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| Assignment 2 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Darragh Scully | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Ba, Justice | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Drug use in Australia and the theraputic, the endemic and the Epidemic drug clasiifications: not a reliable reference for 2002. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Northern Territory University: Behavioral science | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Unit: Psychology of substance abuse | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Abstract | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Drugs come in many varieties, Krivanek utilises Bejerot and Bejerot epidemic and endemic and theraputic drug user categories that attempt to narrow down and explain the causes an correlates of drug use. Although the theory may have had some merit in the early eighties it is even less reliable in the year 2002. Psychology and other major scientific discoveries are one of the things that Krivinek had been critical of as far as social change and social problems are concerned. The resistance to social change by the functionalist ideologists and the effects of stress and inequity among the less fortunate people of society have been bitterly twisted into the Bejerot and Bejerot theory. Australia is not an intoxicated society as such as McKoy has stated (Krivanek 1982), though it is defiantly and adversarial society. Drug use in Australia is mostly influenced by complicated issues and simple policies that in reality are not simple at all. As in most debates one needs to separate the facts and the issues to see the truth behind the delicate moral dilemmas. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| In 1916 a man named Rasputin was murdered. Rasputin was a healer and was very charismatic. Through his work he gained a great deal of power though his peers saw him as a bum. In December 1916 a group of aristrcratic thugs led by Prince Yussoupoff decided to rid the court of the contaminating peasant. (Martin Fido 20th century Murders) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Drug use in Australia has always been present. Many issues over the years have been presented in Krivanek (1982). The theory Bejerot and Bejerot is compared an contrasted in terms of the prevalence of drug use and in terms of the most harmful type of drug use in australia. The difficulty lies in the reliability of the classification for drug use Bejerot and Bejerot describe as Theraputic, Endemic and Epidemic. As will be seen the statistics are not in favour of the presumpitions that may once have been the case although there are some facts which are true though outlined below these are accounted for by the society that we live in and not the drugs we use.� | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Australia has been defined by Mckoy (cited in Krivanek, 1982) as the intoxicated society. In many ways it is true that Australia has a high involvement with three types of substance use that Bejerot and Bejerot (cited in Krivanek, 1982) have used to catagorise substance use and misuse. This includes the theraputic drug type, endemic drug type, and epidemic drug type (Krivanek, 1982). According the Bejerot and Bejerot (cited in Krivanek, 1982) the theraputic drug type is aged between 35 and 60 years old and women represent a higher proportion than male. On the evidence it seems that this is not infact the case, however this may be due to suicides hiding the actual drug use as more women than men use theraputic drugs to commit suicide and more men in than women actually commit suicide (Allen, 1998). | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| The theraputic type of drugs are associated to clinical depression and it was implied in Krivanek (1982) that the medical profession is at large responsible for the wrongful distribution of the drugs, however it is believed that the manner in which the people coerce the Doctors may resemble the elements of stalking as patients do not take no for an answer. Stalking in this sense would be repeated communication that is non consensual. A doctor would now have the ability in most Australian jusridictions to press criminal charges if patients were to continually ask for drugs which the doctor felt that the patient did not need. Drugs and drug abuse is concentrated in areas were Dysocial influences are at work and the criminal law seems to be the only way of protecting the health of others in a lot of cases were there is dysocial forces at work. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Epidemic drug use is described as antisocial illicit drug consumption (Krivanek, 1982). Epidemic drug use is associated to development psychology issues such as the myth of storm and stress in adolescence, however statistics indicate that there is more external social factors that allow this problem to continue. A recent case in Western Australia is presented to show the dillema law enforcement agents, adolescents and young adults are faced with in a fast paced world of social change. Endemic drug use is closely associated with the most prevalent drug use Endemic drug use, or recreational drug use (Krivanek, 1982). This type of drug use is prevalent at all ages from 14 to 60 + years of age (Krivanek, 1982). It can effect just about everyone in western society at some point in there lifetime though the worst effects come from the use of tobacoe and the misuse of alcohol (Carney, Drew, Mathews, Mugford, & Wodak, 1991). | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| The theraputic drug type aquire prescription medicine from Doctors or Psychiatirsts. Nutbeam, Wise, Bauman, Harris, & Leechter (1993) would say that these drugs are subject to the rational use of drugs guidelines a couple being appropriate presciption, dose, intervil and continuance of a prescribed drug. Krivanek (1982) implies that Doctors may be subjected to elements of stalking behaviors form patients whom claim that they need the powerful pharamaceutical drugs used for treating clinical depression. Larmor & Dolphin (cited in Nutbeam et al, 1992) claim that 30000 people need treatment in hospital for irrational drug. The 1989-90 NHS reported that benzodiazipines were taken for at least 6 months by 330000 people and at least 1 in 3 of these suffered withdrawal symptoms (Nutbeam et al, 1992). The concentration of people who used benzodiazipines in 1989-90 consisted of men and women over 35 with a greater proportion of women than men. One problem is that the statistics are a predicted number from a sample of 10000 or from a population, and that means that the way the statistics were reported in the reports were not reliable (ABS, 2000 ). Veita and Mcgahee (cited in Allen, 1998) stated that benzodiazipines are associated to suicide. In 1995-1998 the use of tranquilizers in a sample of 10000 people from the NHS shows that in that period there use doubled from 3.2 % to 6.2 % and 48 % of those in 1998 claimed to be continuous users since initiation (Maxwell 2001). | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| �The contradiction however is that higher usage among 14-35 years old is reported (Adhikare & Summerhill, 2000) and that is not consistent with� the statement of Bejerot ans Bejerot (in Krivanek, 1982) that women and men, middle aged are the dominant users in the group. Berjerot and Bejerot (cited in Krivanek, 1982) claim that the people who turn to this kind of drug use may not report it. The psychology on that is quite substantial. The middle age group maybe be high achieving workers who are subjected to misfortune and prejudice at work and in other areas of social life. For example white collar workers tend to have high ambitions and strong work ethics as that is a requirement to be competitive. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| �Job discrimination however is not uncommon among the middle age group. Bernbach (1996) would say that ?2.7 million baby boomers? are experiencing the biggest wave of employment discrimination since the age discrimination employment act of 1967? (Bernbach, p. 23, 1996). Bernbach (1996) claims that employers attitude may represent the superficial ideology that those in there middle aged years are not attractive enough to give of the correct message to the consumers even it they are physically and mentally well presented. Kail and Kavenagh (1999) states that there is a high level of stress associated with job loss. The principles of pharmacology however states that associative depression are symptoms of stress and the use of theraputic medicine from healers is not appropriate for associative depression (SHPA, 1989). | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Other research adds that these drugs are often used for the purpose of suicide which as mentioned before is most popular among middle aged women (Allen, 1998). Maxwell (2001) states the high prevalence of continuation among users of tranquilizers underscores the potential for persons who take the drug to suffer form physical dependence. One inference that may be present is that social problems associated to fast paced social change may be occurring and as predicted in the Nutbeam report on health for Australians in the year 2000 (Nutbeam, Wise, Bauman, Harris, & Leechter 1993) people need to come to terms with life problems in a realisitic fashion and learn more coping and health behaviors rather than turning to negative behavior such as drug use and suicide. The Australian nursing Journal have shown that ?more than 41,000 Australians committed suicide between 1979 and 1999.?and that ? ...more men commit suicide than women, women tend to outnumber men, by tour to three, in terms of hospital admissions for attempted suicide and self-harm?(News, 2001). | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ����������� Epidemic drug use as mentioned earlier is described as antisocial illicit drug consumption (Krivanek, 1982). The epidemic drug type is classified as starting to use drugs at age 14-15 (Krivanek, 1982). It is possibly related to cigarettes and alcohol at the early stages of experimentation though it is more common that dysocial influences in the area where these people live are the real reason why they use so many illicit drugs (Adhikare & Summerhill, 2000).� Marrijuana is the most frequently used illicit drug (Adhikare & Summerhill, 2000; Maxwell 2001). Decrimininalization has occoured in many states and most recently in WA (Wishnia, 2001). A good example of why this might be important is presented in a Western Australian district court case R v Dorsett [2001]. Illicit drug use reflects a violent subculture where crime, punishment, and risk taking from a epidemic of social problems (Levinthal C. F. 2002). In Dorset v Queen, Mr Dorsett and his associates were subject to the epidemic social problems surrounding drug use and crime. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Mr Dorset was indicted for the crime of Aggrivated bugualry were the circumstances of aggrivation was assault causing grievious bodily harm. The motive behind this may have been retaillitory aggression (Turvey, p. 175-176 2000). ?Turvey would say that the motive is ?cumalitive real or imagined wrongs form those that are in their world?(Turvey, p. 176, 2000). As will be seen this the conflict led to emotional rage and dysocial influences such as drugs and crime have led to one person becoming violently antisocial and another antisocial individual receiving serious life threatening injuries. The man he attacked had assisted a girl aged 15 to steal his property from his house, the proceeds of which were used to purchase drugs. The police had returned Mr Dorsets property from a previous raid though they had simultaneously served him with a search warrant for drug possession. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| �Mr Dorsett was arrested and his Marijuana was taken from him including his personal plants. Mr Doreset had a work related back injury, no insurance and was suffering from emotional decline from the family court seperation of his partner and daughter from himself. He claimed he used the Marijuana for his back trouble. Mr Dorset was granted bail. At which time Mr Dorsett had attended the house of one of the people involved in the raid on his house. He demanded his property and procedded to impail the man with an axe causing grievious bodily harm almost causing death. Due to Mr Dosets psychopathic nature the Judge gave him no benefit of the doubt when judicial discretion was applied for to exclude evidence that was taken during an interview were Mr Dorsett claimed he was intoxicated. The evidence under normal conditions would not be probative of the serious offences committed however they gave a good indication of the state of mind Mr Doreset was in and his intention to deny the truth of the evidence against him. Other drugs were talked of being used in events leading up to the assault such as exstacy. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Later in 2001 the West Australian Government� passed laws to allow fines for possession of marijuana at personal use quantities (Wisnia, 2001) though this was a bit to late for Mr Dorsett. He claimed he was taking the drugs for pain relief and he was emotionally unstable though he was other wise causing no harm to himself or to others. The elements of an offence includes the need for an offence to cause harm. The involvement of the police in returning Mr Dorsetts property even though not all was recovered plus the search warrant and arrest caused a psychological blow to Mr Dorsett. This may have put the emotionally unstable man into a dissacoiative state however the law would only allow this to be a defence if an offence is commited in the heat of passion and Mr Dorsett had time to cool of and his state was more reflecant of pre meditated violence and not non insane automatism (Kenny, 2000). None the less it was his dysocial association, his emotional distress, his back complaint gone untreated, and his poor financial condition that is most common amongst those Bejerot and Bejerot (cited in Krivanek 1982) would classify as Epidemic drug users. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Drug warlords and drug couriers still manage to get the illicit drugs in onto the ground (Hawkes, 1988). Then it is the motive of the dealing entreupeneurs to find buyers for there products(Hawkes, 1988). Big financial gains can be made (Hawkes, 1988) and to further this the high cost of the drugs is put back onto society threefold with dependant users unable to legally support the habit (Makai (b) 2001). The first consequence is the ill health suffered by those who use the drugs at the expense of there own health care (Nutbeam, Wise, Bauman, Harris & Leechter, 1993: Allen, 1998: Kail, & Cavanaugh 1999). Then there is the high rate of property crime associated to the users acquisition of funds to support the habit( Makkai a 2001: Makkai, b 2001). Finnaly there is the cost to the tax payer in preventing the drug trade, and the drug related crime form occouring (ABS 2001). Eighty percent of overall crime is related to property crime, and a large disproportion of the crime is commited by the small disproprtion of drug users(Makkai a 2001: Makkai, b 2001). The empirical evidence that establishes this comes from a study of monitoring drug use among detainees at lockups around the country. Of the 825 detainees in the study who agreed to being interviewed and who gave a urine sample with in 24 hours of being detained 46 % showed traces of cannibis, 29% opites, 10% amphetamines and 1 % cocaine (Makkai, (a), 2001). | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| �Similar to these statistics is the assertion that Antisocial personality disorder is common in the offender population as a psychological disorder (Hare, Hart, & Harpur, 1991). There is evidence to suggest that those who grow up with criminality disorder and hyperactivity attention and conduct problems will most likely be ?bullies?(Hayniew,� Nansel, Eitel, Crump, Saylor, Yu, Simons-morton,� 2001)� and will most be the most likely to engage in risk taking behavior including ?drug use?