or yield of given crops.  
Generally, at a medieval level of agriculture only 5 to 15 
percent of the land in a region was under cultivation or in 
use for grazing.  The average farm was 4-13 acres, with 
serfs holding 2-5 acres, and villages averaging 20-35 acres of 
common land.  Freeholders and manor-lords would have 
much larger land holdings, around 90-120 acres.  Each acre 
of land yielded 700-20000 pounds of grain, but usually 
averaging 1000-2000 lbs under normal conditions and 
cultivation methods.  This is assuming 275 lbs of grain were 
planted per acre, which is the amount necessary for full 
yield.  A single farm-worker can work and maintain 2-4 acres 
of land.  Grain is equivalent, roughly, to feed for animals, so 
it can be used as the measure of agricultural production.  
Grazing animals generally require more land, but less 
tending, so they balance out in work and other aspects to 
the grain which would produce an egual amount of 
consumable food.  The price of grain and other foodstuffs 
should vary, from .5 to 1.5 Silver Marks.  Remember that 
weather can drastically reduce a harvest, and around 300 
pounds of each acre's crop should be saved to plant for the 
next season.  Another cause of loss of stored grain is rats and 
other vermin, which in some areas and some years can 
consume an enormous amount of grain.  Without 
precautions, in an area where rats and other rodents 
abound, as much as a third of grain stored for a year may 
be consumed.
 	With this talk of crops and food-yield it is important to 
consider food consumption, which also lowers the saleable 
portion of a crop.  In grain and meat each peasant consumes 
the equivalent of 400-4501bs of grain per year, which 
means that between eating and saving for planting, very 
little would be left in a year with a poor harvest.  The middle 
class and nobility consume the equivalent of some 700-
800lbs of grain per year.
 	Everyone has to eat, so crops and vegetation can be 
very, very important, and should be kept track of to some 
degree for your world, so that you can fill in background 
and political/economic situations realistically.  Remember 
that yield is much lower with un-cultivated land, and 
different agricultural techniques yield different results.  
Societies which subsist by foraging found grain require 
very large amounts of land.  Societies which practice slash 
and burn agriculture or very simple two field rotation 
systems require about 80 acres per person.  A more 
advanced three field rotation system can cut the land 
requirement to less than 40 acres of land per person.  
Introduction of better plows, hybrid grains and limited 
amounts of mechanization can improve yields even further.  
Also remember that different terrain and quality of land can 
alter the yield considerably.  To produce the same amount 
of grain in a montainous or steppe region that you can 
produce in a river valley or a flood plain you need as muc as 
three to five times the land. 

2.4:  CREATURES OF THE NATURAL WORLD 
	Most worlds are not only populated by plants.  They 
also feature a variety of creatures which feed on those 
plants and on each other.  Animal life includes a broad 
range of creatures, among them man and the other 
intelligent races. 
	Many GMs overlook the potential and importance of 
natural creatures and prefer to think uP a vast array of 
strangely constituted beings, with weird powers and 
natures, often completely inappropriate to the environment 
they have created.  Yet, there is almost infinite variety in 
nature, and myriad forms of deadly creatures no farther 
than the nearest zoo.  This unrealistic over-creativeness 
leads to a series of one-shot creatures who can surprise 
players once, but only once, with little lasting value.  Each 
time a GM adds another illogical creature which could not 
possibly exist in the world environment he may spice up an 
adventure, but he detracts from the believability of his 
world and the ability of his players to take that world 
seriously.  Many natural creatures can be used time and 
again, fitting realistically in game context, without being out 
of place or limited in usefulness.  When you do add unusual 
creatures, let them be the work of magic, summoned from 
somewhere else or from the demented imagination of a 
mage and by their nature alien to the environment and not 
somehow awkwardly squeezed into it. 
