This essay seeks to compare two expressions of mysticism from the wide variety contained amongst Western traditions. The first form will be that of the Christian German medieval mystic, Hildegard of Bingen. Hildegard stands out as a distinctive female visionary and writer in the school of twelfth century continental mystics. The second expression under examination is from the school of fourteenth century English Christian mysticism, with particular attention to another distinctive female mystic, Dame Juliana of Norwich.
 

Medieval Mystics - Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179)

Hildegard of Bingen was a twelfth century German abbess who was widely recognised as a prophetess, healer, preacher and mystic. She stands unique in her expressions of mysticism during the Medieval period.

Hildegard strongly believed that both the social class structure and ecclesiastical structures were divinely ordained instruments of God. She also accepted the position (or lack thereof) that women were to hold within these structures. As a member of the elite, she generally continued the practice of only accepting high class women into her convent. Despite these views, and the portrayal of herself as a ‘simple and unlearned little woman’, she took on many ecclesiastical roles that were the exclusive dominion of men. Hildegard’s writings also demonstrate, despite the complete absence of any source references, that she was extremely well read in the theological and spiritual writings of the time.

In many ways, Hildegard was not in the mystic mould, displaying an unusually low degree of subjectivity within her writings. Unlike most mystics, her writings were not about the experiential union of the soul with God, but primarily addressed issues of doctrine. Hildegard often followed a pattern in her writings; A short description of a vision, giving away no more details than deemed necessary, followed by the exegesis of a related scriptural passage. The theology displayed is in the mould of classical twelfth century Benedictine theology, centring on the ‘identity of the Creator and the incarnate Word’, though her emphasis on physical phenomena and ecological perspective was unusual for theologians of this era. What distinguishes the mysticism of Hildegard against other mystics is the way in which she does not seek to develop any framework of ascetic and contemplative disciplines aimed at facilitating any union with God. It seems that at this point, Hildegard moves away from Dionysius concept of a ‘celestial ladder’ where ecstatic experiences were of greater value than formulised doctrine, and towards a style of discipline that was Augustinian in character, but somewhat redefined by the new emphasis on analysis and formalisation that characterised much of the twelfth century.

Hildegard had been the recipient of visions from a very early age. However, she felt herself unable to describe them until she received a prophetic call and received official Papal recognition of this role some forty years later. In contrast to later mystics who intentionally sought after visions and other paranormal experiences, Hildegard's visions were only understood by herself as divine revelation after years of learning and the ecclesiastical authority of an abbatial position.  She neither attempted to pass on her method of seeing to others, or intentionally sought to place her experiences within a theological framework by themselves.

Hildegard felt that her visions were unique in that she could see ‘in the soul’ while at the same time exercising powers of normal perception. The visions she experienced were concurrent with normal physical sight. Throughout these experiences, she remained ‘fully awake in mind and body’. Contemporary, Richard of St Victor understood this type of vision as one where ;
‘the eye of the heart is led through both the likeness of visible things, and through images presented as figures and signs, to the knowledge of invisible ones.’

This description reflects a blending of both Augustinian and Dionysian influences. Dionysius would have happily recognised this form of  vision as ‘symbolic visions’. Hildegard’s visions were the form of ‘the reflection of the living light’. In this, there appears strong parallells with Augustine’s theory of illumination which Hildegard would have been aware of. Other influences can also be discerned, such as the Neoplatonic light mysticism that was known to be propagated by Pseudo-Dionysius.

Her spirituality strongly reflects her ecclesiastical roles or abbess, reformer  and apocalyptic preacher. Likewise, her writings strongly reflected the classical monastic themes of the Benedictine way of life. In this, she is very much a traditionalist. She unequivocally accepted the social and ecclesiastical structures of the day. As a reformer, it was the abuse of authority within these structures that were her main concern. This particular desire for reform mark her out as a  reformer very much in the line of King Gregory VII. As a preacher, she took on a prophetic character. Leaving comparatively little room for subjectivity, the Apocalyptic message that she preached was akin to that of the Old Testament prophets. This apocalyptic nature arose not from any radical desires for reform, or a keenness to witness the second coming of Jesus, but  from an understanding of salvation history.

Any attempt to locate Hildegard in a particular women's mystical tradition is difficult. As the female mystic tradition was essentially a hidden tradition, she would have had no contact with others in this genre. Therefore, any similarities with female writers of the time cannot be attributed to either conscious or unconscious influences.

Dronke finds several differences between the mysticism of Hildegard and subsequent women mystics. Future female mystics were often from less privileged backgrounds and belonged to religious orders that were less stringent and more communally pro-active. Despite this more outward looking lifestyle, their writings reflect an increased tendency towards inward looking subjectivity. They take on an extra personal and emotional focus that does not reach Hildegard’s orientation towards theological allegories. However, the feature that marks Hildegard's from future women mystics is her insistence that her writings were in the name of the ‘living light’, and not of her own name. Where future women wrote in their own name, Papal sanction of her role as a genuine prophet allowed her to speak with the prophets impunity. Her message, though often unpopular with authorities, was beyond any human challenge.
 

