Psychology 101
Final Exam Review
MODULE 1 & 2
Goals of
Psychology: describe behavior
explain cause of behavior
predict future behavior
control behavior
6 Approaches:
1. psychobiological - how genes,
hormones and nervous system interact with our environment to influence learning, personality, memory, motivation,
emotions and coping techniques.
2. cognitive - how we process, store and
use information and how this information influences what we attend
to, perceive, learn, remember, believe and feel.
3. behavioral - low organisms learn new
behaviors or modify existing ones depending on whether events in
their environment reward or punish these behaviors.
4. psychoanalytic - influence of
unconscious fears, desires and motivations on thoughts, behaviors and the development of
personality traits and psychological problems later in life.
5. humanistic - each individual has
great freedom in directing his or her future, a large capacity for personal growth, a considerable amount of intrinsic
worth and enormous potential
for self-fulfillment.
6. cross-cultural
- influences of cultural and ethnic similarities and differences on
psychological and social functioning.
Structuralism - the study of basic elements, primarily
sensations and perceptions, that make up ou conscious mental processes. How basic elements were assembled into
complete conscious experiences.
Analyzing the structure of the mind.
- Wilhelm Wundt - father
of psychology - Germany 1879
Functionalism - the function rather than the structure of
consciousness, and how our minds adapt to
our changing environment. The mind's
goals, purposes and functions.
- William James -
father of modern psychology - 1890
Research Areas in
Psychology
1. social psychology - study of social
interactions, stereotypes, prejudices, attitudes, conformity, 25% group behaviors and aggression.
personality psychology - study of
personality development, personality change, assessment and 5% abnormal behaviors.
(academic settings or
consultants and personnel managers in business.)
2. developmental psychology - moral,
social, emotional and cognitive development throughout a 24% person's life.
(academic settings,
day care consultants or programs for the aging.)
3. experimental psychology - areas of
sensation, perception, learning, human performance, 19% motivation and emotion.
(academic settings or
business, industry and government.)
4. physiological psychology - psychobiology
- the physical and chemical changes that occur 8% during stress, leaning and emotions as
well as how our genetic make up and nervous system interact w/our
environ. and infl. our behavior.
(academic settings,
hospitals and private research labs.)
5. cognitive psychology - how we
process, store and retrieve information and how cognitive 5% processes
influence our behavior.
(memory, thinking, language,
creativity, decision-making & artificial intelligence.)
6. psychometrics - the measurement of
people's abilities, skills, intelligence, personality and 5% abnormal
behaviors.
(construction,
administration and interpretation of tests.)
Testimonials - a statement in support of a particular
viewpoint based on personal experience.
(They are one example of a case study.)
Sources of Error
in Testimonials
1. personal beliefs - if we believe
strongly in something it may bias our perception and cause us to credit unrelated treatment or events as
the reason for some change. We may
overlook other potential causes.
2. self-fulfilling prophecy - if we
strongly believe something may happen, we may unknowingly behave in some way so as to make it happen.
3. confounded causes - 2 or more events
occur together so its very difficult to determine which is responsible for the other.
Correlation - an association or relationship between the
occurrence of two or more events.
correlation
coefficient - a number that
indicates the strength of a relationship between events. The closer
it is to -1.00 or 1.00, the stronger the relationship.
positive
correlation - as one event
tends to increase, the 2nd tends to (but not always) increase.
negative
correlation - as one event
tends to increase, the 2nd tends to (but not always) decrease.
no correlation - no relationship between the occurrence of
two events.
*Correlations, no
matter how strong, cannot and do not indicate a cause and effect relationship.*
they don't indicate causation, but do point to possible causes of
behaviors & predict them.
Scientific Method
A general approach to gathering info & answering questions so that
errors are minimized.
Step 1: MAKE
a hypothesis - an educated guess about some phenomenon, stated in
precise, concrete language to rule out any confusion
or error in the meaning of its terms.
Step 2: IDENTIFY
the independent variable - a tretment or something that the
researcher controls or manipulates.
dependent variable -
subject's behaviors used to measure the potential effects of the treatment.
Step 3: CHOOSE subjects through random selection
- each subjects in a sample have the same chance of being selected to
participate.
Step 4: ASSIGN subjects to groups: experimental
- receive treatment.
control - undergo
same procedures but don't receive treatment.
Step 5: MANIPULATE by conditions with and w/out
treatment.
double-blind procedure
- neither subjects nor researchers know which group receives which treatment.
Step 6: MEASURE
how the treatment affects the behaviors chosen as the dependent
variables.
Step 7: ANALYZE by means of statistical
procedures - determine whether differences observed in
dependent variables (behaviors)are due to independent variables
(treatment) or to error or chance.
MODULES 3 & 4
Brain cells
glial cells - at least three functions: provide
scaffolding to guide the growth of developing neurons and support mature ones; ‚wrap around neurons and form a kind of
insulation to prevent interference from other electric signals and ƒrelease chemicals that influence a neuron's
growth and function.
- most numerous of brain
cells. astrocyte
- brain cancer is caused by an
uncontrolled growth of glial cells.
neurons - has two specialized extensions: one
receives electric signals and the other, longer one for transmitting electrical
signals.
Neuron Structure
and Function
dendrites - branch-like from cell body that receives
signals from neurons, neuron
muscles and sense
organs and passes signal on to cell body.
cell body - soma - egg-shape, provides feul,
manufacrures chemicals, keeps neuron working.
axon - single thread-like structure taht extends
from and carries signals from the cell body to nearby neurons, organs and
muscles.
myelin sheath - tube-like fatty material that wraps
around/insulates axon, keeps out other signals.
terminal buttons - bulb-like swellings at the extreme end of
axon branches. Mini vesicles storing
chemicals called neurotransmitters.
synapse - tiny space between terminal button and
adjacent dendrite, muscle fiber or body organ wher terminal buttons eject
n.t.'s to switch on or off adjacent cell bodies.
neurotransmitter
function - a chemical messenger that transmits info
between neurons.
inhibitory - blocks chemical locks or inhibits
receptors.
excitory - opens chemical locks or excites receptors.
Types of Neurons:
afferent (sensory neurons) - carry info from senses
to spinal cord.
efferent (motor neurons) - carry info from spinal
cord to produce responses in various muscles and organs.
The Central
Nervous System
made up of neurons in the brain and spinal cord that usually have
limited capacity to regenerate if
damaged or diseased.
The Peripheral
Nervous System
made up of nerves throughout the body except in the brain and spinal
cord.
nerves - string-like bundle of axons and dendrites
that come from neurons held together by tissue. - carry info from senses, skin muscles, and organs to
and from spinal cord.
- can regenerate.
Somatic Nervous
System (SNS)
nerves connected to sensory receptors that you can move voluntarily
(limbs, back, neck, chest).
Usually contalins
two kinds of fibers: afferent
(sensory fibers) - receptors to spinal cord & brain.
efferent (motor
fibers) - spinal cord and brain receptors.
Autonomic Nervous
System (ANS)
regulates heart rate, breathing, blood pressure, digestion, hormone
secretion, etc. (most w/out
conscious effort).
Two
subdivisions: sympathetic division
(fight or flight) - triggered by physical or physiological arousal, prepares body for action.