	Every creature should have a place in the ecology of 
your world.  When you decide to have a player meet up 
with a beast of some sort, think about what that creature is 
doing there, how he got there, how he keeps alive, 
whether he is a pack animal with pack-mates near, and 
other important elements of the animal's life.  You should be 
aware of the entirety of the creature's existence beyond the 
limited context of a single encounter.  You should know his 
needs and aims, and he should not always be a mindless 
and ferocious monster attacking all who come near.  Animals 
have varied motivations, and they do not always react with 
hostility.  They are just as likely to flee as to attack, and many 
only fight when cornered. 
	In outlining animal life in your world there are several 
general types which are important and should be 
considered.  First we should look at the food chain.  There 
are grazing and other herbiverous animals, which feed on 
plants.  There are omniverous animals which feed on other 
animals or insects and on plants.  Finally there are carnivores 
who live mainly on other animals.  There are many sub-
groups, such as carrion-eating animals, or grub-eating 
animals, but these are the three main divisions.  Each of 
these groups has many examples in different areas and 
climes.  Some common herbivores are cows, goats, sheep, 
giraffes, horses, moose, and all of the hooved and horned 
animals, plus most of the rodents, and many birds.  
Omnivores include apes, bears, some rodents, some birds, 
and human beings as well.  Carnivores include all of the 
great predators, plus the carrion eaters, cats, wolves, dogs, 
many birds, most reptiles, and a few additional types.  The 
exact species in each group can vary from place to Place. On 
the chart below the major wild animals are given for each of 
the # climate areas given on Map #1.

Climate	Animals
1	Deer, bear, squirrel, fox, bobcat, thrush, titmouse, woodpecker. 
2	More or less as 1, plus hare, mole, shrew, wolf. 
3	More or less as 1.
4	More or less as 2.
5	Antelope, deer, hawk, wolf, squirrel. 
6	Moose, deer, bear, hare, lynx, bobcat, squirrel, mole, shrew, grouse, hawk,
	wolf, chipmunk. 
7	More or less as 1.
8	More or less as 1.
9   	Snake, rodents, lizard, deer, antelope, hyena, lion.
 
This is by no means a definitive list, and there are great 
variationsch attracted the dark-skinned Massanda and Ka'anda tribesmen of Arojika and their valuable cargoes of slaves and unusual woods.

3.3: MIGRATIONS, CONQUEST, AND LANGUAGES
	In any relatively primitive world a significant portion of the
population will be nomadic or semi-nomadic, and larger portions will be
oriented towards conquest, or will have made an exodus or migration at
some time.  on earth most peoples were guite mobile in these ways into
the middle-ages, and active contentory continued well into the 19th
century.  The wars of the 20th century cannot be counted as they were not
really territorial.  Expanding population on a geometric scale led to
massive population movements in the pre-agricultural period, and in the
medieval period the same pressures resulted in conquest and colonisation.
Examples of this tendancy are the barbarian conguests in Europe, the
Mongol invasions, the Viking conquests and raids, and finally the
Crusades.  Population growth and the need to move to new grazing areas or
find cultivatable land led to the migration phase.  The conquest phase
was the result of primogeniture and related systems of inheritance which
left all land-holdings to the first son, and left the other children with
little to do and few opportunities for power.  Many entered the church,
as ecclesiastical advancement was easy, and this led to the great growth
of the church in the middle ages.  Others preferred the martial
tradition, and since they couldn't rule at home they went out to carve
new kingdoms, in England, Normandy, Italy, the Middle East, and many
other areas, by land and sea, as raiders, or conguering armies.  This
worked well, as even raiders or failed con#uerers either killed
themselves off, or stole enh to raise their status.  This leads to a lot
of movement and a number of intsting tensions and opportunities.
	Similar and parallel situations are in force in the world of
Ysgarth, and historical migrations also took place.  These can be
illustrated and explained with reference to Map 2, which shows the rough
regions of dominance of different tribes and the general Patterns of
migration, which are numbered for reference.
	One note should be made before examining the specific migrations.
