GOVT
2301: American Government
Review
for the Third Exam.
The third
examination for this course covers issues related to public opinion, political
socialiazation, and information media. According
to Publius, faction is inevitable whenever one attempts to establish an order
whose intended aim is to secure the rights and liberties of its citizens. This
claim becomes more evident when one examines the differences of opinion about
what is meant in the Declaration of Independence by "life," "liberty,"
or "the pusuit of happiness." Writing as Publius, Madison points out
that
A zeal for
different opinions concerning religion, concerning government, and many other
points, as well of speculation as of practice; an attachment to different
leaders ambitiously contending for pre-eminence and power; or to persons of
other descriptions whose fortunes have been interesting to the human passions,
have, in turn, divided mankind into parties, inflamed them with mutual
animosity, and rendered them much more disposed to vex and oppress each other
than to co-operate for their common good. (Federalist #10)
Incidentally, there are two principal ways in
which one can address the problem of faction. The first, eliminating the causes
is seen to be "worse than the disease," for to eliminate the causes
of faction would destroy liberty in an effort to force everyone to share the
same opinions. Such a policy would directly contradict the purpose of
government outlined in the Declaration, not to mention the Constitution, of
securing rights on the one hand, and securing "the blessings of
liberty" on the other.
The second means of addressing the problem of
faction is to control its effects. In this case, faction is recognized as
"sown in the nature of man," yet the problem is made even more difficult
when a nation or a government seeks to secure liberty, for "Liberty is to
faction what air is to fire, an aliment without which it instantly
expires." In order to allow for political discourse, liberty must be
secured; when liberty is secured faction will spread, and the most one can (or
should, in Publius’ account) do is control only the most harmful effects of
faction. Thus we live in a nation rife with differences of opinion, and groups
who all seek to affect government.
Public Opinion
These differences of opinion are often
expressed either through voting in elections; through public demonstrations,
including boycotts, protests, or even violence; or through organized efforts as
part of an interest group.
One looks to the distribution of public opinion—the
aggregate of individual attitudes or beliefs shared by some portion of the
citizenry—in order to determine how united or divided the public is on any
given issue. When there is general agreement, there is said to be a consensus.
When opinions are sharply divided, it is a divisive opinion. When not enough
have formed an opinion, there is said to be a non-opinion. Yet, public opinion
is different from private opinion, in that public opinion must be expressed.
Political socialization
In order to understand how public opinion is
formed, it is important to understand how individuals form their opinions.
Political socialization is the process by which individuals acquire political
beliefs and attitudes. The interactions an individual has with others has a
major impact on the formation of individual opinion. Some of the most important
factors include family, educational influence, peer groups, religious
orientation, economic status; demographic traits such as race, gender, age,
marital status and geography; as well as the influence of formal and informal
leaders, generational effects, and information media. These factors not only
affect individual opinion, they also affect how these opinions may ultimately
be expressed, including whether or not one votes, joins an interest group, or
supports a political party.
One
factor of particularly pervasive influence on public opinion in the United
States, and about which much has been said, is the role of information
media. It is important to note, first
of all, that media is actually the plural of medium, and refers to the
modes in which information—news, literature, entertainment, inducements to
commerce—is delivered. In the United
States information media have taken an especially prominent role in shaping
both the national mood and the terms of political discourse.
The
media’s functions include:
This includes informing viewers and readers about
events deemed by the provider as newsworthy, as well as identifying public
problems, some of which are indisputable, others are subject to debate. The media is often said to serve as the
“eyes and ears” of the public, especially if the public is to remain informed
about important issues related to the process of government. Unfortunately, much of what is broadcast on
television about government could reasonably be criticized as either
superficial or biased, packaged in a manner which most benefits the
(potentially factious) interests which fund and direct media organizations.
The primacy of certain issues can be directly
influenced by the degree to which information media covers the issue. For example, the Whitewater scandal during
the Clinton administration affected relatively few, but because of extensive
media coverage, it remained a salient issue for many Americans.
Media also performs an investigative function, in
order to uncover potential corruption within government or business. One of the most significant investigations
by journalists into government activity involved the efforts of Bob Woodward
and Carl Bernstein in uncovering the Watergate scandal in the Nixon
administration. More recently,
internet-based reporter and commentator Matt Drudge first reported on events in
the White House that indirectly led to the Clinton impeachment
Media agencies have the power to influence the
salience of issues through the events they report. These agencies package events into digestible “stories,” often
with a narrative quality (in news as well as in fiction or dramatization). Such packaging may lead to a distorted view
of the event in itself, or may at least offer a positive or negative
interpretation of the event known as spin. Media organizations may also provide a forum for public debate
over salient issues, through interviews and political roundtable programs such
as “Meet the Press” and “Washington Week in Review,” or through printed
editorial commentary and letters to the editors of newspapers, magazines, and
television programs.