Parasympathetic -
returns body to calm, relaxed state; used for digestion.
MODULE 1: DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY
PSYCHOLOGY - the
systematic, scientific study of behaviors and mental processes.
Goals of
Psychology
DESCRIBE how organisms behave in certain ways.
EXPLAIN the cause of
the organism's behavior.
PREDICT how
organisms will behave in the future.
CONTROL an
organism's behavior.
Six Approaches to
Psychology
1. PSYCHBIOLOGICAL approach - how genes,
hormones and nervous system interact w/our environment to influence learning, personality,
memory, motivation, emotions and coping techniques.
2. COGNITIVE approach - how we process, store
and use info and how info influences what we attend to, perceive, learn, remember,
believe and feel. How people think,
solve problems and process info.
3. BEHAVIORAL approach - how organisms learn
new behaviors or modify existing ones
depending on whether events in their environment reward or punish these behaviors. How
environmental rewards and punishments shape, change or motivate behavior.
4. PSYCHOANALYTIC approach - stresses the
influence of unconscious fears, desires and
motivations on thoughts, behaviors and the development of the
personality traits and psychological problems later in life.
5. HUMANISTIC approach - each individual has
great freedom in directing his or her future, a large capacity for personal growth, a considerable amount of
intrinsic worth and enormous potential for
self-fulfillment. Freedom of choice,
self-fulfillment and attaining one's potential.
6. CROSS-CULTURAL approach - the influence of
cultural and ethnic similarities and differences on psychological and social
functioning. Cultural and ethnic influences on behavior.
STRUCTURALISM - Wlihelm Wundt
- study of the basic
elements, primarily sensations and perceptions that make up our conscious
mental processes.
- father of
psychology
Introspection -
exploring conscious mental processes by asking subjects to look inward and
report their sensations and perceptions.
FUNCTIONALISM - William Jones - answer to Wundt
- the functions,
goals and purposes of the mind and its adaptations to the changing environment.
- father of modern
psychology.
GESTALT APPROACH - "whole pattern" - disagree with
Wundt
- perception is
more than the sum of its parts and studied how sensations are assembled into
meaningful perceptual experiences. (still alive and well today.)
BEHAVIORISM - John B. Watson
- the objective,
scientific analysis of observable behavior. (And the prediction and control of those behaviors.)
Careers in
Psychology
- 46% are clinical
psychologists in PRIVATE PRACTICE or THERAPY setting where they diagnose and
help clients with psychological problems.
- 34% work in
academic settings TEACHING and RESEARCH.
- 12% work in
INDUSTRIAL settings for selecting personnel, increasing job satisfaction and
improving worker-management relations.
- 8% work in schools
doing ACADEMIC TESTING and COUNSELING.
psychologist - 4 to 5 yrs postgraduate and Ph.D. in
psychology.
clinical
psychologist - experience as
therapy supervisor and diagnosing and treating abnormal behaviors.
psychiatrist - MD w/several yrs clinical training,
diagnoses physical and neurological causes of abnormal behavior - uses
prescription drugs to treat.
Research Areas in
Psychology
1. A. SOCIAL: social interactions, stereotypes,
prejudice, attitudes, group conformity, aggression
B. PERSONALITY: personality development,
change, assessment and abnormal behavior.
2. DEVELOPMENTAL: moral, social, emotional and
cognitive development through entire life.
3. EXPERIMENTAL: sensation, perception,
learning, human performance, motivation, emotion
4. PHYSIOLOGICAL(psychobiology):
physical/chemical changes of stress, learning + emotions Also, how genetic make up and nervous system
interact w/environment to influence behavior.
5. COGNITIVE: process, store and retrieve
info/how cognitive processes influence behaviors.
6. PSYCHOMETRICS: measurement of peoples
ability, skills, intelligence, personality and abnormal behavior.
MODULE 2: PSYCHOLOGY AND SCIENCE
Testimonials
statement in support
of a particular viewpoint based on personal experience [1 ex. of case study].
advantage: useful info to offer explanations for
psychologists to follow up on.
disadvantage: high potential for error and bias.
Source of Error
in Testimonials
personal belief: we belief strongly in something &
credit unrelated treatment/events as the reason.
self-fulfilling
prophecy: when we strongly
believe something will occur and unknowingly
behaving in such a way to make it happen.
confounded causes: two or more events occur together so its
hard to determine which is responsible for the other. [most
testimonials arise fr. here => so much error]
placebo: intervention - pills, injection or
operation like medical therapy but w/out medical effect.
placebo effect: change in patients illness due to imagined
treatment not medical.
Correlations
an association or
relationship between the occurrence of two or more events.
Correlation
coefficient
the number that
indicates the strength of relationship between two or more events: the closer
to -1.00 or +1.00 the greater the relationship.
positive
correlation coefficient - 1
event tends to increase, 2nd also but not always.
negative
correlationship coefficient
-as 1 tends to increase, 2nd tends to but not always decrease.
zero correlation - no relationship between occurrence of 1
event with another event.
Correlation vs.
Cause and Effect
With correlation we
can conclude what is related to but not what causes
something. Correlations often used to predict
behavior
.
The Scientific
Method
a general approach
to gathering info and answering questions so that errors are reduced.
Hypothesis - educated guess stated in precise, concrete
language to rule out error or confusion.
Independent
variable - a treatment or
something that is controlled or manipulated.
Dependent
variable - one or more of
the subjects behaviors used to measure the potential effects of the treatment or independent variable.
Random selection - each subject in a sample population has =
chance to selected for experiment.
Experimental
group - subjects who receive
treatment.
Control group - subjects who undergo all the same
procedures as the experimental subjects do
except that the control subjects don't receive the treatment.
Statistical
procedures - determine if
differences observed in dependent variables (behaviors) are due to independent variables (treatment) or
to error or chance.
MODULE 3: THE BRAIN'S BUILDING BLOCKS
Brain cells: two types:
glial cells - guide growth of developing neurons,
support mature ones w/insulation to prevent interference of other electric
signals, and release chemicals for neurons growth and function.
neurons - one extension for receiving electrical
signals, another longer one for transmitting.
Neuron Structure
and Function [Illust. Page
46]
Dendrites - branch-like from cell body that receive
signals from neurons, muscles and sense organs, passes signal on to cell
body.
Cell body (soma) - egg-shape, provides fuel,
manufactures chemicals, keeps neuron working.
Axons - single thread-like fr./carries signals fr.
Cell body to nearby neurons, organs, muscles.
Myelin sheath - tube-like fatty material that wraps
around/insulates axon, keeps out other signals
Terminal buttons - bulb-like swellings extreme ends of axon
branches. Mini vesicle storing
chemicals called neurotransmitters.
Synapse - tiny space between terminal button and
adj. Dendrite, muscle fiber or body organ where terminal buttons eject
neurotransmitters to switch on or off adj. cell bodies.
Neurotransmitter
Function - A chemical
messenger that transmits info between neurons.
Inhibitory - blocks chemical locks or inhibits
receptors.
Excitory opens chemical locks or excites receptors.
Homeostasis - tendency of the ANS to maintain the bodys
internal environment in a balanced state of optimum functioning.