Ysgarth time is noted, or at least as far as we're concerned, from the
founding of Ptolias by Micoros Tolemi, a trader from Achaja on the far
side of the Abyss. He founded the city approximatly 600 years after the
Time of Cataclysm on the site of a native village.  Thus, all dates are
either before or after that time, as indicated with After Tolemeias (at),
and Before Tolemeias (bt).
	Vaen Tribes: Originally the steppes of northern Ysgarth were
settled by a race or tribal nomads roughly equivalent in characteristics
and nature to the races of Earth's scandinavian region.  They can be
divided into three original types, Vaen, Saes, and Ugrae.  of these the
vaen and Saes were the vast major, while the Ugrae are a minority,
racially separated from the other two more closely linked groups,
settling in the far north, and less migratory, subsisting by hunting and
gathering, rather than herding.  The first migration from this region was
the first Saes migration(l), in around 170bp, which went straight down
into the region labelled Saes, which was populated by a race called the
Etrua,who were conquered with ease and assimilated as the Saes Empire
grew.  The result was a race related to the Vaen, but worshiping Aesir
rather than Vanir gods, and adopting many gods from beyond the Abyss,
because of their proximity to the southern sea.  The general division
between the original Saes tribes and vaen tribes is in the Aesir/Vanir
religious division.  The second Saes migration was in 120ap to the north,
settling in the northern Gael area and the Gael islands (2).  These two
migrations were mainly because the Saes were more restless and war like
than the Vaen, and smaller in numbers, so they thought to find better
pickings elsewhere.  This resulted in Saes rulers and nobles in some of
the Gael kingdoms(see section on nations).  The third Vaen migration (3)
was actually a long series of migrations of smallish groups which settled
in parts of Northern Kymria, and came not as conquerors, but as
immigrants, and were mostly assimilated into the lower classes.  These
were actual Vaen, not Saes, and were the result of growing population.
They took Place from 450ap or so on, declining to a trickle by around
600ap, but never really ending.  The final outcome in the steppes was
that of about 30 tribes some 22 are pure Vaen, while 3 are Saes, though
they share little with the southern Saes, and the remaining 4 are
semi-settled Ugrae in the far north.
	Saes Empire: After reaching its geographical boundaries of the
Machar mountainss to the east and the River Cynfael to the north, and
setting some puppet rulers in buffer states on its borders, the Saes
Empire settled down to consolidate in around 290ap.  At this time
religious factions began to disrupt the large standing army which
remained in the empire, and the army was disbanded.  A large number of
disgruntled soldiers took their families onto ships and sailed north
along the coast, passing up well-defended Kymria, and settling in the
area between Kymric and Gael lands, con#uering the mixed race natives(4).
This was in about 380ap, and resulted in the states of Prydein and
Lloegyr.
	Kymria:  This area was settled and civilised early, with a stable
civsation, changing little after around lOObp.  The migration
indicated(5) is a slight northward shift into Prydein and Lloegyr to
settle some wild mountain areas in about 450-480ap.
 	Machar Kingdoms: Migration from the Machar kingdoms was in
reaction to inter problems and religious persecution, first north into
Kymria in 322ap(6), and then west into the Saes Empire in 640ap (7).
Generally the Machar regions are a bit sparsely populated, incapable of
supporting a large Population without advanced agriculture, so until they
develope some agricultural technology the Machar region will continue to
have some spill-over.
 	Gael Region: while the Gael engage in maratime trade, they
haven't really migrated, except in very small cross-border movements, and
have established some small, low-population fishing and farming kingdoms.
They are best described in the section on specific nations.
	Tolemeias: The settlement of Tolemeias (8) could be looked on as
a migration.  After its establishment by Micoros Tolemi it was favored by
a steady increase in trade over a 700 year period, and a continuing
growth in population, from a village of less than 1000 before the arrival
of Tolemi's trading mission to over 300,000 at around 700ap.  Settlers
came from the other side of the Abyss by a sea voyage of more than a
month, and from all the neighboring regions looking for opportunities for
economic advancement.