� (White 1992: Farrell, Kung, White,Valois 2000: Loever & Stouthammer-Loever 1999: Hayniew,� Nansel,� Eitel, Crump,� Saylor, Yu, Simons-morton, 2001: White & Labouvie 1994). However this kind of research is contrary to the property offence dilemma noted in the Makkai statistics (Makkai a 2001: Makkai, b 2001) were the drug of choice is heroin. Further conduct disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is not limited to people of low socio economic conditions. The reasons for antisocial behavior and the reasons for high rates of property crime are all related to antisocial behavior of which the most dominant groups are believed to suffer from hereditary conditioning influences, or dysocial neighbourhood (Bartol 1999) and parental learning factors. The facts show that these individuals area most likely to push the drugs and use the drugs and it is not as such the drugs that are causing the problem but the people who are using them in endemic drug use. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| The age group of the endemic offender is predominantly 15-30 year olds(Bartol, 1999, Krivanek, 1982, Maxwell, 2001). It holds true that this group is predominantly male though young ladies have also increased their levels of drug use (Maxwell, 2001). No reason has been suggested for overall increase in illicit drug use in Australia from 1995-1998. Maxwell (2001) states that in 1995-1998 there was a 17 % increase in lifetime use of illicit drugs, and a 29 % increase in 1997-1998, with 48% of those surveyed in 1998 had reporting continuation of drug use since initiation. The spread across the age groups show that the highest proportion of users were in the 20?29 y/o age group in life time drug use and past year drug use (Maxwell, 2001). The 14-29 group had a 51% lifetime use and 37.7% past year use (Maxwell, 2001).. Past year use declined from 23.9% in 30-39 year olds with a declining trend to a low of 5.8% in 60+ year olds (Maxwell, 2001). Life time use was high though it also declined with increasing age. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ����������� The trend may indicate that young people are invloved in low paid work or unemployed and living in substandard condition with only a single parent. There is an increasing number of members in this group not coping with life and social change. The underlying cause may be to do with social change. Less full time work for blue collar workers, high levels of divorce and seperation and increased levels of short term defactoe relation ships in accordance with the trends in social change (Rees, & Dent 1996). Rees & Dent (1996) would say that due to increased rates of mechanization, rural employment has decreased and the population in the rural areas has also decreased. This has ultimately led to urban over population as the style of developments in urban land has left no space to accommodate the increasing population (Rees & Dent 1996). Some government programs such as the East Perth redevelopment program have tried to account for this by changing the way urban renewal process take place (Planning WA, 2001). This has included placing high density homes with a mixed population of dwellers rather than a cluster of low socio economic members. The idea is to avoid common problems such as drug abuse and violent crime that is associated to high density living were living standards are potentialised at an exponetial extent with the greater clustering of problem populations (Planning WA, 2001). | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ����������� Another issue is that the level of behavioral inhibition control needed to cope with higher education and in association with the demand for skilled employees instead of blue collar work may be not culturally tuned in with lower socio economic groups who are unaware of the social changes that are taking place in the community. More adolescents and young adults are using illicit drugs in there lifetime than those who haven?t (Maxwell, 2001). However it is clear that the highest group of illicit drug users are marijuana users (Maxwell, 2001) and the cost of the associated law enforcement application to this group seems odd when the crime associated with drugs is more dependant on heroin and alcohol (Makai 2001,a). Heroin addicts and stealing is one major issue and alcohol and violence is another, all of which have direct and indirect and negative consequences on health. The catch however may be that the Epidemic drug user is likely to prosetylyse when the drug of choice is not available, however Marijuana users in general seem to be more associated with regular dringking and smoking with smoking being the most probable drug of second choice. The end result is a as what Bartol (1999) would say a complex issue and the public policy of quick fix policies and the current sytem of federal legislation and law making may be the problem (Beckett, Sasson, 2000). | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Bejerot and Bejerot had defiantly the right idea here, as Krivanek (1982) pointed out the norms of aggressive achivement and behavioral inhibition is alive and well in the minds of the legislators, who most likely are brought up and trained to believe that that is the way things have to be done. The sociologists have also noted that social change is usually resisted and social change that happens to quickly causes what is called anomie. Social cognition on the other hand has tried to show that change that is important to humanity cannot occour as long as discrimination and predjudice are allowed to dominate. The conflict as Tillet (1999) would say is a complicated process with may players on different social levels and of different levels of influence. Politics on drugs is most likely the most difficult hurdle to cross when trying to face drug use issues and the interests of the powerful will be the most draining battle to face of all, as they fight covertly and have many in there intelligence ranks.