Central Nervous
System - made up of neurons
in the brain + spinal cord that usu. have limited capacity to regenerate if
damaged or diseased.
-brain and spinal cord
Peripheral
Nervous System - made up of
nerves throughout body except the brain
+ spinal cord.
nerves - stringlike bundle of axons + dendrites
that come from neurons held together by tissue. They carry info fr. senses,
skin, muscles and organs to + fr. spinal cord. Can regenerate.
-Somatic Nervous System: nerves connected to sensory receptors
that you can move voluntarily (ie:
limbs, back, neck, chest).
Usu. contain 2 kinds of fibers:
Afferent (sensory fibers)receptors to spinal cord and brain.
Efferent (motor fibers)
spinal cord and brain to receptors.
-Autonomic Nervous System: regulates heart rate, breathing blood
pressure, digestion, hormone secretion,
etc. [most w/out conscious effort].
-Sympathetic (fight or flight) - triggered by physical or
psychological challenge physiological arousal and prepares body for action.
-Parasympathetic - returns body to calm, relaxed state, used for
digestion.
Reflex Response - unlearned, involuntary reaction to
stimuli. Neural connection is prewired
by genetic instructions.
Afferent (sensory neurons) - carry info from senses
to spinal cord.
Efferent (motor neurons) - carry info fr. spinal cord
to prod. responses in various muscles/organs
MODULE 4: THE INCREDIBLE NERVOUS SYSTEM
zygote - fertilized egg containing 46 chromosomes
(arranged in 23 pairs).
chromosomes - contains coiled DNA. Each cell in human body has 23 pairs of
chromosomes.
genes - segment on strand of DNA contains
instructions to make proteins.
proteins - chemical building blocks from which all
parts of the body + brain are constructed.
Computerized
Axial Tomography (CAT) scan
- radiation passed thru brain, computer measures amount absorbed by brain
cells. Used to study the brain structure.
Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (MRI) scan
- radio frequencies thru brain, computer measures how they interact w/brain
cells. Used to study the brain
structure.
Positron Emission
Tomography (PET) scan -
inject radioactive solution into blood, measure amount absorbed by brain
cells. Amounts transformed into colors
indicating activity. Used to study
brain function.
FOREBRAIN
-largest part of
brain
-has right and left
hemispheres connected by wide band of fibers
-Learning, memory,
speaking, language, emotional response, experiencing sensations, initiating
voluntary movements, planning and making decisions.
MIDBRAIN
-visual and auditory
reflexes (turning your head toward a noise).
reticular
formation - extends down
from midbrain to spinal cord.
- arouses forebrain to be
ready to process incoming info from senses.
- damage - blow to head -
coma, because forebrain can't be aroused.
HINDBRAIN [Illus. Page 67]
pons - bridge to interconnect messages between
brain and spinal cord.
- has cells that manufacture chemicals
involved in sleep.
medulla - atop spinal cord.
- has cells that control vital
reflexes: respiration, heart rate and blood pressure.
- damage - drug overdose -
suppress functions here and you stop breathing.
cerebellum - very back, underneath the brain.
- coordinating movements
but not initiating voluntary ones.
- also cognitive
functions: short-term memory, following rules, carrying out plans.
- damage - alcohol -
can't touch finger to nose very quickly.
cortex -
thin layer of cells covers entire surface of forebrain.
- contains majority of neurons.
- four separations: frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital. Their control centers allow hundreds of cognitive, emotional, sensory
and motor functions not in animals.
FRONTAL LOBE
-interpreting/carrying
out emotional behaviors, behaving normally in social situations, maintaining a healthy personality, paying
attention, making decisions and executing plans.
-large association
area.
-Phineas Gage - 1st
frontal lobotomy.
motor cortex - narrow strip on back edge of frontal lobe
extending down its side.
- initiating all
voluntary movements.
- right motor cortex
control left side of body and vice versa.
PARIETAL LOBE
-processing sensory
info: touch (feeling), temperature and pain.
-cognitive
functions: attending to and perceiving objects.
somatosensory
cortex - narrow strip on
front edge of parietal.
- processes sensory info like touch, temperature and pain.
- right somatosensory cortex receives info from left side of body...
TEMPORAL LOBE
-hearing, speaking
coherently and understanding verbal and written language.
primary auditory
cortex - top edge of
temporal.
- receives electrical signals
fr. receptors in ears, puts it in auditory info.
- damage - varying degrees of
deafness depending on extent.
auditory
association area - below
prim. aud. Cortex.
- transforms raw sensory
info(clicks, noises, sounds) to music or words
Wernickes area - in the left temporal.
- for speaking coherent
sentences and understanding speech.
- damage - Wernickes aphasia
- can't understand words or make sentences.
Brocas area - in the left frontal.
- combining sounds into
words, arranging words into sentences.
- damage - Brocas
aphasia - can't speak fluent sentences but CAN understand.
OCCIPITAL LOBE
-seeing and
perceiving and recognizing visual objects.
primary visual
cortex - very back of occipital.
- receive electric signals fr. Receptor in eyes, transforms into basic
visual sensations like lights, lines and textures.
- damage - varying degrees of blindness depending on extent.
visual
association area - combines
basic sensations: lights, lines and textures into persons, objects or animals.
- damage - visual agnosia -
can't recognize objects, but sees pieces.
- neglect syndrome - can't
see objects on oppo side if damage.
Limbic System
Functions - half dozen
structures make up core of forebrain.
-motivational
behaviors: obtaining food, drink.
-organizing
emotional behaviors: fear, anger and aggression.
hypothalamus -
near bottom of middle brain.
- regulating eating, drinking, sexual behavior and secretion of many
hormones.
- controls the 2 div. (Sympathetic and Parasympathetic) of ANS.
amygdala - tip of temporal.
- emotional behaviors:
forming emotional memories esp. related to fear.
hippocampus - curved structure inside temporal.
- transforming many
kinds of fleeting memories into permanent storage.
- learning new facts,
places or faces.
thalamus - middle of forebrain.
- receiving sensory info,
some initial processing, then relaying info to cortex areas (somatosensory, primary audio, primary visual).
- damage - malfunction by
slowing down auditory info => difficulty reading, dyslexia.
Split Brain
Research
-Separation of the 2
hemispheres by cutting the corpus callosum.
-Right and left
hemispheres function independently. [seeing HE*ART, saying art, point to he]
-Left: Verbal - speaking, understanding language,
conversating, reading, writing, spelling.
Mathematical - +, -, x,/ and complex prob. In physics and
calc..
Analytic - process info by analyzing each sep. Piece that makes the
whole.
-Right: Nonverbal -
mute but has childlike ability to read, write, understand speech-simple stuff.
Spatial - solve spatial prob. Arranging blocks using left hand.
Holistic - process info by combining parts into a meaningful
whole. Also for recognizing emotional expressions and producing them.
MODULE 7: CONSCIOUSNESS, SLEEP AND DREAMS
Continuum of
Consciousness
wide range of
experiences from being acutely aware/alert to being totally
unaware/unresponsive.
Circadian Rhythms-biological clock genetically programmed 2
regulate physiological responses.
jet lag -
internal circadian rhythm is out of step w/external time at new location.
- results in fatigue, disorientation and lack of concentration.