 	Non-Human Races: Non-humans are spread throughout human settled
areas, but in small m:nor:t:es.  Duerga and Valeya have their own
nations, and Trozards can be found mixed in with humans.  Chitare live
apart in isolated colonies, and are the rarest of the five races.
Migrations are hard to chart, as these races came to Ysgarth near the end
of the Time of Cataclysm, or even earlier in the case of Trozards and
Chitare.
	As for languages, they are generally linked closely to race or
tribe.  Gael is the dominant tongue in the Gael region, Kymraeg in the
Kymri region, and Machar in the Machar region.  In Saes a polyglot tongue
related to Machar and vaen, and with traces of ancient Etri is spoken,
and called Saes.  On the steppes Vaen, Old Saes and Etri are spoken.  In
border areas and areas of invasion and infiltration mixed tongues and
multiple tongues are spoken.  Ptolemeias is a sPecial case, and features
all races and all tongues.  In addition the merchants have developed a
Trade Speech, which is limited to a vocabulary of some 5,000 words, plus
a large number of technical terms totally artificial, but widely known
for trade purposes.  It is perhaps one of the single greatest civilising
forces in Ysgarth, because of the facility which it lends to any economic
or cultural exchange.
	These patterns should be some aid to GMs desiring to design and
pattern races, and work well as a guide to the distribution and status of
peoples and cultures.

3.4: NATIONS AND SOCIAL ORDER 
	As people develope more complex patterns of trade and
responsibility and the cther elements which we attach to civilisations
they tend to settle down in a particular region which they prefer for
location or agricultural capacity and to form nations and states.  The
earliest and simplest are tribal states or clans based on faaily and
ancestral ties, with most members of equal status, and shar and grazing
land in common.  The second stage, a step up from this, is the feudal
state, where a complex pattern of allegiances create a pyramidal
hierarchy of responsibility and debt, with each farmer pledged to the
lord of his region, those lords pledged to more powerful overlords, and
those overlords owing allegiance to a king.  There are many stages of
feudalism, ranging from the very basic land-based feudalism where holding
land is a sign of responsibility to the state and the land, and all land
is considered the property of the king, to the contractual feudalism of
the latermiddle ages, where the allegisnce of the individual to the state
is important as an abstract.  This later stage is important, because it
permits, and even encourages the growth of trade and cities because of
increased regional autonomy.  In such a situation a town-guild or combine
had the function of accepting feudal obligation in place of a lord.
Feudalism works in many forms, and is particularly effective and rigid in
conquered areas where local populations have been reduced to serf status,
the ideal situation for land-based feudalism.  Feudalism is a pyramidal
society, though it is not really in a perfect pyramid form.  In
land-feudalism the base is very broad and it narrows to a centralized
leadership, like a spire.  In contractual feudalism the base is broad,
but the slope is very gradual, and the point is not far above the base,
so that the leader may be only a few steps above the lower classes,
freemen are more likely than serfs, and the king may be little more than
the first-baron among peers.  Of course mixed systems are possible,
including elements of tribal government, theocracy, oligarchy, and
democracy.  Neighboring nations do not necessarily advance in this
process at the same rate, and a range of state-types can easily exist in
the same world.
	In the world of Ysgarth a good selection of states exists for
comparison of the different levels of development and possible
variations.  For this comparison, refer to Map #3, which shows the
general positions of the major states of Ysgarth.  Each of these is
described briefly here, with notes on the type of government and social
structure, culture, racial and linguistic breakdown, religion, and
notable facts and local color.
	Ynisgael, Thanet and Imaly: These island states are part of the
general Gael alliance.  Each is divided into a number of  independant
counties, each ruled by a Count and a number of lesser lords.  The
under-lords are Gael clan chieftains, and there are a total of 8 island
clans.  The Counts and their relations are Aescan by ancestry (See Map
#2, invasion 2).  The racial breakdown on the islands is 92% Vaen, with
3% Valeya, 2% mixed humans, and 3% Saes rulers.  Religion is primarily
Gael, with some Aesir worship, say 80% and 20%.