This occurs by the transmission of historical,
social, and political information which contributes to the overall political
culture in the United States. This
function is particularly significant in the education of new Americans, immigrants,
potential immigrants, and children about “what is an American.” Again, this image can be, and often is
distorted by the overweening interests which fund, organize, and maintain media
messages.
It must be noted that most news media organizations
are owned and operated by private, for-profit interests. The profit motive can exercise a powerful
influence on what one sees, hears, and reads through information media. News agencies may decline to report on some
events while over-reporting others, depending upon the overall effect such reporting
may have on the profitability of the company.
Media also perform an entertainment function, which is dependent almost
entirely on the ability of media organization to increase market share,
audience size, or profits from advertising.
In addition, companies who pay to advertise on television, the radio,
the Internet, and in newspapers and magazines, may influence what each medium
delivers, all in an effort to earn the highest possible return for their
advertising dollar, and to project a positive public image for their
company. A recent example of the
influence advertisers have on television in particular can be found in the
cancellation and dismissal of political pundit Bill Maher from the Disney Corporation’s
ABC network in late 2001 as a result of advertisers withdrawing their financial
support for his program through product advertisements.
Media
coverage of government and political events varies according to the events
covered, and also vary according to the degree to which government and the
press attempt to influence each other.
In Congress, media attention tends to focus on the leadership—The Speaker, the majority and minority leaders, and a few committee chairmen. Other major areas of coverage typically include individual legislative proposals such as the federal budget or broad, sweeping legislative packages.
The Presidency
The President is often covered much more closely than Congress. The White House Press Corps is made up of reporters from nearly every major news agency in the United States, and a few from other nations as well. The president will typically seek to manage coverage of the executive branch through a combination of press releases, press briefings, and press conferences, each with varying degrees of access to the executive branch by the press.
Coverage of the executive bureaucracy typically only
occurs when said bureaucracy is either under investigation by Congress, or when
the executive branch itself undergoes a major reorganization.
The Judiciary
Coverage of the courts is generally limited to publication of and commentary on Supreme Court decisions, as well as a few individual District court cases of local interest, or else cases that involve well-known public figures.
Coverage
of political campaigns and elections in the United States is notoriously
uneven. Generally speaking, campaigns
for the Presidency, an indirectly elected position, are covered much more
extensively than any other campaign, largely because such campaigns are the
only nationwide, even though candidates tend to concentrate only on states with
a high number of electoral votes.
Other
campaigns, such as those for seats in the Congress, state or local governments,
as well as referenda, initiatives or state constitutional proposals, tend to
receive much less attention. (One exception was the recall initiative in California
in 2003.) This uneven coverage may at
least partially explain the vast gulf between voter participation rates in
presidential and non-presidential elections.
Even so, in any campaign, there are three basic classes of coverage:
Political advertisements, usually involving 30-60
second messages, paid for either by a campaign organization, a political party,
or an interest group directly or indirectly affiliated with a candidate or
position.
Managed news coverage, in which candidates or
their campaign staff engineer public appearances to attract media attention,
develop good working relationships with reporters and sponsors, and convince
media organizations to put a positive spin on their campaign.
Debates, in which candidates appear in a controlled setting
to present their positions and statements about salient issues upon which their
campaigns are based. Not all candidates
are willing to debate however, especially if they do not see any advantage, or
if they see a clear disadvantage, in holding a debate.
For
the most part, debates have only limited effect, although some candidates hope
that they may sway undecided potential voters to their cause. Yet as the first televised presidential
debate demonstrated, the “controlled setting” may be perceived differently
depending upon the medium though which it is presented. In 1960, candidates John F. Kennedy and
Richard M. Nixon held a debate which had been broadcast through both radio and
television. Those who heard the debate
on the radio generally stated either that both candidates fared well in the
debate, and some even insisted that Nixon presented a more favorable case. Those who saw the debate on television,
however, overwhelmingly claimed that Kennedy held a clear advantage because of
the image of confidence he presented in contrast to Nixon’s seemingly insincere
televised image.
Overall,
it is important to remember that the images we see, hear, and read are
ultimately the products of a variety of interests attempting to sway our
political opinions, and to influence not only how we express those opinions,
but also whether we express them at all.
Even so, expressions of public opinion may also influence what is seen,
heard, and read in the information media, contributing ultimately to a system involving
a multiplicity of interests:
government, voters, businesses, academics, interest groups, and media.