Suprachiasmatic
Nucleus
-group of cells in
hypothalamus in the lower middle of the brain
-biological clock
that regulates many circadian rhythms incl. sleep-wake rhythm.
-receives input from
eyes => highly responsive to light changes.
Stages of Sleep
Distinctive changes
in electrical activity of brain + physiological responses of body as we pass
different phases of sleep.
Stage 1. 1 -
7 min [from wake to sleep] gradually lose responsiveness to stimuli. (Theta)
Stage 2.
[Beg. of sleep] sleep spindles: high-frequency bursts of activity.
In 2, 3 &4
muscle tense, heart rate, respiration & temp. decline, harder to be awaken.
Stage 3 & 4. min
30 -45 Deepest sleep - slow waves (Delta) secretion of growth hormones.
REM sleep 5 - 6 times(15 - 45 min), then 30 - 90 min
between each. (Beta)
alpha waves - low amplitude, high frequency 8 - 10 cycles per sec.
- relaxed and drowsy
usu. with eyes closed.
beta waves - low amplitude, high frequency 13 - 30
cycles per sec.
- when awake and alert
AND in REM sleep.
theta waves - lower amplitude, lower frequency 3 - 7
cycles per sec.
- experience drifting,
when awaken seems like you were awake.
delta waves - high amplitude, low frequency < 4 cycles per sec.
- deepest stage of
sleep.
- heart rate, respiration,
temperature and blood flow to the brain are reduced.
Repair theory
Activities during
the day deplete key factors in our brain or body that are replenished or
repaired by sleep. Sleep is
primarily a restorative process.
Adaptive theory
Sleep evolved
because it prevented early humans from wasting energy and exposing themselves
to the dangers of nocturnal predators.
Sleep Deprivation
-Minimal effects on
heart rate, blood pressure and hormone secretion.
-Physiological
functions controlled by ANS are not significantly disrupted.
-DOES affect immune
system.
-Less ability to
concentrate.
-Mild hallucinations
if deprived of sleep > 60 hrs.
-Eventually die due
to stress.
Causes of Sleep
-circadian rhythm
-reticular formation
- if stimulate you wake up.
-half-dozen
sleep-related neurotransmitters produced by cells in pons.
-body temperature -
drops => sleep...rises => wake up.
Interpretation of
Dreams
Freuds theory: for wish fulfillment, 2 satisfy unconscious
desires esp. Involving sex & aggression
extensions of
waking life: same thoughts,
fears, concerns, problem, emotions as waking hrs.
Dream is a time for
working out problems not wish fulfillment.
activation-synthesis
theory: random and
meaningless activity of nerve cells in brain.
Sleep Disorders
INSOMNIA -
difficulty going to or staying asleep. Incl. daytime fatigue, lack
concentration, memory and well-being.
SLEEP APNEA - stop
breathing 10 seconds or longer. Daytime exhaustion.Common 4 snorers.
SLEEPWALKING - stage
4(delta sleep). Poor coordination, clumsy but avoid objects some talk.
NIGHT TERRORS - Beg.
w/piercing scream then suddenly wake scared, rapidly breathing, increased heart rate. But cant remember in the a.m.
NIGHTMARES - during
REM scary, anxiety producing images usu. Involve great danger.
NARCOLEPSY - falling asleep suddenly during the day
w/brief REM and muscle paralysis.
MODULE 8: HYPNOSIS AND DRUGS
Hypnosis: Situation or set of procedures in which a
hypnotist suggests to another person that he or she experiences various changes
in sensation, perception, cognition or control over motor behaviors.
Hypnotic
Induction: Various methods
to induce hypnosis. ie: asking subject
to close eyes, fix attention on an object and instructing them to go into deep
relaxation.
Behaviors under
hypnosis
age regression - subject asked to regress in time to an
earlier age like childhood.
hypnotic analgesia - reduction in pain reported after
undergoing hypnosis.
posthypnotic
suggestions - given during
hypnosis about performing particular behavior when out
Applications of
Hypnosis
-Entertainment
-Medical &Dental
- to relieve pain in operation.
-Therapeutic &
Behavioral - to reveal personalities, gain insight into lives
Terms:
tolerance - body + brain build up resistance to
regular use, require lrg doses to receive effect.
addiction -
develop a physical need for a drug in
order to function properly.
withdrawal symptoms - painful physical and
psychological symptoms after stopping drug-use.
psychological
dependency - strong
psychological need, craving or desire for drug to solve prob.
Stimulants
Increase activity of
nervous system, result in heightened alertness, arousal and euphoria, and
decreased appetite and fatigue.
amphetamines - pills prescribed for fatigue, depression,
mood prob. And weight loss in the 60s.
- effects - nervous system: releases neurotransmitters, block reuptake
so they act for a longer time to prod. arousal,
alertness, energy. Paranoid feelings,
esp. That others plot to kill them.
cocaine - same as above + anxiety, emotional
instability and suspiciousness.
Increase neurotransmitters that
increase arousal. Ability to block the
conduction of nerve impulses when applied to an area of the
body. Legal for local anaesthetic.
Dangers - addiction,
hallucination, feeling of bugs crawling under skin. Vicious circle
caffeine - dilation of blood vessels, increase
secretion of stomach acid, moderate alertness, improved reaction time,
decreased fatigue and drowsiness. Can
be addicting. It is a chemical called
xanthine which blocks certain receptors.
nicotine - arousal and then calming. Improves attention and concentration,
short-term memory, but interferes w/complex processing. Stimulates certain receptors then blocks
them to produce calming. Highly addictive, causes withdrawal symptoms:
nervousness, irritability, difficulty concentrating, sleep disturbance and
craving.
Opiates
-From opium poppy:
opium and morphine chemically altered to make heroin. Analgesia (pain relief), opiate euphoria-twilight state between
wake and sleep, and constipation.
-Used to treat
diarreah.
-Results in
tolerance, physical addiction and craving.
-Brain has natural
receptor for opiates and morphine and produces it own similar neurotransmitters
called endorphin. After continued use
body reduces this production and is addicted.
Withdrawal symptoms: hot and cold flashes, sweating, muscle tremors and
stomach cramps all last 4 -7 days.
Overdose depresses the neutral control and they die from respiratory
failure.
Hallucinogens-psychoactive drug that prod. strange
perceptions, sensory, cognitive experiences.
LSD - powerful hall. in small doses: visual
hall.,perceptual distortion, increase sensory awareness and intense psychological
feelings. Lasts 8 - 10 hours.
- effects - resembles natural
neurotransmitter serotonin located in cerebral cortex which receives
sensations, creates perceptions, thinks and imagines.Quick deve tolerance, no
addiction.
psilocybin - ingred. in magic mushroom prod. pleasant,
relaxed feeling, perceptual distortion in time and space or in body image,
sometimes hall. Inhibits serotonin
receptors.
- psychotic effect may last
longer than expected.
mescaline - ingred. in peyote cactus prod. clear,
vivid hall. like latticework, cobwebs, tunnels and spirals in various colors and
intense brightness.
- req. high dosage, takes
hrs. Increases activity of neurotrans. norepinephrine, symp.NS prod. physio arousal-increased heart rate, temp. and vomiting.
Lasts 6- 8 hrs.