	Banchor, Ardmacha, and Llynan: These are the highland Gael
kingdoms.  They are land-based feudal, but with clans and chieftains in
place of regional lords, and a king who is the equivalent of a war-chief
for all the clans, representing a hereditarily dominant clan.  The
population is 85% Gael, with 3% Duergu and Valeyu, and the rest Saes who
have settled in clans.  Saes rule in Banchor and Ardmacha.  Religion is
by race and in roughly the same proportions, Aesir for the Saes and Gael
for the Gael.
	Gaeldoch, Hy & Argathylia: These are the lowland Gael regions.
They are land-based, feudal kingdoms.  They have some clan structured
areas and a number of normal manor lord situations.  Gaeldoch has an
Aescan ruling family, conquerors from the islands.  Argathylia has a
somewhat larger population of vaen and Kymri peoples.  Racial breakdown
is generally Gae1:85%, Aescan:4%, Vaen:8%, Kymri:2%, Others:l%.  Religion
is generally by race.  Hy is an island, and almost pure Gael in
population. Lloegyr and Prydein: These are situated as a buffer between
the Kymri and Gael, and are open to Vaen invasion in some areas.  As a
result they are racially and culturally mixed.  To make matters worse,
Lloegyr was conguered by Saes invaders, as mentioned in earlier.  In
Lloegyr the ruling class is of Saes descent, the middle class is of a
Gael related group called the Cumbrae, and the serfs are mostly Vaen.
Prydein is less stratified, with mostly Kymri rulers, and Cumbrae and
Vaen lower classes.  The racial breakdown for Lloegyr is Saes:l5%,
Cumbrae:30%, Vaen:50%, Kymri:3%, Others:2%.  Prydein is Vaen: 25%,
Kymri:35%, Cumbrae:30%, Saes:10%.  Religion is by race, but as these are
the southern, imperial Saes, and heretics to boot, Baldr is ranked double
the normal percentage, and Mithras ranks triple his normal portion of the
population.
	Seregond: Seregond is the kingdom of the Island Valeya or
Gwragedd.  They speak their own tongue, and tend to worship those Gael or
Kymri gods indicated as popular with Valeya, preferring sea-gods.  The
division is about even.  Their government is a loose land-feudalism.
	Ard-Galen, Andor, Nangaur: These are the three kingdoms of the
Mountain Valeya or Gwyllion.  They are rigid land-feudalism, but racially
un-mixed, though some Duerga are in the serf class.  There is a high rate
of atheism.  Otherwise they worship 80% Vanir gods, 20% Kymri gods.
	Ellyllon: These woodland Valeya are not organized.into nations,
but exist in tribes in many nations, inhabiting the wilder woodlands.
They are simple, nonarchical clan-structured societies.  They worship an
even mix of Vanir,Kymri, and Gael gods.
	Khuzdaral: This is the kingdom of the Dwerga, and is organized on
a high level of mercantile-based contractual- feudalism, with larger
cities, and a great deal of trade.  There are no slaves or serfs, but a
large number of Vaen are imed as paid labor.  The Population is about 20%
Vaen.  They worship mostly Vanir gods.
	The Vaen Steppes: As noted in section 3.2, the Vaen are organized
by tribe, and exist together under a very loose tribal structure.  The
only thing approaching a general government is the Vaenting, a meeting of
all tribes in the spring to settle inter-tribe disputes and trade.  At
this meeting a war-chief is elected from among the tribes in case of
conflict during the coming year.  They are racially mixed as noted in
3.2, and worship by race.