Fourteenth century English Mystics
 - Julian of Norwich (1343-1417)

The category of ‘Middle English Mystics’ refers to a unique strand of medieval mysticism emanating out of the English church during the fourteenth century, stretching from Richard Rolle to Dame Juliana of Norwich. Riehle finds that this brand of mysticism contains two unifying features that mark them out as being distinctive body of literature. For the English mystic, mystical experiences takes on a fundamentally affective character, and their recordings of these experiences display a strong distaste for theological learning.

The degree to which this particular expression of mysticism had been externally influenced by continental mysticism is an issue of some debate. While mystical literature received wide circulation throughout Europe during the Middle Ages, any specific influence can at best be traced to German (particularly North German) mysticism. Both traditions display an intense spiritualised and homiletic character, and emphasise bride-mysticism. The necessity of divine grace, humility, anti-materialism and the importance of suffering also parallel as common themes. The strong similarities in metaphorical language can be traced back to their common tradition with Christian Latin Mysticism. However, the English tended to be more reliant on biblical linguistics, with an emphasis on humility outside of any formalised rules of ascetic practices. For the English mystic, a personal experience of God is above any institutional practices within the church.

Dame Julian of Norwich was an anchoress around the end of the fourteenth century. As a recluse, she received a series of revelations focusing on the Passion of Christ,  which she recorded and subsequently re-edited into a longer text. While such visions were not uncommon for recluses, her continued ‘shewings’ brought about remarkable spiritual insight considering her questionable degree of education and portrayal of herself as a simple creature. Her work has come to stand as a difficult, but highly profound piece of literature.

Julian writes of her direct personal experience. She tells of her visions received her vision in a three-fold sequence. Firstly, a bodily vision followed by words formed in her understanding and thirdly by the mean of spiritual vision. The exact progression is somewhat unclear, with various discrepancies between the shorter and longer version her ‘shewings’.  While the visions were of a simple nature, the different levels of meaning contained within them were the source of much contemplation by Julian for the next twenty years. This schema suggests some familiarity with scholastic metaphysics, with the style of visions demonstrating a pseudo-Dionysius influence. While her visions are highly affective in nature, Julian avoids the temptation to turn the vision into the end in itself. While emotional excesses remained commonplace in much continental mysticism, Julian uses the vision purely as a vehicle for spiritual content.

Julian, along with other female English mystics of the period, possessed a strong desire for physical sickness. She sought to suffer as Christ had suffered up to the point of death. This desire arose from her deep longing for union with God. Here Julian demonstrates neo-Platonic influences in her desire to transcend beyond the physical towards a union of the soul with God. This sickness was granted to her by God at age thirteen, and the subsequent miraculous healing from the point of death prepared her for the receipt of her ‘shewings’. This Franciscan influence on her early piety was also commonplace throughout continental mysticism. It appears that, while psychosomatic suffering had held a place in ascetic behaviour throughout the church’s history, this outlook had taken on a strong popular appeal among nuns and female mystics throughout Europe during the middle ages. This may be in part why Riehle finds that it is the English women mystics who correspond closest to that mysticism found throughout the continent.

Julian’s experiences lead her towards profound doctrinal understandings. English theologians suffer from being unable to sufficiently describe the Godhead, due to linguistic shortfalls in the English language. Such problems tend not to exist with Germans as they have a specific term for a unity of three in one. Julian moves away from the conservative nature of her English colleagues and dabbles in some speculative statements about the trinity, including God as mother. She is also the only English writer to include neo-Platonic concepts of the world as a divine emanation. Julian  moves away from the ‘trinity’-centric approach held by many of her contemporaries, towards the Second Person of the trinity. This Christocentric approach continues throughout her work.

Julian’s mystical experience parallelled the pattern of late medieval female mystics throughout the continent while the tradition was being developed. While her level of education is far from clear, it is quite likely that she was influenced by the writings of other continental woman from Germany and the Netherlands, and wrote under the influence of well informed spiritual directors of East Anglia. Linguistic similarities also suggest that Julian was well aware of the works of Walter Hilton and ‘The Cloud of Unknowing’. While Julian demonstrates some similarities with patterns of continental mysticism, her work displays a degree of independence that is not found in writings of other women.
 

Conclusion

Hildegard stands out in the school of medieval mystics. She sought to influence the church as no woman had done before. Through her mystical experience, she took on those who weilded power within the ecclesiastical framework. She was extrememly pragmatic, and claimed to speak words given to her directly from God.

The English Middle Mystics represent a pulling together of several strands of doctrine. Augustinian methods of contemplation are combined with the Christianised neo-Platonic teachings found in Germany along with the contemplative methods of the early church desert fathers. Juliana widened the scope of church teaching by her distinctly feminine intuitive approach to Christianity.

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