- effects - next day hang
over, if high dose: convulsions and ceased breathing => death.
MDMA (Ecstasy) - stim and hall - increases
awareness of emotions, feelings of intimacy, ability to interact w/others. Blocks serotonin receptors.
- effects - Damages serotonin
neurons. Visual perceptions, can't reach orgasm, jitteriness, anxiety, jaw clenching, fear, also panic, rapid
heartbeat, paranoia, psychoticlike symptoms.
Alcohol - psychoactive drug -depresses activity of
central NS.
- effects - friendliness, loss of inhibitions & self control,
impairs judgement, motor coordination, cognitive abilities,
decision-making and speech. Possible coma or death.
- it blocks some neural receptors, stimulates others, can depresses
vital breathing or respiration reflexes in brain stem.
- results in hangovers, blackouts, tolerance, and addiction.
MODULE 9: CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
Learning - a
relatively permanent change in behavior.
[A.] THREE KINDS OF LEARNING
classical conditioning - CC - neutral
stimulus acquires ability to produec a response that was originally produced by a different stimulus.
operant conditioning - OC -
consequences that follow some behavior increase or decrease the likelihood of that behavior occurring
in the future.
law of effect - if random action is
followed by pleasurable consequence/reward, the action is strengthened and will likely occur in the
future.
cognitive learning - mental processes
(ie: attention and memory) may be learned through observation/imitation and may not involve external rewards
or require performance of observable
behavior.
[B.] PROCEDURE: CLASSICAL CONDITONING
Step 1 Selecting
Stimulus and Response
neutral stimulus - causes sensory response (being
seen/heard/smelled) but does not produce the reflex
being tested.
unconditioned
stimulus - triggers or
elicits a physiological reflex like salivation or eye blink.
unconditioned
response - unlearned,
involuntary physiological reflex that is elicited by the UCS.
Step 2 Establishing
Classical Conditioning
trial - the presentation of both stimuli.
- first the NS then the UCS within seconds.
NS + UCS
=> UCR
- UCS & UCR are unconditioned because their effect is inborn and
not dependent on prior training.
Step 3 Testing
the Conditioning
- NS has become a CS.
conditioned
stimulus - formerly a NS
that has acquired the ability to elicit a response that was previously elicited by the UCS.
conditioned
response - elicited by the
CS, is similar but not identical in size or amount to UCR.
NS CS
=> CR
[C.] OTHER CONDITIONING CONCEPTS
1. generalization - tendency for a
stimulus that is similar to the original CS to elicit a response similar to CR.
2. discrimination - occurs during CC
when an organism learns to make a particular response to some stimuli but not to others.
3. extinction - CS is repeatedly
presesnted with out UCS, as a result the CS tends to no longer elicit CR.
4. spontaneous recovery - tendency for
the CR to reappear after being extinguished even w/out further trials.
[D.] ADAPTIVE VALUE
Test-Aversion
Learning - associating
particular sensory cues (smells, tastes, sounds, sights) w/an unpleasurable response such as nausea or
vomitting.
- Differ fr, CC: only one trial
necessary, works after long intervals of time.
preparedness - animals and humans are biologically
prepared to associate some combinations of CS and UCS more easily than
others. [taste-related compared to
light-related.]
Outline: Learning March
6
What is Classical
Conditioning?
- concept of CC
- examples from every day life
What is Operant
Conditioning?
- positive
Classical
Conditioning
A type of learning
that when something neutral acquires the ability to produce a response
that was originally produced by something else.
- Based on associations.
Ivan Pavlov
FOOD SALIVATION
‚ BELL + FOOD SALIVATION
ƒ BELL SALIVATION
FOOD UCS
- triggers a physiological
reflex or response.
SALIVATION UCR
- natural response to UCS (unlearned).
BELL CS
- previously neutral that
acquires ability to produce a response
(learned).
BELL SALIVATION CR - response to CS (learned).
CC Paradigm
Phase 1 Phase
2 Phase
3
UCS UCS CS CS
| | / |
UCR UCR CR
(Associations made)
Generalization -
tendency for a stim. similar to original stim. to elicit the same kind of
response.
Discrimination -
learn to respond differently to stim. that are diff. from original stim.
Extinction - CS no
longer assoc. w/the UCS \ the
CR stops occuring over time.
Spontaneous Recovery
- CR reappears but in a weaker form.
learned food aversion
sense association
Operant
Conditioning
Type of learning
whre consequences that follow a behavior
likelihood of it happening again.
- Reinforcement
Set
a goal - what is the desired
behavior?
‚ Shaping
- reinforce desired behaviors.
ƒ note
the Operant Response - "desired" behaviors.
Positive
Reinforcement - reward
likelihood of desired behavior
Negative
Reiforcement - aversive - in attempt to get rid of stim. you
desired behavior.
- before
Punishment -
receiving an "aversive" consequence following a behavior.
- likelihood of a behavior
- after
Outiline: Kinds
of Memory March
11
3 kinds of Memory:
- sensory
- short term
- long term
Steps in the memory
process
Memory is a cognitive process
- it goes on in our brain
- it is our mental capacity to store and
later recall info.
Memory:
1. defines ourselves.
2. connects present thoughts to our past.
3. prepares for our future.
Sensory Memory
preserves fleeting
stimuli from environment.
( sec - 2 sec)
is first stage in
memory process.
[A] Iconic Memory (visual)
sec
* keeps visual stim. continuous
and clear (as for blinking)
- retains images
- w/out it, images would
be blurred & blinking would make the world disappear.
[B] Echoic Memory (auditory)
1 -2 sec
* keeps speech sounds in
memory long enough to recognize a
words.
- but you have to pay
attention
1. prevents us from being overwhelmed by
incoming stim.
- selective attention
2. Organizes incoming info.
iconic continuous
echoic recogn. sounds as words.
Short Term Memory
- "working emory"
recently 1 - 30 (20
sec) or psychological present
Feature:
- limited duration
"rehearsal"
- limited capacity # 7
chunking
Long Term Memeory
Steps in Memory
Process
Sensory Memory ---pay attention ‚ STM ----encoding/give it
meaning ƒ LTM
Outline: Remembering
& Forgetting March
13
How is memory
organized? (Network theory)
How do we remember
info? (Schema theory)
Problems in memory
- distortion
- bias
Long Term Memory
Network theory
- info is in CATEGORIES - nodes
- connected by links -
associations
--- party/frat A.W.
|
|
- --- beer treehouse
father backyard
‚ Schema Theory
- "built in concept" of how to behave and what to expect in a
situation.
- "script" -
personal experience
(we fit in new info.)
- helps organize new info & help us comprehend
* help recall info (gives you context.)
Good attorneys
distort your memory and make you believe it.
Eye-witness
testimony?
"cognitive
interviewing"
asking you to remember from various perspectives.
Absolutely no
relationship between how confident you are and how accurate you are.
Distortion
1. Leveling - story gets shorter and
shorter
2. Sharpening - core aspects get over
emphasized
3. Assimilstion - info gets changed to
conform to core
Psychology Exam # 3
MODULE
17: INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
Nature-nurture
question - how much nature
(genetic facotrs) and nurture (environmental factors) contribute to biological,
emotional, cognitive, personal and social development.