	Morganwc, Seisyllwch, Ceredigiawn, Ystrad-Tywi, Marchwc: These
are the five Kymri kingdoms.  The king of Morganwc is looked on as
High-King, and nominal feudal overlord of the area.  This is a
contractual feudal region, so his power over the others is limited, and
the society is not too highly stratified, with a fair number of towns,
and some social mobility.  Race is mostly Kymri, with some few others (4%
overall) mixed in.  Religion is almost all Kymri.
	Marsk, Suessiones,Frejsa: These are buffer states between the
Kymri area and the Saes Empire, mostly under the control of the Saes, and
made up of a mixed population, including Kymri, Kernwyk, Frejsa, Gott and
Oscans.  All are highly stratified land-feudalism, ruled by puppets,
except Frejsa, which has a weak monarchy.  Religion is very mixed and
variable by region, featuring Saes, Machar, and Kymri elements.
	The Saes Empire: This is the single largest political area in
Ysgarth, a vast empire broken down into the prefectures of Oscia, Evaria,
Gottia and Etruika.  The Saes Empire has a population 70% Etruan, and 30%
Saes, with the Saes maintaining control through a military elite, with
near-universal conscription.  This is a variant on land- feudalism, with
land-holding based on citizenship, and citizenship dependant on military
service.  Saes are given preference in the military and hold most of the
land, but it is possible for others to rise in the strata.  Regional
rulers are hereditary, but the larger areas and the prefectures are ruled
by imperial appointment.  The Emperor is hereditary with a token vote of
confidence from the appointed ruler governors of his predecessor, and
from the Imperial Senate, which currently serves in a primarily advisory
capacity.  While the Saes are the overlords and nobility of the empire,
the Etruans make up most of the administration and essentially created
the empire which they then lost to barbaric Saes conquerors.  Language is
mixed, and religion is wildly varied, with many foreign elements on an
Aesir and Roman base.
	Machar-Orszag, Toth-Orszag, Erdeli-Orszag: These are the highland
Machar, and are organised on a highly stratified system of primitve
feudalism.  They tend to be xenophobic, and worship deities from the
Babylonian and Roman pantheons.  The serfs are kept firmly in line, and
the nobility is very militaristic, probably a result of the rough
conditions under which they have lived for many years..
	Mamarash, Horvath: These are the lowland Machar.  They are a bit
less rigid than the last grouP.  They are land- feudally organized, but
tend towards a more contractual set-up, with more upward mobility.  They
are trade- oriented, and religion is more or less as given above. Further
information for Ptolemeias and other notable urban areas is given in a
later section on that subject.
	Some general information on the demographics of nations might
also be of use in analyzing the regions described above.  Population
density varies from region to region.  Population density is important,
because it determines such things as agricultural production, taxes, and
military conscription.  Density generally ranges from 5 to 80 persons per
square mile, averaging around 15.  The breakdown is as follows: Vaen-5;
Nangaur, Andor, Ard- Galen-11; Ynisgael, Thanet, Imaly, Banchor-12;
Ardmacha, Llynan-14; Hy, Gaeldoch, Argathylia-16; Khuzdaral, Lloegyr,
Prydein-18; Seregond-13; Morgwc, Ceredigiawn- 30: Seisyllwch, Ystrad
Tywi, Marchwc, Suessiones, Marsk- 25; Frejsa, Saes-24; Toth-Orszag,
Machar-Orszag, Erdely- Orszag-15; Mamarash-20; Horvath-33.  This will
also vary within a region, depending on available resources and other
elements.  Note that agriculture is covered in section 2.3.  For detailed
racial descriptions and complete skill benefits see Appendix G.

3.4: RELIGION
	Much has already been said on the topic of religion in
SpellCraft, at least insofar as the technical aspects of religious magic
are concerned.  As an element in the daily lives of the people of Ysgarth
it is an important factor to consider.  There are literally dozens of
pantheons and hundreds of gods who can be worshipped, a selection as
diverse as the population of Ysgarth itself.