� For example the Functionalist with the knowledge of persuasion, influence, and message channeling (Moghadam) would be able to easily counter the movements of Humanity. There is a great deal of unethical behavior that occours when change needs to be made and it is defiantly deeply rooted within the cultural norms of western society. Though a good reminder is that the the trend to make the drug pushers pay is having a powerfull effect on the big cigarette companies, and some Alcohol outlets are now being held accountable for the damage their patrons do. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ����������� A final point on endemic drug use is that illicit drug use is the highest amongst street youth. These people may live close to cities in squats or substandard living condtions. They generally have bad health behavior. The spread of disease is easily done by these people as they still have the abiltiy to move around a lot. The fact that antibiotic medicines have increasingly less effect on viruses and that viruses are becoming stronger means that people need to be much more careful in there hygine habbits to avoid spreading disease. The street people may be more prone to catching viruses and more likely to spread them to other members of the community especially medical staff who these people may see more frequently as they would be more likely to be sick more often than healthy members of the community. Those people may carry minor flaws or more serious flaws that are contagious and they would be more frequently inclined to develop these diseased due to there weak health skills. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Bejerot and Bejerot (cited in Krivanek) state that the endemic drug type is concerened with socially acceptable drug use. Nicotine and Alcohol are used in similar and different social scenarios. Nicotine products such as Tobaccoe and Cigarettes cause lung cancer and reduce the effeicency of lung functioning. Alcohol can cause death in a number of ways such as drinking and driving crash incidents, or overdose. The most significant problem with alcohol use is that it causes inhibition of controlled behavior to be reduced. Another problem is that it can cause depression. Tobacoe and Nicotine related deaths occour in the over 35 years of age group smoking as such is the worst threat to society as far as drug related death is concerned. Alcohol is related to negative emotional reaction often including violent consequences for behavior. Alcohol and tobacoe� can cause serious immediate and prolonged negative effects for mental health and physiological functioning for those directly consuming it and those affected indirectly. The negative effects of alcohol are largly concentrated in low socio economic condition. Two in five divorces, separations or domestic violence incidents are related to alcohol abuse as a causal reason. The effects on mental health of individuals who are indirectly affected by alcohol are a huge health concern. Women who have suffered from domestic violence from alcholic like males suffer for years after the trauma has ended. This may affect the lives of children and other loved ones. The main level of concern is the rise in alcohol and smoking in adolesence. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| It is definatley the case that this kind of drug user is the most prevalent in society. The problem would be in deciding on the level of health problems being associated to this problem being worse than the high crime rate and vilolence rate and that impact of the stress levels of the community, and the effect of sucicide on children and loved ones of women in the theraputic group. It may be that one health problem flows on to another and one person with a health problem flows on to another person in the community and that none of the problems alone can be viewed without light from the other. As it can be seen however the functionalist view of Bejerot and Bejerot (in Krivanek 1982) may be suggesting that drug use is actually a functioning part of society as sick people are needed for the hospitals and criminals are needed for the prisons. Beckett & Sasson (2000) would say that this is ultimately the effect of Popularity contest politics in Massive nations were much of the real issues are never dealt with according to the severity of the problem that they present. The politicians make legeslation promises with persuasion and fear tactics to convince voters at election time that they posses the most effective policy to fix the problem. As with most quick fix remedies that seem simple enough there is usually so much sophistication that it is probably the channel of the message which make many people accept the simple messages (Moghadam, 1998) though the issues are not. As with all issues the power is always hanging in the balance and as with all adversarial systems of Justice you have your winners and you have your losers. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| References | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ABS (2000), Health Issues: Illicit drug use, sources of Australian data 4804.0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ABS 2001 , Yearbook Australia 2001, February 2001, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Canberra. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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