Prenatal
development - conception to
birth - 266 days
germinal periods - 1st two weeks after conception.
- ovulation: if 2 eggs released fraternal twins. if 1 egg splits identical.
- conception: fertilized ovum is a zygote - single cell
that multiplies.
- at the end of germinal
period, this mass attaches to wall of the uterus.
embryonic period - 2 - 8 weeks following conception.
- cells divide and
differentiate into bone, muscle and body organs.
- 21 days: spinal cord, eyes.
- 24 days: heart.
- 28 days: buds (arms, legs).
- 42 days: facial features.
- embryo is very fragile during
this period.
- this is when most
miscarriages/birth defects occur.
- only one inch long.
fetal period - 2 months after conception until birth.
- development of lungs,
physical characteristics.
- at 6 mo: eyes, eyelids,
hair, external sex organs.
- premature babies w/lungs
not yet finished usu. 6 mo. - gestation fetus begins to show irregular breathing and \ can survive if born.
The newborn:
vision - visual acuity: ability to see fine details.
- 20/600 vs. 20/20 at 6 months.
- 1 mo: can discriminate between patterns and distinguish mom's face
w/voice.
- 3 mo: can distinguish mom's face w/out voice.
depth - visual cliff: glass table top w/checkerboard on 1/2 surface, the rest clear
w/checker board several feet below.
- at 6 mo: they hesitate \ they have
developed depth perception.
hearing - 1
mo: very keen, can differentiate
between bah and pah.
- 6 mo: have developed ability
to create all sounds in language.
touch - well devel. sense of touch which elicits
many responses (grasping, sucking,turning towards, etc.)
chemicle senses - smell - 6 wks old can smell mom among
strangers.
- used classical
conditioning to see that citric odor and floral odor.
- taste - inborn prefernce for both sweet and salt.
perception - infants can perceive, remember and predict
where objects will appear.
- expect 1 + 1 = 2 with Mickey dolls.
Motor development - stages of motor skills that infants pass
through as they acquire muscular control for making coordinated movements.
proximodistal
principles - near/far -
parts closer to center of infants' body devel. before parts farther away. Infants roll over (trunk) before grasping bottles (arms).
cephalocaudal
principle - head/tail -
parts of body closer to head deve. before parts closer to feet.
maturation - developmental changes taht are genetically
or biologically programmed rather than
acquired through learning or life experience. But if given the opportunity to practice, they learn earlier.
developmental
norms - average age at which
children perform various skills or exhibit abilities or behaviors.
- 5.5 mo: sitting up
alone.
- 9.2 mo: walking holding on.
- 10 mo: crawling.
- 12.1 mo: walking alone.
- 2 yrs: toddlers can walk up and down stairs, hold
glasses and operate toys.
temperament - stable behavior and emotional reactions
that appear early and are influenced in large
parts by genetic factors.
- emotional core that
influences the development of a person's personality, relationships, social behaviors, attachments
and emotions.
emotional
development - we learn to
produce facial expressions and experience associated emotional feelings, as a
result of interaction between biological capacity to produce emot. expressions
(nature) and the pos. or neg. feedback from our environment (nurture).
new borns -
interest, startle, distress, disgust and neonatal smile (spontan. smile 4 no reason).
- 4-6 wks: smiling.
- 3-4 mo: anger, surprise,
sadness.
- 5-7 mo: fear.
- 6-8 mo: shame, shyness.
- 24 mo: contempt, guilt.
attachment - close fundamental emotional bond between
infant and parent/caregiver.
separation
anxiety - infants distress
when parents temporarily leave.
secure attachment - infants use their parents as a safe home
base from which they can wander off and expolere the environment.
- leads to ability to
resolve conflicts, trusting and enjoying relationships.
insecure
attachment - infants avoid
or show ambivalence toward parent.
leads to dependency and poor relationships. May cling and want to be held one minute but squirm and push away the next.
Cognitive
development - how we
perceive, think and gain an understanding of our world through the interactions
and influence of genetic and learning factors.
assimilation - a child uses old methods or experiences to ddeal with new situations.
accomodation - a child changes old methods to deal with
situations.
Piaget's
cognitive stages: each more advanced b/c it involves new
reasoning & thinking abilities.
1. sensorimotor (0 - 2 yrs) - infants
interact with and learn about environment by relating sensory exper. (hearing/seeing) to
their motor actions. [things out of sight do not exist.]
- 9 mo: learn object
permanence & to search and form plans.
2. preoperational (2 - 7 yrs) - learn to use differen symbols (words/mental images) to
think of things not present and solve
problems. Don't understand or master:
conservation - amt
of substance stays same when shape changes.
egocentric thinking
- not seeing the world from other perspectives.
3. concrete operations (7 - 11 yrs) -
learn many logical and mental operations on concrete objects. Determine
relationship between objects presented, learn conservation and classification.
4. formal operations (12 yrs to adult) -
can think about and solve abstract problems in a logical manner. Problem solving,
word problems.
Freud's
Psychosexual Stages - indiv
seek pleasure fr. diff. areas of the body.
1. oral (0-18 mo) - pleasure seeking
centered at mouth. "sensual
sucking behavior"
- fixation leads to
smoking, mouthing off, chewing gum, overeating.
2. anal (1.5-3yrs) - centered on anus
and its functions of elimination.
"potty training"
- move from passive to
active, finally can control something.
- gratifying through
parental approval.
- fixation:
"anal retentive" ungratified - neat, orderly, obsessed w/control.
- overgratified - messy over
generous.
3. phallic (3-6yrs) - centered on
genitals, it dominates curiosity.
- preschool - 1st step
toward adulthood and sexuality.
boys: - oedipus complex -
hate/competition w/father for mom's affection.
- "castration
anxiety"
- resolved by relating
w/father, affirming maleness.
- fixation leads to
"hyper-macho" attitude.
girls: - electra complex - "penis
envy"
- turn against mother,
devel. sexual feelings for father.
- resolved by identifying
w/mother.
- fixation leads to
feelings of inferioriity to men.
4. latency (6-puberty) - repress sexual
thoughts and devel social and intellectual skills.
5. genital (pub-adult) - renewed sexual
desires that we seek to fulfill through relationships w/opposite sex. sexuality dominates.
Erikson's
Psychosocial Stages - prim
goal is to assoc. w/social needs.
1. trust vs. mistrust (0-1yrs): need for care and attention, devel of basic
rtust makes it easier to trust later and not hate the world.
2. autonomy vs. shame/doubt
(1-3yrs): battle of wills w/parents
when exploring environment. If punished
they feel independence is bad, if encouraged, they become trusting.
3. initiative vs. guilt (5-12yrs): in preschool the devel skills to plan &
take responsibility. If encouraged they learn initiative,if
not they cant plan their future.
4. industry vs. Inferiority (5-12yrs):
directing energy into working/completing tasks. Deve sense of industry, if not inferiority or
incompetence.
5. identy vs.role confusion (Adol):
leave carefree, irresponsible, impulsive childhood behavior behind, and deve purposeful, planned
behavior to be confident, if not role confusion results in low esteem
and social withdrawal.
MODULE 19:
FREUDIAN AND HUMANISTIC THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
Freuds
psychodynamic theory of personality - importance of early childhood experiences, repressed thoughts that
we cannot voluntarily access, and the conflicts between consious and uconsious
forces that infl. our thoughts and behaviors.