	Every religion has its unique features, but there are certain
underlying principles of organization which are common to most of the
traditional faiths in Ysgarth no matter how widely divergent their
personal rituals are.
	For the most part each temple is organized under the authority of
a High Priest, who is usually picked from within an elite group of senior
priests or initiates.  Sometimes a High Priest will be elected by the
congregation or appointed by his predecessor, or even chosen hereditarily
or by a trial of combat.  Some churches even replace the High Priest with
a council of elder clerics.  However, the institution of the High Priest
is practical and is present in the larger number of churches.  Keep in
mind that the tenure of a High Priest can be just as varied as the means
of electing him, and can range from a very limited term to a life term.
	Beneath the High Priest there is usually a group of elite priests
who would form an inner circle who are privy to all the secrets of ritual
and the greatest mysteries of the faith.  In some churches they may be
the only ones allowed to perform certain roles in services and they may
have additional special powers and priveleges.  Beneath this group there
will usually be a large body of priests who are initiated into the faith
but do not have seniority, and so are left with he mundane duties of the
church, copying manuscripts, administering charity, maintaining the
temple and tending the needs of the congregation.  Beneath this group
would be the acolytes and neophytes, those applying to the priesthood or
in training.  Beneath this group there remains the body of lay worshipers
whose involvement in the church consists mainly of contributing to it and
attending services.
	Many churches also have a martial order or lay order for people
who work in the secular world but wish to be part of the priesthood at
least in name, and for warriors devoted to the faith and charged with
protecting the temple, its congregation and its interests.  In some
churches the hierarchical structure may become much more elaborate,
developing into coencentric circles of initiation, with priests passing
tests to enter ever higher levels of mastery of the secrets of the
church.  Keep in mind that many churches also consider their entire
congregation as part of the priesthood, with all of them pursuing higher
levels of initiation, though the vast majority remain in the outer circle
because of responsibilities outside the church and only the most
motivated proceeding to the true mysteries.
	Every church is different, but almost all share some element of
the concept of hierarchy and organization.  This also affects how priests
live, and in many cases a temple will also function as a monestary and
dwelling place for the priests, while in others the priests may live
elsewhere and treat their devotions as a regular job.  Many priesthoods
also specialize in particular duties and services, such as copying
manuscripts or the protection and education of orphans.
	Remember that the membership of the priesthood is varied, and not
all priests are in their orders solely from devotion to the church.  Some
may be in the priesthood as a route towards profit or power, some may be
there just because they have no better means of employment and some, it
is true, will be there because they have a true religious vocation.

...
3.5  BUSINESS AND TRADE 
	Business and trade between tribes, nations, and regions can be
handled in any of several ways.  Naturally, most of it will take place in
cities, and some cities are born for this purpose.  In addition, there
may be specific places where tribes or merchants meet at set times for
festivals and trading, there should be regular trade routes used by
certain merchants at regular intervals.  In tribal areas much trade would
be done by barter and exchange, of goods for other goods of set or
negotiable values.  In more developed regions currency is established to
facilitate trade.  The main centers of currency use are usually cities,
and they are usually the places where the currency is issued.  Such
curncy is usually of coin in precious metals, with a variable value
dependant of the value of the metals.  It is either issued by merchant
combines or by established governments. A listing of some of the more
popular coinage is provided below.