(Dynamic refers to mental energy/force.)
conscious
thoughts - wishes, desires
or thoughts that were aware of or can recall at any time.
unconscious
forces - wishes, desires or
toughts that b/c of their disturbing/threatening content, we automatically
repress and cannot voluntarily access them.
unconscious
motivation - a Freudian
concept - the infl of repressed thoughts, desires or impulses on our conscious
thoughts and behaviors.
free association - Freudian technique - clients are
encouraged to talk about any thoughts or images that enter their heads; the
assumption is that this kind of free-flowing, uncensored talking will provide
clues to unconscious material.
dream
interpretation - Freudian
technique of analyzing dreams based on the assumption that dreams contain underlying,
hidden meanings and symbols that provide clues to unconsious thoughts and
desires. Freud distinguished between a
dreams manifest content - the plot of the dream at surface level - and its
latent content - the hidden or disguised meaning of the plots events.
Freudian slips - mistakes or slips of the tongue that we
make in everyday speech; such mistakes are thought to reflect unconscious
thoughts or wishes.
Id - 2 biological drives-- sex and aggression--
the source of all psychic or mental energy.
Its goal is to pursue pleasure and satisfy the biological drives.
pleasure
principle - satisfy drives
& avoid pain, w/out concern for moral restrictions or societys
regulations.
Ego - infancy - goal is to find safe and
socially acceptable ways to satisfy the ids desires and to negotiate between
the ids wants and the superegos prohibitions.
reality principle - satisfying a wish or desire only if there
is a socially acceptable outlet available.
Superego - childhood - goal is applying the moral
values and standards of ones parents or caregivers and society in satisfying
ones wishes.
morality
principle -
Defense
mechanisms - Freudian
processes that operate at unconscious levels to help the ego reduce anxiety
through self-deception.
rationalization - making up acceptable excuses for behaviors
that cause us to feel anxious.
denial - refusing to recognize some
anxiey-provoking event or peice of information.
repression - pushing unacceptable or threatening
feelings or impulses into the unconscious.
projection - uconsciously transferring unacceptable
traits onto other people.
reaction
formation - turning
unacceptable wishes into acceptable behaviors.
displacement - tranferring feelings from their true
source to another source that is safer and more socially acceptable.
sublimation - a type of displacement that redirects a
threatening or forbidden desire, usu sex, into a socially acceptable one. [by
channeeling energy into physical activities.]
fixation - can occur during oral, anal and phallic
stages is a Freudian process through which an indiv may be locked into a
particular psychosexual stage b/c his or her wishes were over or
undergratified.
Projective tests
of personality- assumes that
the person will project conscious or unconscious feelings, needs and motives in
their response.
Thermatic
Apperception Test (TAT)
- series of 20 pictures of ambiguous people, subject asked to make up a story of
what they're doing/thinking.
Rorschach inkblot
test - showing 10 inkblots
and then asking to describe what they see in each.
advantages - difficult to fake or bias; don't know the
best, correct or socially desirable answers.
- may reveal more crucial
aspects of their personality than they consciously intended.
disadvantages - scored on content, theme or popularity \ no way to know if results are of client's personality or biases of
interpreting clinician.
- reliability and
validity depends on clinician's experience & interpretting ability.
Humanistic
Theories - our capacity for
personal growth, development of our potential and freedom to choose our
destiny.
Maslow's
hierarchy of needs - arr.
needs in ascending order w/biological nedds at the bottom and social/personal
needs at the top. As need at one level
are met, we move on to the next level.
Level 1: PHYSIOLOGICAL - hunger, thirst, sex and sleep.
Level 2: SAFETY - protection from harm and concern about safety and survival.
Level 3: LOVE & BELONGINGNESS - affiliation w/others and acceptance by
others.
Level 4: ESTEEM - ahievement, competency, gaining approval and recognition.
Level 5: SELF-ACTUALIZATION - fulfillment of one's unique potential.
deficiency needs - physiological and psychological needs that
we try to fulfill if they are not met.
growth needs - at the higher levels incl. the desire for
truth, goodness, beauty and justice.
Carl Rogers
real self - actual experiences , how we really see
ourselves.
ideal self - hopes and wishes, how we would like to see
ourselves.
positive regard - love, sympathy, warmth, acceptance and
respect that we crave from family, friends and people that are important to us.
conditional
positive regard - positive
regard that depends on our behaving in certain ways - ie: living up to or
meeting standards of others.
UNCONDITIONAL
POSITIVE REGARD - warmth,
acceptance and love that others show us b/c we are valued human being despit
the fact that we may behave in ways that are diff from their standards or
values or the way they think.
MODULE
20: SOCIAL & TRAIT THEORIES OF
PERSONALITY
Social Learning
Theory (Abert Bandura) -
personality development is primarily shaped by environmental conditions
(learning), cognitive-personal factors and behavior; which all interact to infl
how we evaluate, interpret and organize info and apply that info to ourselves
and others.
trait - stable and enduring tendency to behave in
a particular way.
trait theory - make a picture of our personality by
analizing differences in our traits.
"Barnum
principle" - tendency to accept as valid descriptions of our
own personality that are true of everyone.
OCEAN - 5 categories of all personality traits.
Openness to
experience - are you down to
earth, creative, original?
- open to novel exper./have narrow interests
Conscientiousness - are you negligent or consc., work
hard/lazy, late/punctual?
- respensible and
dependent/impulsive and careless
Extraversion - are you outgoing or quiet, loner aor with
people?
- outgoing and
decisive/retiring and withdrawn
Agreeableness - are you suspicious or trusting, irritable
or soft?
- warm and good natured/unfriendly and
cold
Neuroticism - are you calm or worrisome, comfortable or
self-conscious, emotional?
- stable and not a
worrier/nervous and emotionally unstable
Four Theories of
Personality
Psychodynamic
theory - early childhood
experiences, repressed thoughts and conflicts between conscious and unconscious
forces that infl. thoughts and behaviors.
Humanistic theory - our capacity for personal growth,
development of our potential and freedom to choose our destiny.
Social Learning
theory - personality
development is primarily shaped by environmental conditions (learning),
cognitive-personal factors and behavior; which all interact to infl how we
evaluate, interpret and organize info and apply that info to ourselves and
others.
Trait theory - an approach for analyzing the structure of
personality by measuring, identifying and
classifyng similarities and differences in personality characteristics or
traits.
- developed of the
five-factor model (OCEAN).
- the basic unit of measuring
personality characteristics is the trait.
MODULE
21: HEALTH, STRESS & COPING
primary appraisal - initial, subjective evaluation of a
situation in which we balance the environmental demands against our ability
to meet them.
irrelevant - does not matter to our well-being.
positive - will enhance or preserve our well-being.
stressful - it overtaxes our resources.
fight-flight
response - (a) directs great
sources of energy to the muscles and the brain, (b) can be triggered by either
physical stimuli that threaten our survival or psychological situations that
are novel, threatening or challenging, and (c) involve numerous physiological
responses that arouse and prepare the body for action- fight or flight.
April 24, 1997
Outline: Abnormal Psych I
What is Abnormal?
How do we diagnose?
Major types of
Mental Disorders
- Anxiety Disorders
- Mood Disorders
Abnormal
behaviors:
1.) Outside norms for their society.
2.) Maladaptive behavior.
- can't adjust to rules of their society.
- they have to suffer.
3.) Irrational and unpredictable.
4.) Loss of control of behavior.
5.) They do things that are socially
unacceptable.
- causes discomfort in others.
*Not a matter of if
these symptoms are present, but to what degree a person displays them.*
psychopathology - mental disorder
- any reccurring mental
disorder that seriously interferes w/person's ability to live an adaptive life.
clinical
psychology - the branch of
psychology that studies mental disorders.
DIAGNOSIS
Neurological
Testing
- look for lesions or damage.
- MRI, CAT scan.
‚ Psychological
Testing
- look at personality
- MMPI
- look at perceptions of reality
- Rorschacht, TAT
ƒ Clinical
Interview
- sit down, ask questions about situations.
- family history (hx).
- social support network.
- medical status.
- psychiatric hx.
Guide for
diagnosing: DSM - IV
*Every diagnosis
affects their lives forever - it is a really strong label to put on person.*
Anxiety Disorders
1.) Panic Disorder
- anxiety attacks: 30 sec - 10
min.
- terrifying/intense...then it just goes away.
- psychological symptoms:
they're scared they're gonna die.
- physical symptoms: sweating,
muscle tension, aches and pains.
- 4 to 10 million Americans, 75% are women.
- happens along with phobias esp. agoraphobia (open spaces).
- arachnaphobia (spiders).
- acraphobia (heights).
- claustrophobia (enclosure).
- hydrophobia (water).
- xenophobia (foreigners).
2.) Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
1 - obsessive thoughts triggered by anxiety.
- persistent and irrational, horrid thoughts.
- interfere with functioning.
2 - compulsive behavior.
- meant to relieve these anxious thoughts.
- handwashing, counting, checking things for hours.
- these behaviors become rituals.
- if the rituals are interrupted, they freak out.
- becomes worse with stress.
3.) Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
1 - Intrusion
- re-experiencing the event.
- flashbacks.
2 - Avoidance
- related thoughts, feelings, activities.
3 - Hyperarousal
- startle response.
- hypervigilant: always looking
over shoulder.
- sleep disturbances.
April 29, 1997
Outline: Abnormal Psych II
*Mood
Disorders/Suicide
Diagnosis & Treatment
*Psychotic Disorders
Film: "Madness"
*Personality
Disorders
*Mood Disorders*
Depression - (handout)
symptoms have to be present for at least 3 weeks to be considered a
major depression.
10 % of people
suffer from depression.
THE most common
Mental Disorder.
---------------
mild severe
hallucinations, delusions can be associated.
Unipolar
Depression
genetic and environmental factors.
Treatment:
start with drug therapy (antidepressants - prozac).
- psychotherapy
- shock therapy - ECT (Electro-Convulsive Therapy)
- only for severe, life threatening cases
- giving seizures, now a muscle relaxant as well
- 150 volts 3 - 5 days a week
- memory loss is associated
Bipolar Disorder
(Manic Depression)
genetic factors.
1 % of the population suffer from this.
manic
depression
mania:
"grandios ideas" about yourself, where you belong (no one can
keep up w/you or understand
you).
- "fight of ideas."
- decreased sleep.
- increased self esteem.
- reckless behaviors: spending
money, having affairs.
- lasts 3 days to a month.
*It is biochemical,
caused by lack of certain neurotransmitters in brain.
*Genetic code
carries it, stress brings it out.
Highest suicide
rate is when people come up
from their low.
during low, they're too lazy/weak.
Treatment:
Lithium - pure salt.
- founded in 50s.
- used in 60s - 70s.
- therapy doesn't work without the drugs.
- has side effects.
Suicide intervention
- positive approach, calm and understanding (not anxious).
- try to help them
organize, ask perspective questions.
- make them feel heard -
"Am I hearing you correct..."
- indicated family can help
but withdraw if it doesn't work right away.
Psychotic
Disorders
schizophrenia - disorder of thought
*disturbance in
thought content (delusions).
*disturbance in
perception (hallucinations).
*motor disturbances
- mannerisms.
They are very
intelligent, but thoughts are very disorganized.
Rule of Thirds:
_ only one temporary, they get over it.
some have recurring bouts.
40 % chronic, use anti-psychotic drugs as treatment to lessen
symptoms.
anti-psychotic
drugs have very bad side
effects: tardive dyskenisia -
permanent twiches.
May 1, 1997
Outline: Abnormal Psych III
Personality
Disorder:
- Anti-Social Personality Disorder
- Case Study: Jeffrey Dahmer
* Diagnosing Mental
Disorders
ASPD - Anti-Social Personality Disorder
disorder of the
"character traits" that are inflexible and long lasting.
- against society
- is on a continuum
---------------------
mild severe
"chronic
delinquent" "psychpath"/"sociopath"
- inadequate
conscience development
- show no remorse
- irresponsible and
impulsive
- disregard other's rights
- ability to put up
a "front"
- charming others
- lying
- inability to
maintain relationships
psychopath - lead by
something of a supreme being
- fear, teaching them a lesson
- delusions
sociopath - know
what they're doing but don't care.
Module 25: Social
Psychology
A. Perceiving
Others
person perception - process of foming impressions of and
making judgements about the traits and
characteristics of others.
MODULE 22:
ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY/DISORDERS I
medical model
approach - mental disorders
as similar to physical diseases; both have symptoms that can be diagnosed and treated, sometimes with
drugs.
psychoanalytic
approach - mental disorders
are due to unconscious conflicts or problems with unresolved conflicts at one or more of Freuds psyhchosexual
stages.
cognitive-behavioral
approach - mental disorders
result from deficits in cognitive processes, such
as thoughts and beliefs, and from behavioral problems, such as deficit in
skills and abilitiy.
what is abnormal
behavior? -
statistical
frequency approach -
behavior may be considere abnormal if it occurs rarely or infrequently in relation to the
behaviors of the general population.
clinical
interview - gathering info
about relevant things in the persons past, current behaviors, attitudes, emotions and details of present
life.
clinical
diagnosis - determining how
closely an individuals specific symptoms match those that define a particular mental disorder.
DSM-IV - Diagnostic and Statistical manual of
Mental disorders-IV - describes uniform system for
assessing specific symptoms and matching the to almost 300 different mental disorders.
Axes I: Major
clinical syndromes
disorders usually diagnosed in infancy, childhood or adolescence.
1. Organic mental disorders - dysfunctions of
brain tissue caused by chemicals.
- delirium, dementia and
amnesia
2. Substance-related disorders - maladaptive
use of drugs and alcohol.
3. Schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders
- psychotic symptoms: disorganized behavior, delusions
and hallucinations.
4. Mood disorders - emotional disturbance.
implications of
labeling -
Anxiety Disorders: (understand symptoms and treatment)
generalized
anxiety disorder -
phobias (social,
specific, agoraphobia) -
Treatment:
anti-anxiety medicine -
exposure therapy -
Somatoform
Disorders: (understand
symptoms and treatment)
conversion -
somatization -
somatoform
disorders -