Coin Name 	Origin 	Material 	Weight 	Value
Aes	   	Saesia			   
	Silver	.1oz	1S
Auroch		Morianoc		 
	Silver	1.5oz	1.5M
Boar	Cumbria	Copper	.4oz	2P
Claep	Auscia	Silver	.1oz	10P
Copik	Arania	Copper	1oz	5P
Crown	Ceredigion	Gold	.3oz	6M
Crown	 	Tolemeias 	Gold
	 	.5oz	10M
Decima		Saesia		  
	Copper	1oz	10P
Demit	 	Ilchania		   
	Silver	2oz	2M
Dinar	 	Achaja	Silver	.5oz
	2S
Dirham	Vorate	Silver	.5oz	5S
Dragon		Galetach	Gold	.5oz
	10M
Eagle	 	Tolemeias	Gold
	 	5oz	100M
Groat	Auscia	Iron	5oz	2M
Gryffon   	Galetach	Silver	1oz	10S
Hook	  	Morianoc	Iron	.5oz
	2S
Lamb	  	Morianoc 	Silver
	.3oz	3S
Lion	  	Morianoc 	Gold	 	.3oz
	7M
Mark	  	Ceredigion	Silver
	.5oz	5S
Mark	  	Cumbria 	Iron
	 	3oz	1.2M
Mark	  	Morianoc 	Silver 
	1oz	1M
Mark  	Tolemeias	Silver   	1oz	1M
Minim	Ilchania	Bronze	.5oz	5P
Nail	  	Argedalia	  	Iron	2oz
	8S
Oboul	Arania	Copper	3oz	15P
Ox			Galetach		  
	Silver	.5oz	5S
Penny	 	Galetach	Silver   	.02oz
	2P
Penny	 	Morianoc	Copper 	1oz
	1/2P
Penny	 	Tolemeias
	Copper  	.2oz	1P
Pound	 	Galetach		  
	Silver	.2oz	30P
Round	Auscia	Silver	.8oz	8S
Sceater   	Saesia		  	Silver
	1.2oz	1.2M
Serpent   	Galetach	Silver	2oz	2M
Shilling  	Morianoc	Silver 	.08oz	8P
Shilling  	Seisylloc	Silver   	.12oz	12P
Shilling  	Tolemeias	Silver 	.1oz	10P
Solari		Ilchania		  
	Gold	3oz	60M
Solidis   	Saesia	 	Gold	1.2oz
	24M
Solis	 	Marmarash	 	Gold 	2oz
	40M
Talent	Auscia	Silver	2oz	2M
Tibral		Saesia		  
	Bronze	.5oz	5P

Local coinage may exist in different values, denominations, or divisions.  Even when there is no coinage system available, all sorts of goods are traded through an active barter system, and generally, wherever there is a need or desire for something there will be a merchant eager to fill that need at his own profit. 

3.7  THE CITY AND THE TOWN 
	In a medieval or feudal world there should be a village of less
than 500 Popation every 5 miles or less.  Every 10 to 20 miles there
should be a town of up to 1000 population.  Cities are rarer, coming
every 30 or 40 miles, and having populations of as much as 10,000 people.
The population density of a village is 30 persons/acre.  In a town it is
50 persons/acre.  In a full city it is 80/acre.  There should be one
large city for every major geographical region (all of Ysgarth as
mapped).  Generally a city will have a population of 1-5% of the
population of the region it serves and which surrounds it.  Thus the
large city for an entire continent would have 1-5% of the population of
that continent.  However, the percentage is adjusted for the size of the
city as suited to the region.  Large cities run 5%, normal cities 3%,
towns 2%, and villages 1%, with a good bit of variation.  To find the
number and size of towns you need to know the populatio of an area.  To
find population you need to know the size of the area.
	The land area of a given region has to be measured and
approximated to the best of your ability.  We will use Morganwc as our
example.  Morganwc has an area of roughly 11,500 square miles.  Its
population density is set as 30, so it has a total population of around
345,000 persons.  This means that Harddlech, the capital and main city of
Morganwc would have a Population of around 10,350.  The number of towns
in an area for different sizes can be determined as follows.
Pop./200,000=# of Cities, Pop/10000=#of towns, Pop/4000=#of villages.
These are only rough estimations.  Morganwc would have 1 full-size city,
and 575 towns, Plus 2300 villages.  With a total urban population
estimated at around 80,000, a high level of urban population.
Settlements tend towards the lower range of their possible population.
In such situations, coinage is still used as a theoretical measure of
value for barter.


